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[[Datei:Zeittafel_Jesus.gif|px300|miniatur|Zeittafel zum Leben Jesu, [[Provisorium|provisorische]] Skizze]]

A '''chronology of Jesus''' aims to establish a [[timeline]] for some of the events of the life of [[Jesus]] in the four [[canonical gospels]]. The [[Christian]] gospels were primarily written as theological documents rather than historical chronicles and their authors showed little interest in an absolute chronology of Jesus. However, it is possible to correlate the [[New Testament]] with non-Christian sources such as [[Jewish]] and [[Greco-Roman]] documents to estimate specific date ranges for the major events in Jesus' life.<ref name=Rahner730 /><ref name=Wiarda75 /><ref name="brown964">{{cite book |authorlink= Raymond E. Brown |last=Brown |first=Raymond E. |year=1994 |location=New York |publisher=Doubleday, Anchor Bible Reference Library |page=964|isbn=978-0-385-19397-9 |title=The Death of the Messiah: from Gethsemane to the Grave: A Commentary on the Passion Narratives in the Four Gospels}}</ref><ref>Paula Fredriksen, 1999, ''Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews'', [[Alfred A. Knopf]] Publishers, pages=6–7, 105–10, 232–34, 266</ref>

Two independent approaches can be used to estimate the year of birth of Jesus, one based on the [[Nativity of Jesus|nativity accounts]] in the gospels, the other by working backwards from the date of the start of [[Ministry of Jesus|his ministry]]. Most scholars assume a date of birth between 6 and 4 [[Before Christ|BC]].<ref name=JDG324 />

Three independent approaches to estimate the dates of the ministry of Jesus are: first, the fifteenth year of the reign of [[Tiberius Caesar]], second: the date of the building of the [[Herod's Temple|Jerusalem Temple]] and third, the date of the [[death of John the Baptist]].<ref name=Eerdmans246 /><ref name=CEvans67 /><ref name=ChronosPaul /><ref name=AmyJill55 /><ref name=fox25 /><ref name=Bromiley694 /> Scholars generally estimate that the ministry of Jesus began around 27-29 AD and lasted at least one year, and perhaps three years, or more.<ref name=Eerdmans246 /><ref name=ChronosPaul /><ref name=PAnderson200 /><ref name=Knoblet />

Diverse approaches have been used to estimate the date of the crucifixion of Jesus. One approach uses the attestations of non-Christian sources such as [[Josephus]] and [[Tacitus]].<ref name=autogenerated3 /><ref name="Paul William Meyer page 112">''The Word in this world'' by Paul William Meyer, John T. Carroll 2004 ISBN 0-664-22701-5 page 112</ref> Another method works backwards from the historically well established trial of [[Apostle Paul]] in [[Achaea]] to estimate the date of [[Conversion of Paul the Apostle|his conversion]].<ref name=Barnett19 /><ref name=Barnett19 /><ref name=Kostenberger77 /><ref name=Riesner /> Two independent astronomical methods have also been used, suggesting the same date, i.e. Friday, April 3, 33 AD.<ref name=Pratt1 /><ref name=HumphreysPlus /><ref name=Colin13 /> Scholars generally agree that Jesus died between 30-36 AD.<ref name=ChronosPaul /><ref name=Barnett19 /><ref name=Kostenberger140 /><ref name="Sanders" />

==Context and overview==

The Christian gospels were written as theological documents in the context of [[early Christianity]] rather than historical chronicles and their authors showed little interest in an absolute chronology of Jesus or in synchronizing the episodes of his life with the secular history of the age.<ref name=Rahner730 >''Encyclopedia of theology: a concise Sacramentum mundi'' by [[Karl Rahner]] 2004 ISBN 0-86012-006-6 pages 730-731</ref><ref name=Wiarda75 >''Interpreting Gospel Narratives: Scenes, People, and Theology'' by Timothy Wiarda 2010 ISBN 0-8054-4843-8 pages 75-78</ref> One manifestation of the gospels being theological documents rather than historical chronicles is that they devote about one third of their text to just seven days, namely the last week of the life of Jesus in [[Jerusalem in Christianity|Jerusalem]].<ref name=Turner613 >''Matthew'' by David L. Turner 2008 ISBN 0-8010-2684-9 page 613</ref>

[[File:Josephus Antiquitates Iudaice.jpg|thumb|left|180px|A 1466 copy of Jewish historian [[Flavius Josephus]]' first century work ''[[Antiquities of the Jews]]'', widely used to establish the chronology of Jesus.<ref name=Leslie508 />]]
Although the gospels do not provide enough details regarding exact dates, it is possible to draw from them a general picture of the life story of Jesus and to establish some date ranges regarding the major events in his life via correlations with non-Christian sources.<ref name=Rahner730 /><ref name=Wiarda75 /><ref name = autogenerated5>{{Cite document | title = The Historical Figure of Jesus | last = Sanders | first = EP | publisher = Penguin Books | place = London | year = 1995 | page = 3}}</ref> A number of historical non-Christian documents, such as Jewish and [[Greco-Roman]] sources, have been used in historical analyses of the existence of Jesus and his chronology.<ref name= Blomberg431 >''Jesus and the Gospels: An Introduction and Survey'' by Craig L. Blomberg 2009 ISBN 0-8054-4482-3 pages 431-436</ref> Virtually all modern historians agree that Jesus existed, and regard [[Baptism of Jesus|his baptism]] and [[Crucifixion of Jesus|his crucifixion]] as historical events, and assume that approximate ranges for these events can be estimated.<ref name=Ehrman285>In a 2011 review of the state of modern scholarship, [[Bart Ehrman]] wrote: "He certainly existed, as virtually every competent scholar of antiquity, Christian or non-Christian, agrees" B. Ehrman, 2011 ''Forged : writing in the name of God'' ISBN 978-0-06-207863-6. page 285</ref><ref name="autogenerated19">{{Cite document | quote = There is almost universal agreement that Jesus lived | first = Bernard L | last = Ramm | title = An Evangelical Christology: Ecumenic and Historic | publisher = Regent College Publishing | year = 1993 | page = 19}}</ref><ref name="autogenerated236">{{Cite document | quote = some judgements are so probable as to be certain; for example, Jesus really existed | first = Marcus | last = Wright | contribution = A Vision of the Christian Life | first1 = Marcus J | last1 = Borg | first2 = NT | title = The Meaning of Jesus: Two Visions | publisher = HarperCollins | year = 1999 | page = 236}}</ref> However, as stated in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#21:25|John 21:25]] the gospels do not claim to provide an exhaustive list of the events in the life of Jesus.<ref name=Gerald3 >''Christology: A Biblical, Historical, and Systematic Study of Jesus'' by Gerald O'Collins 2009 ISBN 0-19-955787-X pages 1-3</ref><ref name=MAPowell168 >''Jesus as a Figure in History: How Modern Historians View the Man from Galilee'' by Mark Allan Powell 1998 ISBN 0-664-25703-8 pages 168-173</ref><ref name="brown964"/>

The year of birth of Jesus can be estimated using two independent approaches: one based on the [[Nativity of Jesus|nativity accounts]] in the gospels of [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] and [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]], the other by working backwards from the date of the start of [[Ministry of Jesus|his ministry]], when according to the Gospel of Luke he was about thirty years old. Most scholars assume a date of birth between 6 and 4 BC.<ref name=JDG324 /> 

Three independent approaches have been used to estimate the dates of the ministry of Jesus. One method relies on [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Luke#3:1|Luke 3:1-2]]'s statement that the ministry of [[John the Baptist]] (which preceded that of Jesus) started in the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar.<ref name=Eerdmans246 /><ref name=CEvans67 /> Another approach is to correlate [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#2:20|John 2:20]]'s statement about the Jerusalem Temple being in construction for 46 years with the date of the building of the [[Second Temple]].<ref name=Eerdmans246 /><ref name=ChronosPaul /> A third method uses the date of the [[death of John the Baptist]] based on the writings of [[Josephus]], and correlates it to [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#14:4|Matthew 14:4]].<ref name=AmyJill55 /><ref name=fox25 /><ref name=Bromiley694 /> Scholars generally estimate that the ministry of Jesus began around 27-29 AD and lasted one to three years.<ref name=Eerdmans246 /><ref name=ChronosPaul /><ref name=PAnderson200 /><ref name=Knoblet /> 

A number of approaches have been used to estimate the date of the [[crucifixion of Jesus]]. One approach uses the attestations of non-Christian sources such as [[Josephus]] and [[Tacitus]].<ref name=autogenerated3>{{cite book |last=Funk |first=Robert W. |coauthors=[[Jesus Seminar]] |authorlink=Robert W. Funk| title=The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus |year=1998 |publisher=Harper |location=San Francisco}}</ref><ref name="Paul William Meyer page 112"/> Another approach works backwards from the historically well established trial of [[Apostle Paul]] in Corinth to estimate the date of [[Conversion of Paul the Apostle|his conversion]], given that in the New Testament accounts Jesus' death takes place before this conversion.<ref name=Barnett19 /><ref name=Kostenberger77 /><ref name=Riesner />

Two independent astronomical methods have also been used, suggesting the same date. One method goes back to [[Isaac Newton]]'s calculation of the relative visibility of the crescent of the new moon between the [[Hebrew calendar|Hebrew]] and [[Julian calendar]]s.<ref name=Pratt1 /><ref name=Humphreys45 /><ref name=Newton /> The other method uses a [[lunar eclipse]] model and independently arrives at the same date, i.e. April 3, 33 AD.<ref name=HumphreysPlus /><ref name=Colin13 /> Scholars generally assume that Jesus died between 30-36 AD.<ref name=ChronosPaul /><ref name=Barnett19 /><ref name=Kostenberger140 /><ref name="Sanders">{{Cite document | last = Sanders | year = 1993 | pages = 11, 249 | postscript = . }}</ref>

==Year of birth estimates==
The two major, and independent, approaches to estimating the year of the birth of Jesus combine the accounts given in some of the Canonical gospels with non-biblical historical data to arrive at a date range, as discussed in the two sub-sections below. There are a wide range of more speculative theories, and some are discussed at the end of this article in the "other theories" section.

===Nativity accounts: Luke and Matthew===
[[File:Bethlehem IMG 0524.JPG|thumb|A view of [[Bethlehem]] today, from the hills above it]]
The "nativity-based" approach to estimating the year of birth of Jesus relies on the analysis of the [[Nativity of Jesus|nativity]] accounts (that only appear in the Gospels of Luke and Matthew) along with other corresponding historical data.<ref name=ChronosPaul /><ref name=Niswonger121 >''New Testament History'' by Richard L. Niswonger 1992 ISBN 0-310-31201-9 pages 121-124</ref>

Luke or Matthew do not mention a date or time of year for the birth of Jesus (although Luke 2.2 refers to the [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Luke#2:2|first enrolment]] at the time of [[Census of Quirinius|Quirinius]], as discussed below) and [[Karl Rahner]] states that the authors of the gospels generally focus on theological elements rather than historical chronologies.<ref name=Rahner731 >''Encyclopedia of theology: a concise Sacramentum mundi'' by [[Karl Rahner]] 2004 ISBN 0-86012-006-6 page 731</ref> However, both Luke and Matthew associate Jesus' birth with the time of [[Herod the Great]].<ref name="Rahner731"/>

[[Herod the Great]], is generally believed to have died around 4 BC, implying that the birth of Jesus was not after that year.<ref name=Niswonger121 /><ref name="Rahner731"/> [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#2:1|Matthew 2:1]] states that: "Jesus was born in Bethlehem of Judaea in the days of Herod the king" and [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Luke#1:5|Luke 1:5]] mentions the reign of Herod shortly before the birth of Jesus.<ref name=Niswonger121 /> Matthew also suggests that Jesus may have been as much as two years old at the time of the visit of the [[Biblical Magi|Magi]] and hence even older at the time of Herod's death.<ref>{{Cite document | first = Edwin D | last = Freed | title = Stories of Jesus’ Birth | publisher = Continuum International | year = 2004 | page = 119 }}</ref> 

Many scholars see a contradiction in that Luke places the birth of Jesus during the [[Census of Quirinius]], which took place in 6 AD, although Matthew states the conception took place during the reign of King Herod — at least 10 years earlier. Most scholars believe that Luke made an error in referring to the census but other scholars have attempted to reconcile its account with Matthew, ranging from a grammatical approach to the translation of the Greek word ''prote'' used in Luke to be read as "registration before Quirinius was governor of Syria" to archeological arguments and references to [[Tertullian]] that indicate that a "two step census" was performed, involving an early registration, given that [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Luke#2:2|Luke 2:2]] refers to the "first enrolment".<ref>{{Cite book | last=Archer | first=Gleason Leonard | authorlink=Gleason Leonard Archer | title=Encyclopedia of Bible Difficulties | year=1982 | month=April | publisher=Zondervan Pub. House | location=Grand Rapids, Mich. | isbn=0-310-43570-6 | page=366}}</ref><ref>Frederick Fyvie Bruce, ''The New Testament Documents: Are They Reliable?'' (1943; republished Eerdman, 2003), page 87-88.</ref> 
<ref name=CoxEasley289 >Steven L. Cox, Kendell H Easley, 2007 ''Harmony of the Gospels'' ISBN 0-8054-9444-8 pages 289-290</ref><ref name=Vardaman >Nikos Kokkinos, 1998, in ''Chronos, kairos, Christos 2'' by Ray Summers, Jerry Vardaman ISBN 0-86554-582-0 pages 121-126</ref><ref>C.F. Evans, ''Tertullian's reference to Sentius Saturninus and the Lukan Census'' in the ''Journal of Theological Studies (1973) XXIV(1): 24-39</ref><ref>''The Life of Jesus of Nazareth'' by Rush Rhees 2007 ISBN 1-4068-3848-9 Section 54</ref>

Most scholars generally conclude a date of birth between 6 and 4 BC,<ref name=JDG324 >{{Cite document | first = James DG | last = Dunn | title = Jesus Remembered | publisher = Eerdmans Publishing | year = 2003 | page = 324}}</ref> though some widen the range to 7–2 BC.<ref>Some of the historians and Biblical scholars who place the birth and death of Jesus within this range include [[D. A. Carson]], [[Douglas J. Moo]] and [[Leon Morris]]. ''An Introduction to the New Testament.'' Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1992, 54, 56</ref><ref>[[Michael Grant (author)|Michael Grant]], ''Jesus: An Historian’s Review of the Gospels'', Scribner’s, 1977, p. 71.</ref><ref>[[Ben Witherington III]], "Primary Sources," ''Christian History'' 17 (1998) No. 3:12–20.</ref>

===Working backwards from the ministry===
[[File:Brooklyn Museum - The Pharisees Question Jesus (Les pharisiens questionnent Jésus) - James Tissot.jpg|thumb|left|Dispute of Jesus and the Pharisees, by [[James Tissot]], um 1890]]
The ministry-based approach to estimating the year of birth of Jesus is independent of the nativity accounts and works backwards from the start of his ministry, based on the statement in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Luke#3:23|Luke 3:23]] that Jesus was "about 30 years of age" at that time.<ref name=ChronosPaul /><ref name=Kostenberger140 >''The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament'' by [[Andreas J. Köstenberger]], L. Scott Kellum 2009 ISBN 978-0-8054-4365-3 page 114</ref> 

The section below discusses three independent approaches to estimating the dates of the ministry of Jesus: first by using the "fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius" in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Luke#3:1|Luke 3:1-2]], second via the reference in the dispute of Jesus and the [[Pharisees]] in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#2:20|John 2:20]] ("Forty and six years was this temple in building, and you want to raise it up in three days?") and third by the reference of [[Flavius Josephus]] to the imprisonment and execution ([[wikisource:The Antiquities of the Jews/Book XVIII#Chapter 5|Ant 18.5.2]]) of [[John the baptist]] by [[Herod Antipas]]. 

The third reference (i.e. the execution of the Baptist in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#14:6|Matthew 14:6-12]]) relates to a time when Jesus had already started his ministry but the other two references relate to the beginning of Jesus' ministry.

The generally assumed date range for the start of the ministry of [[John the baptist]] based on the reference to the reign of Tiberius in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Luke#3:1|Luke 3:1-2]] are about 28-29 AD, with the ministry of Jesus following it shortly thereafter.<ref name=Eerdmans246 /><ref name=CEvans67 /><ref name=Kostenberger140 /><ref name=Novak302 /><ref name="Hoehner 1978 29–37">{{Cite book|title = Chronological Aspects of the Life of Christ | last = Hoehner| first = Harold W | authorlink = Harold Hoehner|year= 1978|publisher=Zondervan |isbn= 0-310-26211-9|pages= 29–37| url = http://books.google.com/?id=6z-NcR7fVSIC&dq=CHronological+Aspects+of+the+Life+of+Christ}}</ref> As discussed in the section below, based on the reference in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#2:13|John 2:13]] to the Temple being in its 46th year of construction, scholarly estimates for Jesus' Temple visit in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#2:20|John 2:20]] are around 27-29 AD, when Jesus was "about thirty years of age".<ref name=Eerdmans246 /><ref name=Scarola >Jack V. Scarola, "A Chronology of the nativity Era" in ''Chronos, kairos, Christos 2'' by Ray Summers, Jerry Vardaman 1998 ISBN 0-86554-582-0 pages 61-81</ref>

By working backwards from the start of his ministry, some scholars estimate the year 28 AD to be roughly the 32nd birthday of Jesus and his year of birth to be around 6-4 BC.<ref name=ChronosPaul /><ref name=Kostenberger140 /><ref name=Novak302 >''Christianity and the Roman Empire: background texts'' by Ralph Martin Novak 2001 ISBN 1-56338-347-0 pages 302-303</ref>

==Years of ministry estimates==
===Reign of Tiberius and the Gospel of Luke===
[[File:Sapsaphas Madaba.jpg|thumb|Part of the [[Madaba Map]] showing [[Bethabara]] (Βέθαβαρά), calling it the place where John baptised]]
One method for the estimation of the date of the beginning of the [[ministry of Jesus]] is based on the Gospel of Luke's specific statement in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Luke#3:1|Luke 3:1-2]] about the ministry of [[John the Baptist]] which preceded that of Jesus:<ref name=Eerdmans246 /><ref name=CEvans67 >''The Bible Knowledge Background Commentary: Matthew-Luke, Volume 1'' by Craig A. Evans 2003 ISBN 0-7814-3868-3 pages 67-69</ref>

<blockquote>
Now in the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar, Pontius Pilate being governor of Judaea, and Herod being tetrarch of Galilee, and his brother Philip tetrarch of the region of Ituraea and Trachonitis, and Lysanias tetrarch of Abilene, in the highpriesthood of Annas and Caiaphas, the word of God came unto John the son of Zacharias in the wilderness.
</blockquote>

There are, however, two approaches to determining when the reign of [[Tiberius Caesar]] started.<ref name=art201 /> The traditional approach is that of assuming that the reign of Tiberius started when he became co-regent in 11AD, placing the start of the ministry of John the Baptist around 26 AD. However, some scholars assume it to be upon the death of his predecessor [[Augustus Caesar]] in 14 AD, implying that the ministry of John the Baptist began in 29 AD.<ref name=art201 >''Luke 1-5: New Testament Commentary'' by John MacArthur 2009 ISBN 0-8024-0871-0 page 201</ref>

The New Testament presents [[John the Baptist]]'s ministry as the pre-cursor to that of Jesus and the [[Baptism of Jesus]] as marking the beginning of Jesus' ministry.<ref name=Kellum140 /><ref name=Blomberg224 >''Jesus and the Gospels: An Introduction and Survey'' by Craig L. Blomberg 2009 ISBN 0-8054-4482-3 page 224-229</ref><ref name=Alister16 >''Christianity: an introduction'' by Alister E. McGrath 2006 ISBN 978-1-4051-0901-7 pages 16-22</ref> In his sermon in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Acts#10:37|Acts 10:37-38]], delivered in the house of [[Cornelius the Centurion|Cornelius]] the centurion, [[Apostle Peter]] gives an overview of the ministry of Jesus, and refers to what had happened "throughout all Judaea, beginning from Galilee, after the baptism which John preached" and that Jesus had then gone about "doing good".<ref>''Who is Jesus?: an introduction to Christology'' by Thomas P. Rausch 2003 ISBN 978-0-8146-5078-3 page</ref>

The generally assumed dates for the start of the ministry of John the baptist based on this reference in the Gospel of Luke are about 28-29 AD, with the ministry of Jesus following it shortly thereafter.<ref name=Eerdmans246 /><ref name=CEvans67 /><ref name=Kostenberger140 /><ref name=Novak302 /><ref name="Hoehner 1978 29–37"/>

===Jerusalem Temple and the Gospel of John===
[[File:Jerus-n4i.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Israel Museum]] model of [[Herod's Temple]], referred to in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#2:13|John 2:13]].]]

One method for estimating the start of the ministry of Jesus without reliance on the [[Synoptic gospels]] is to relate the information in the [[Gospel of John]] ([[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#2:13|2:13]] and [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#2:13|2:20]]) about the visit of Jesus to [[Herod's Temple]] in Jerusalem with historical data outside the gospels about dates of the construction of the Temple.<ref name=Eerdmans246 /><ref name=ChronosPaul /><ref name=Knoblet />

[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#2:13|John 2:13]] states that Jesus went to the [[Herod's Temple|Temple in Jerusalem]] around the start of his ministry and in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#2:20|John 2:20]] Jesus is told: "Forty and six years was this temple in building, and you want to raise it up in three days?".<ref name=Eerdmans246 >''Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible'' 2000 Amsterdam University Press ISBN 90-5356-503-5 page 249</ref><ref name=ChronosPaul >[[Paul L. Maier]] "The Date of the Nativity and Chronology of Jesus" in ''Chronos, kairos, Christos: nativity and chronological studies'' by Jerry Vardaman, Edwin M. Yamauchi 1989 ISBN 0-931464-50-1 pages 113-129</ref> 

Herod's Temple in Jerusalem was an extensive and long term construction on the [[Temple Mount]], with worship and religious rituals performed during the multi-decade building process, which was never fully completed, not even by the time that the Temple was destroyed by the Romans in 70AD.<ref name=Roller67 /><ref name=Lundquist /><ref name= Maxxix >''The biblical engineer: how the temple in Jerusalem was built'' by Max Schwartz 2002 ISBN 0-88125-710-9 pages xixx-xx</ref> Having built entire cities such as [[Caesarea Maritima]], Herod saw the construction of the Temple as a key, colossal monument.<ref name=Lundquist >''The Temple of Jerusalem: past, present, and future'' by John M. Lundquist 2007 ISBN 0-275-98339-0 pages101-103 [http://books.google.com/books?id=R9VeCEwbNvsC&pg=PA102&dq=%22john+2:20%22+temple&hl=en&ei=kpydTvvXB-qK4gSg2NHPCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=10&ved=0CFYQ6AEwCTgU#v=onepage&q=%22john%202%3A20%22%20temple&f=false]</ref> The dedication of the initial temple (sometimes called the inner Temple) followed an 17 or 18 month construction period, just after the visit of [[Augustus]] to Syria.<ref name=Kellum140 /><ref name=Roller67 >''The building program of Herod the Great'' by Duane W. Roller 1998 University of California Press ISBN 0-520-20934-6 pages 67-71 [http://books.google.com/books?id=2ZsB1yQOmyEC&pg=PA258&dq=herod+temple+construction&hl=en&ei=DredTu3cIqT64QSitp2nCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CD8Q6AEwAzge#v=onepage&q=temple%20construction&f=false]</ref>

[[Josephus]] ([[wikisource:The Antiquities of the Jews/Book XV|Ant 15.11.1]]) states that the temple's reconstruction was started by Herod in the 18th year of his reign.<ref name=Eerdmans246 /><ref name="Kostenberger140"/><ref>''Encyclopedia of the historical Jesus'' by Craig A. Evans 2008 ISBN 0-415-97569-7 page 115</ref> But there is some uncertainty about how Josephus referred to and computed dates, which event marked the start of Herod's reign, and whether the initial date should refer to the inner Temple, or the subsequent construction.<ref name=ChronosPaul /><ref name=Knoblet /><ref name=Kellum140 /> Hence various scholars arrive at slightly different dates for the exact date of the start of the Temple construction, varying by a few years in their final estimation of the date of the Temple visit.<ref name=Knoblet /><ref name=Kellum140 >''The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament'' by Andreas J. Köstenberger, L. Scott Kellum 2009 ISBN 978-0-8054-4365-3 pages 140-141</ref> Given that it took 46 years of construction, scholarly estimates for the Temple visit in the Gospel of John are around 27-29 AD.<ref name=Eerdmans246 /><ref name=ChronosPaul /><ref name=PAnderson200 >''The Riddles of the Fourth Gospel: An Introduction to John'' by Paul N. Anderson 2011 ISBN 0-8006-0427-X pages 200</ref><ref name=Knoblet >''Herod the Great'' by Jerry Knoblet 2005 ISBN 0-7618-3087-1 page 183-184</ref><ref>''Jesus in Johannine tradition'' by Robert Tomson Fortna, Tom Thatcher 2001 ISBN 978-0-664-22219-2 page 77</ref>

The visit of Jesus to the Temple is part of the [[Cleansing of the Temple]] episode and, while some scholars consider it the same episode as that towards the end of Jesus' ministry in the [[Synoptic gospels]] ({{bibleref2|Mark|11:15–19}} {{{bibleref2|Matthew|21:12–17}} and {{bibleref2|Luke|19:45–48}}), other scholars believe that these refer to two separate incidents, given that the Gospel of John includes more than one Passover.<ref name=Evans >''The Bible knowledge background commentary'' by Craig A. Evans 2005 ISBN 0-7814-4228-1 page 49</ref> The dating of the episode at the beginning of the ministry of Jesus provides support to the view that there were two separate visits to the Temple.<ref name=PAnderson200 /><ref name=Kellum140 />

===Josephus' reference to the Baptist===
In the [[Antiquities of the Jews]], first century historian [[Flavius Josephus]] refers to the imprisonment and execution ([[wikisource:The Antiquities of the Jews/Book XVIII#Chapter 5|Ant 18.5.2]]) of [[John the baptist]] by [[Herod Antipas]] and also mentions ([[wikisource:The Antiquities of the Jews/Book XVIII#Chapter 5|Ant 18.5.4]]) how [[Herodias]] left her husband to marry Herod Antipas, in defiance of Jewish law.<ref name=AmyJill55 /><ref name=fox25 /><ref name=Bromiley694 /> 

[[File:Baptistry (Castiglione Olona) 003.jpg|thumb|[[John the Baptist|The Baptist]] scolds [[Herod Antipas|Herod]]. Fresco by [[Masolino da Panicale|Masolino]], 1435]]
Most scholars view Josephus' accounts of the activities of John the Baptist as authentic.<ref name=AmyJill55 >Craig Evans, 2006 "Josephus on John the Baptist" in ''The Historical Jesus in Context'' edited by Amy-Jill Levine et al. Princeton Univ Press ISBN 978-0-691-00992-6 pages 55-58 [http://books.google.com/books?id=HIp_0N3uPPcC&pg=PA56&dq=%22Mark+6:17%22+death+baptist+josephus&hl=en&ei=hTubTpKeHcX54QTn1YHBAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCwQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Mark%206%3A17%22%20death%20baptist%20josephus&f=false]</ref><ref>''The new complete works of Josephus by Flavius Josephus'', William Whiston, Paul L. Maier ISBN 0-8254-2924-2 pages 662-663</ref> Given that the marriage of Herod and Herodias is also mentioned in the gospels, Josephus establishes a key connection between the historical events he recorded and the approximate chronology of specific episodes that appear in the gospels.<ref name=AmyJill55 /> 

However, although both the gospels and Josephus refer to Herod Antipas killing John the Baptist, they differ on the details and motives, e.g. whether this act was a consequence of the marriage of Herod Antipas and Herodias (as indicated in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#14:4|Matthew 14:4]], [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Mark#6:18|Mark 6:18]]), or a pre-emptive measure by Herod which possibly took place before the marriage to quell a possible uprising based on the remarks of John, as Josephus suggests in [[wikisource:The Antiquities of the Jews/Book XVIII#Chapter 5|Ant 18.5.2]].<ref name=Leslie508 >''Jesus in history, thought, and culture: an encyclopedia, Volume 1'' by James Leslie Houlden 2003 ISBN 1-57607-856-6 pages 508-509 [http://books.google.com/books?id=17kzgBusXZIC&pg=PA508&dq=baptist+josephus+antipas+jesus&hl=en&ei=5kmbTvPYB9TP4QSuzIDjAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5&sqi=2&ved=0CEAQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=baptist%20herodias%20josephus%20antipas%20jesus&f=false]</ref><ref>''Women in scripture'' by by Carol Meyers, Toni Craven and Ross Shepard Kraemer 2001 ISBN 0-8028-4962-8 pages 92-93 [http://books.google.com/books?id=MFbHT73BxpAC&pg=PA93&dq=herodias+herod&hl=en&ei=FJmcToy0M4abOtTmzIYJ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=herodias%20herod&f=false]</ref><ref>''Herod Antipas in Galilee: The Literary and Archaeological Sources'' by Morten H. Jensen 2010 ISBN 978-3-16-150362-7 pages 42-43 [http://books.google.com/books?id=I7fAyl2aG-gC&pg=PA43&dq=herodias+herod&hl=en&ei=FJmcToy0M4abOtTmzIYJ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=herodias%20herod&f=false]</ref><ref name=Cyndy48 >''The Emergence of Christianity: Classical Traditions in Contemporary Perspective'' by Cynthia White 2010 ISBN 0-8006-9747-2 page 48</ref>

The exact year of the marriage of [[Herod Antipas]] and [[Herodias]] is subject to debate among scholars.<ref name=fox25 >''Herodias: at home in that fox's den'' by Florence Morgan Gillman 2003 ISBN 0-8146-5108-9 pages 25-30 [http://books.google.com/books?id=rFRFe8QdO1gC&pg=PA26&dq=herodias+herod+antipas&hl=en&ei=fECbTq31JvDc4QT8ubiZBA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=6&ved=0CEQQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=herodias%20herod%20antipas&f=false]</ref> While some scholars place the year of the marriage in the range 27-31AD, others have approximated a date as late as AD 35, but such a late date has much less support.<ref name=fox25 /> In his analysis of Herod's life, [[Harold Hoehner]] estimates that John the Baptist's imprisonment probably occurred around AD 30-31.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=oO0upEG0g7kC&pg=PA131&dq=herodias+herod+antipas&hl=en&ei=fECbTq31JvDc4QT8ubiZBA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCwQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=herodias%20herod%20antipas&f=false |title='&#39;Herod Antipas'&#39; by Harold W. Hoehner'&#39; 1983 ISBN 0-310-42251-5 page 131 |publisher=Books.google.com |date=1983-01-28 |accessdate=2012-07-18}}</ref> The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia estimates the death of the Baptist to have occurred about AD 31-32.<ref name=Bromiley694 />

Josephus stated ([[wikisource:The Antiquities of the Jews/Book XVIII#Chapter 5|Ant 18.5.2]]) that the AD 36 defeat of Herod Antipas in the conflicts with [[Aretas IV Philopatris|Aretas IV]] of [[Nabatea]] was widely considered by the Jews of the time as misfortune brought about by Herod's unjust execution of John the Baptist.<ref name=Cyndy48 /><ref>''The relationship between John the Baptist and Jesus of Nazareth'' by Daniel S. Dapaah 2005 ISBN 0-7618-3109-6 page 48 [http://books.google.com/books?id=S0P18O3fGR4C&pg=PA48&dq=baptist+josephus+antipas+jesus&hl=en&ei=5kmbTvPYB9TP4QSuzIDjAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&sqi=2&ved=0CCwQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=baptist%20josephus%20antipas%20jesus&f=false]</ref><ref name=Hoehner125 /> Given that John the Baptist was executed before the defeat of Herod by Aretas, and based on the scholarly estimates for the approximate date of the marriage of Herod Antipas and Herodias, the last part of the ministry of John the Baptist and hence parts of the ministry of Jesus fall within the historical time span of AD 28-35, with the later year 35 having the least support among scholars.<ref name=fox25 /><ref name=Hoehner125 >''Herod Antipas'' by Harold W. Hoehner'' 1983 ISBN 0-310-42251-5 pages 125-127</ref><ref>''International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: A-D'' by Geoffrey W. Bromiley 1995 ISBN 0-8028-3781-6 pages 686-687</ref>

The imprisonment of John the Baptist relates to the ministry of Jesus via the episode [[Messengers from John the Baptist]], as in Matthew 11:2-6 and Luke 7:18-23.<ref>''The Gospel of Matthew'' by Rudolf Schnackenburg 2002 ISBN 0-8028-4438-3 page 104</ref><ref name=Mercer459 >''Mercer dictionary of the Bible'' by Watson E. Mills, Roger Aubrey Bullard 1998 ISBN 0-86554-373-9 page 459</ref> This episode takes place towards the end of the ''[[Ministry of Jesus#Major Galilean ministry|major Galilean ministry]]'' of Jesus, and prior to the key episode [[Confession of Peter]] which appears about half way through the gospel narratives, before Jesus starts his final journey to Jerusalem through Judea.<ref name=Mercer459 /><ref>''The Cambridge companion to the Gospels'' by Stephen C. Barton ISBN 0-521-00261-3 pages 132-133</ref>

==Year of death estimates==
===Prefecture of Pontius Pilate===
[[File:Gaius Cornelius Tacitus mirror.jpg|thumb|Roman historian [[Tacitus]]]]
All four [[Canonical gospels]] state that Jesus was crucified in [[Calvary]] during the prefecture of [[Pontius Pilate]], the Roman who governed [[Roman Judaea|Judea]].<ref name="PC" /><ref>[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#27:27|Matthew 27:27-61]], [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Mark#15:1|Mark 15:1-47]], [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Luke#23:25|Luke 23:25-54]] and [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#19:1|John 19:1-38]]</ref> In these gospel accounts (usually called "Jesus in [[Pilate's Court]]") Jesus was brought before Pilate in the [[praetorium]] in Jerusalem after his [[Sanhedrin Trial of Jesus|Sanhedrin trial]] and was crucified shortly thereafter.<ref name="PC">Bromiley, Geoffrey W. (1995), ''International Standard Bible Encyclopedia''. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. vol. K-P. p. 929.</ref> 

In the ''[[Antiquities of the Jews]]''  (written about 93 AD) Jewish historian [[Josephus]], stated ([[wikisource:The Antiquities of the Jews/Book XVIII#Chapter 3|Ant 18.3]]) that Jesus was crucified by Pilate, writing that:<ref name=Theissen81 />
<blockquote>
Now there was about this time Jesus, a wise man, .... He drew over to him both many of the Jews and many of the Gentiles... And when Pilate, at the suggestion of the principal men amongst us, had condemned him to the cross ....
</blockquote>

Josephus then stated that "the tribe of Christians, so named from him, are not extinct at this day." Most modern scholars agree that while the Testimonium Flavianum includes some interpolation, it originally consisted of an authentic nucleus with a reference to the execution of Jesus by Pilate.<ref name=Kostenberger104 >''The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament'' by [[Andreas J. Köstenberger]], L. Scott Kellum 2009 ISBN 978-0-8054-4365-3 page 104-108</ref><ref> Evans, Craig A. (2001). ''Jesus and His Contemporaries: Comparative Studies'' ISBN 0-391-04118-5 page 316</ref><ref>Wansbrough, Henry (2004). ''Jesus and the oral Gospel tradition'' ISBN 0-567-04090-9 page 185</ref> [[James Dunn (theologian)|James Dunn]] states that there is "broad consensus" among scholars regarding the nature of an authentic reference to the crucifixion of Jesus in the ''Testimonium''.<ref>Dunn, James (2003). ''Jesus remembered'' ISBN 0-8028-3931-2 page 141</ref> Josephus scholar [[Louis H. Feldman]] views the reference in the ''Testimonium'' as the first reference to Jesus and the reference to Jesus in the death of James passage in Book 20, Chapter 9, 1 of the ''Antiquities'' as "the aforementioned Christ", thus relating the two passages.<ref>Feldman, Louis H.; Hata, Gōhei, eds. (1987). ''Josephus, Judaism and Christianity'' ISBN 978-90-04-08554-1 page 55</ref>  

Another reference to the crucifixion of Jesus was made early in the second century by [[Tacitus]], generally considered one of the greatest Roman historians.<ref name=Voorst39 >Van Voorst, Robert E (2000). ''Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence'' Eerdmans Publishing ISBN 0-8028-4368-9 pages 39-42</ref><ref>''Backgrounds of early Christianity'' by Everett Ferguson 2003 ISBN 0-8028-2221-5 page 116</ref> Writing in ''[[The Annals]]'' (''c.'' 116 AD), Tacitus [[Tacitus on Christ|described the persecution]] of Christians by Nero and stated ([[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#44|Annals 15.44]]) that Pilate ordered the execution of Jesus:<ref name=Theissen81 >Theissen 1998, pp. 81-83</ref><ref name="Green1997">{{Cite book|last=Green|first=Joel B.|year=1997|title=The Gospel of Luke : new international commentary on the New Testament|page=168|url=http://books.google.com/?id=koYlW6IoOjMC&pg=PR85&dq=Joel+B.+Green,+The+Gospel+of+Luke,+(Eerdmans,+1997),+page+168|isbn=0-8028-2315-7|publisher=W.B. Eerdmans Pub. Co.|location=Grand Rapids, Mich.}}</ref><ref name="Green1997"/>
<blockquote>
Nero fastened the guilt and inflicted the most exquisite tortures on a class hated for their abominations, called Christians by the populace. Christus, from whom the name had its origin, suffered the extreme penalty during the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our procurators, Pontius Pilatus.
</blockquote>

Tacitus was a patriotic Roman senator.<ref>''Josephus, the Bible, and history'' by Louis H. Feldman 1997 ISBN 90-04-08931-4 page 381</ref><ref name= MAPowell33 >''Jesus as a figure in history: how modern historians view the man from Galilee'' by Mark Allan Powell 1998 ISBN 0-664-25703-8 page 33</ref> His writings shows no sympathy towards Christians or knowledge of who their leader was.<ref name=CEvans42 /><ref>''Ancient Rome'' by William E. Dunstan 2010 ISBN 0-7425-6833-4 page 293</ref><ref>Tacitus' characterization of "Christian abominations" may have been based on the rumors in Rome that during the [[Eucharist]] rituals Christians ate the body and drank the blood of their God, interpreting the symbolic ritual as cannibalism by Christians. References: ''Ancient Rome'' by William E. Dunstan 2010 ISBN 0-7425-6833-4 page 293 and ''An introduction to the New Testament and the origins of Christianity'' by Delbert Royce Burkett 2002 ISBN 0-521-00720-8 page 485</ref> Scholars generally consider his reference to the execution by Pilate to be genuine, and of historical value as an independent Roman source.<ref name=Voorst39 /><ref name=CEvans42  >''Jesus and His Contemporaries: Comparative Studies'' by Craig A. Evans 2001 ISBN 0-391-04118-5 page 42</ref><ref>''Mercer dictionary of the Bible'' by Watson E. Mills, Roger Aubrey Bullard 2001 ISBN 0-86554-373-9 page 343</ref><ref>''Pontius Pilate in History and Interpretation'' by Helen K. Bond 2004 ISBN 0-521-61620-4 page xi</ref>

By almost all historical accounts, Pontius Pilate was governor of Judea from 26 AD until 36 AD, after which he was replaced by [[Marcellus (prefect of Judea)|Marcellus]], either in 36 AD or 37 AD, establishing the date of the death of Jesus prior to 37 AD.<ref>''Pontius Pilate: portraits of a Roman governor'' by Warren Carter 2003 ISBN 0-8146-5113-5 pages 44-45</ref><ref>''The history of the Jews in the Greco-Roman world'' by Peter Schäfer 2003 ISBN 0-415-30585-3 page 108</ref><ref>''Backgrounds of early Christianity'' by Everett Ferguson 2003 ISBN 0-8028-2221-5 page 416</ref>

===Reign of Herod Antipas===
In the [[Gospel of Luke]], while Jesus is in [[Pilate's Court]], Pilate realizes that Jesus is a Galilean and thus is under the jurisdiction of [[Herod Antipas]].<ref name=Niswonger >''New Testament History'' by Richard L. Niswonger 1992 ISBN 0-310-31201-9 page 172</ref><ref name=Carter120 >''Pontius Pilate: portraits of a Roman governor'' by Warren Carter 2003 ISBN 978-0-8146-5113-1 pages 120-121</ref> Given that Herod was in Jerusalem at that time, Pilate decided to send Jesus to Herod to be tried.<ref name=Niswonger /><ref name=Carter120 /> 

This episode is only described in the [[Gospel of Luke]] ([[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Luke#23:7|23:7-15]]).<ref>''The Synoptics: Matthew, Mark, Luke'' by Ján Majerník, Joseph Ponessa 2005 ISBN 1-931018-31-6 page 181</ref><ref name=Patella >''The Gospel according to Luke'' by Michael Patella 2005 ISBN 0-8146-2862-1 page 16</ref><ref>''Luke: The Gospel of Amazement'' by Michael Card 2011 ISBN 978-0-8308-3835-6 page 251</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biblestudyworkshop.com/data/Lesson228.pdf |title=Bible Study Workshop - Lesson 228 |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2012-07-18}}</ref> While some scholars have questioned the authenticity of this episode, given that it is unique to the Gospel of Luke, the International Standard Bible Encyclopedia states that it fits well with the theme of Luke and should not be seriously questioned.<ref name=Bromiley694 >''International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: E-J'' by Geoffrey W. Bromiley 1982 ISBN 0-8028-3782-4 pages 694-695 [http://books.google.com/books?id=yklDk6Vv0l4C&pg=PA695&dq=herodias+john+baptist&hl=en&ei=PJacToTRNK-L4gThwKGkCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=herodias%20john%20baptist&f=false]</ref>

Herod Antipas, a son of [[Herod the Great]], was born before 20 BC and was exiled in the summer of 39 AD following a lengthy intrigue involving [[Caligula]] and [[Agrippa I]], the grandson of his father.<ref>''Herod Antipas'' by Harold W. Hoehner 1983 ISBN 0-310-42251-5 page 262</ref><ref>''All the people in the Bible'' by Richard R. Losch 2008 ISBN 0-8028-2454-4 page 159</ref> Although this episode provides a wider range date for the death of Jesus, it is in concord with the other estimates in that it indicates that Jesus' death took place before AD39.<ref>''The Content and the Setting of the Gospel Tradition'' by Mark Harding, Alanna Nobbs 2010 ISBN 0-8028-3318-7 pages 88-89</ref><ref>''The Emergence of Christianity'' by Cynthia White 2010 ISBN 0-8006-9747-2 page 11</ref>

===Conversion of Paul===
[[File:The Temple of Apollo at Delphi.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Temple of Apollo (Delphi)|Temple of Apollo]] in [[Delphi]], Greece, where the [[Delphi Inscription]] was discovered early in the 20th century.<ref name=CCPaul20 /><ref name=Marrow45 />]]
Another approach to estimating an [[upper bound]] for the year of death of Jesus is the estimation of the date of [[Conversion of Paul the Apostle]] given that in the New Testament accounts Jesus' death takes place before this conversion.<ref name=Barnett19 /><ref name=Kostenberger77 /><ref name=Riesner /> Paul's conversion is discussed in both the [[Letters of Paul]] and in the [[Acts of the Apostles]], and in both accounts takes place after the death of Jesus.<ref name=Barnett19 /><ref>Bromiley, Geoffrey William (1979). ''International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: A-D'' Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. pp. 689. ISBN 0-8028-3781-6.</ref>

In the [[First Epistle to the Corinthians]] ([[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/1 Corinthians#15:3|15:3-8]]), Paul refers to his conversion after the death of Jesus. The [[Acts of the Apostles]] includes three separate references to Paul's conversion experience, in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Acts#9|Acts 9]], [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Acts#22|Acts 22]] and [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Acts#26|Acts 26]].<ref>''Paul and His Letters'' by John B. Polhill 1999 ISBN 0-8054-1097-X pages 49-50</ref><ref>''The Blackwell Companion to Natural Theology'' by William Lane Craig, James Porter Moreland 2009 ISBN 1-4051-7657-1 page 616</ref>

The estimation of the year of Paul's conversion relies on a series of calculations that work backwards from the well-established date of his trial before [[Junius Annaeus Gallio|Junius Gallio]] in [[Achaea]] Greece ([[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Acts#18:12|Acts 18:12-17]]) around 51-52 AD, a date which gained historical credibility early in the 20th century following the discovery of four stone fragments as part of the [[Delphi Inscription]]s, at [[Delphi]] across the Gulf from [[Corinth]].<ref name=Marrow45 >''Paul: his letters and his theology'' by Stanley B. Marrow 1986 ISBN 0-8091-2744-X pages 45-49</ref><ref name=Novak18 >''Christianity and the Roman Empire: background texts'' by Ralph Martin Novak 2001 ISBN 1-56338-347-0 pages 18-22</ref> 

Most historians estimate that Gallio (son of the [[Seneca the Elder]]) became [[proconsul]] between the spring of 51 AD and the summer of 52 AD, and that his position ended no later than 53 AD.<ref name=CCPaul20 >''The Cambridge Companion to St Paul'' by James D. G. Dunn (Nov 10, 2003) Cambridge Univ Press ISBN 0521786940 page 20</ref><ref name=Marrow45 /><ref name=Novak18 /><ref>''The Greco-Roman world of the New Testament era'' by James S. Jeffers 1999 ISBN 0-8308-1589-9 pages 164-165</ref><ref name=CEvansA248 >''The Bible Knowledge Background Commentary: Acts-Philemon'' by Craig A. Evans 2004 ISBN 0-7814-4006-8 page 248</ref> However, the trial of Paul is generally assumed to be in the earlier part of Gallio's tenure, based on the reference ([[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Acts#18:2|Acts 18:2]]) to his meeting in Corinth with [[Priscilla and Aquila]], who had been recently expelled from Rome based on Emperor [[Claudius]]' expulsion of some Jews from Rome, which is dated to 49-50 AD.<ref name=Novak18 /><ref>''The Bible Knowledge Commentary: New Testament edition'' by John F. Walvoord, Roy B. Zuck 1983 ISBN 0-88207-812-7 page 405</ref>

According to the New Testament, Paul spent eighteen months in Corinth, approximately seventeen years after his conversion.<ref name=Marrow45 /><ref name=Eerdsman1019 >''Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible'' Amsterdam University Press, 2000 ISBN 90-5356-503-5 page 1019</ref> [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Galatians#2:1|Galatians 2:1-10]] states that Paul went [[Paul the apostle#Visits to Jerusalem in Acts and the epistles|back to Jerusalem]] fourteen years after his conversion, and various missions (at times with [[Barnabas]]) such as those in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Acts#11:25|Acts 11:25-26]] and [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/2 Corinthians#11:23|2 Corinthians 11:23-33]] appear in the Book of Acts.<ref name=Barnett19 /><ref name=Kostenberger77 /> The generally accepted scholarly estimate for the date of conversion of Paul is 33-36 AD, placing the death of Jesus before this date range.<ref name=Barnett19 >''Jesus & the Rise of Early Christianity: A History of New Testament Times'' by Paul Barnett 2002 ISBN 0-8308-2699-8 pages 19-21</ref><ref name=Kostenberger77 >''The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament'' by Andreas J. Köstenberger, L. Scott Kellum 2009 ISBN 978-0-8054-4365-3 pages 77-79</ref><ref name=Riesner >''Paul's early period: chronology, mission strategy, theology'' by [[Rainer Riesner]] 1997 ISBN 978-0-8028-4166-7 page 19-27 (page 27 has a table of various scholarly estimates)</ref>

===Astronomical analysis===
====Newton's method====
[[File:Bolton-newton.jpg|thumb|[[Isaac Newton]]]]
In 1733, [[Isaac Newton]] became one of the first scientists to estimate the date of the crucifixion by calculating the relative visibility of the crescent of the new moon between the [[Hebrew calendar|Hebrew]] and [[Julian calendar]]s.<ref name=Pratt1 /><ref name=Humphreys45 /> In chapter XI of the first Part I of [[wikisource:Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel/Part I Chap XI|Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel]] Newton stated that assuming "the passion was on friday the 14th day of the month Nisan", one could compute the exact date of the crucifixion because "the 14th day of Nisan always fell on the full moon next after the vernal Equinox". Using this line of reasoning, Newton calculated the date of the crucifixion as Friday, April 23, AD 34.<ref name=Newton >[[Isaac Newton|Newton, Isaac]] (1733). "[[s:Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel/Part I Chap XI|Of the Times of the Birth and Passion of Christ]]", in ''[[s:Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel|Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse of St. John]]''</ref> In the computations, Newton first narrowed the possible years to AD 33 and AD 34; and selected AD 34 by using a postponement rule from the modern Hebrew calendar.<ref name=Pratt1 /><ref name=Newton /> 

In time, a number of other scientists used similar methods of relating the Hebrew and Julian calendars with the version developed by [[John Knight Fotheringham|J. K. Fotheringham]] becoming a standard by the middle of the 20th century.<ref name=Humphreys45 >[[Colin Humphreys]], ''The Mystery of the Last Supper'' Cambridge University Press 2011 ISBN 978-0-521-73200-0, pages 45-48</ref><ref>Fotheringham, J.K., 1910. "On the smallest visible phase of the moon," ''Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society'' 70, 527-531.</ref> Fotheringham dated the crucifixion in a similar manner.<ref>Fotheringham, J.K. 1910 "Astronomical Evidence for the Date of the Crucifixion," ''Journal of Theological Studies'' 12, 120-127.</ref><ref>Fotheringham, J.K. 1934. "The Evidence of Astronomy and Technical Chronology for the Date of the Crucifixion," ''Journal of Theological Studies'' 35, 146-162.</ref>

Using similar computations, in 1990 astronomer [[Bradley E. Schaefer]] arrived at the date, Friday, April 3, AD 33 for the crucifixion.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Schaefer |first=B. E. |year=1990 |title=Lunar Visibility and the Crucifixion |journal=Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=53–67 |bibcode=1990QJRAS..31...53S }}</ref> According to John Pratt, Fotheringham and Schaefer seem to have been unaware of Newton's computations.<ref name=Pratt1 />

Writing in the Journal of the [[Royal Astronomical Society]] in 1991, Pratt stated that Newton and Schaefer agreed on dates of lunar visibility, but not on the resulting date for the crucifixion. By working through Newton's calculations, Pratt rejected the claim that Newton selected  April 23 because it happened to be [[St. George's day]].<ref name=Pratt1 /> Pratt argued that Newton's reasoning was effectively sound, but included a minor, non-mathematical error at the end, given that the "postponement rule" from the modern [[Hebrew calendar]] was shown not to have been in use at the time over a century after Newton. Pratt suggested the year AD 33 as the accurate answer.<ref name=Pratt1 >{{cite journal |last=Pratt |first=J. P. |year=1991 |title=Newton's Date for the Crucifixion |journal=Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=301–304 |bibcode=1991QJRAS..32..301P }} [http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1991QJRAS..32..301P]</ref> Humphreys and Waddington have supported Newton's approach to the reconstruction of the first century Jewish Calendar, and Humphreys has presented methods for how it can be confirmed with further calculations.<ref name=HumphreysPlus >{{cite journal |last=Humphreys |first=Colin J. |year= 1983 |month=December |title=Dating the Crucifixion |journal=Nature |volume=306 |issue=5945 |pages=743–746 |doi=10.1038/306743a0 |coauthors=W. G. Waddington |bibcode=1983Natur.306..743H}}</ref><ref name=Humphreys45 /> 

Unlike scientist [[Colin Humphreys]], who considers astronomy a viable method of dating biblical episodes, historian [[E. P. Sanders]] contends that astronomical analysis can neither prove nor disprove the chronology of Jesus.<ref>[[Colin Humphreys]], ''The Mystery of the Last Supper'' Cambridge University Press 2011 ISBN 978-0-521-73200-0, page 37</ref><ref>E. P. Sanders, ''The Historical Figure of Jesus'' (Penguin, 1993) pages 285-286.</ref>

====Lunar eclipse method====
[[File:Eclipse 2008 Sar.JPG|thumb|A [[solar eclipse]], August 2008.]]
[[File:Lunar eclipse March 2007.jpg|thumb|A [[lunar eclipse]], March 2007.]]

In the accounts of the crucifixion in the [[Synoptic Gospels]], a period of darkness occurs ([[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#27:45|Matthew 27:45]], [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Mark#15:33|Mark 15:33]], [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Luke#23:44|Luke 23:44]]) on the first day of Passover beginning around noon ("the sixth hour") and continuing until 3 o'clock ("the ninth hour").<ref>''The Bible Knowledge Commentary: New Testament'' by John F. Walvoord, Roy B. Zuck 1983 ISBN 978-0-88207-812-0 page 88</ref> In the 6th century [[Cassiodorus|Aurelius Cassiodorus]] stated that the crucifixion occurred when there was a great eclipse the same year [[Sejanus]] became the [[List of Roman consuls|consul]] with [[Tiberius]], AD 31.<ref>{{cite book |title=A New Analysis of Chronology and Geography, History and Prophecy |last=Hales |first=William |author-link=William Hales |year=1830 |volume=1 |page=70 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=aNfVAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA70#v=onepage&q&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Opus de emendatione temporum hac postrema Editione |last=Scaliger |first=Joseph |author-link=Joseph Justus Scaliger |year=1629 |page=563 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=vTZBAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA563#v=onepage&q&f=false}}</ref>

Modern astronomers have debated the possibility of a [[solar eclipse]] during the crucifixion, but have generally raised objections to it.<ref name=Milone >''Exploring Ancient Skies: A Survey of Ancient and Cultural Astronomy'' by David H. Kelley, Eugene F. Milone 2011 ISBN 1-4419-7623-X pages 250-251</ref> Given that a solar eclipses only occur during the new moon phase, and that the 14th of Nisan always corresponds to a full moon, biblical scholars instead suggest that the darkness may have been due to a storm of some kind and not to a solar eclipse.<ref>''Historical Dictionary of Jesus'' by Daniel J. Harrington 2010 ISBN 0-8108-7667-1 pages 43-44</ref> Moreover, a solar eclipse takes about an hour for the moon to cover the sun, with total coverage lasting four to six minutes.<ref>''Astronomy: The Solar System and Beyond'' by Michael A. Seeds, Dana Backman, 2009 ISBN 0-495-56203-3 page 34</ref><ref>Meeus, J. (2003, December). ''The maximum possible duration of a total solar eclipse''. Journal of the British Astronomical Association, 113(6), 343-348.</ref>  

In 1983, [[Colin Humphreys|Humphreys]] and Waddington of [[Oxford University]] noted that the separate reference made by [[Apostle Peter]] in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Acts#2:20|Acts 2:20]] to a "moon of blood" is a term used for [[lunar eclipse]]s as far back as 331 BC.<ref name=HumphreysPlus /><ref name=Humphreys86 >[[Colin Humphreys]], ''The Mystery of the Last Supper'' Cambridge University Press 2011 ISBN 978-0-521-73200-0, pages 86-87</ref> A lunar eclipse can last a few hours, total coverage lasting about an hour.<ref>http://www.crh.noaa.gov/fsd/astro/suneclipse.php</ref> Humphreys and Waddington computed the Jewish calendar for the first century AD and also reconstructed the scenario for a lunar eclipse, and arrived at the conclusion that Friday, 3 April 33 AD was the date of the Crucifixion.<ref name=HumWadJASA>Colin J. Humphreys and W. G. Waddington, ''The Date of the Crucifixion'' Journal of the American Scientific Affiliation 37 (March 1985)[http://www.asa3.org/aSA/PSCF/1985/JASA3-85Humphreys.html]</ref> The lunar eclipse approach used for the determination of the date April 3 33 AD is totally independent and distinct from the Newton-like construction of the Jewish calendar, but arrives at the same date.<ref name=Colin13 >[[Colin Humphreys]], ''The Mystery of the Last Supper'' Cambridge University Press 2011 ISBN 978-0-521-73200-0, page 13</ref>

According to the computations of Humphreys and Waddington, a lunar eclipse on Friday, April 3, 33 AD, would have begun at 3:43 pm, would have reached its maximum at 5:15 pm with approximately 60% of the moon eclipsed, and would have ended at 6:50 pm.<ref name=HumWadJASA/> In their view, the failure of any of the gospel accounts to refer to a lunar eclipse was likely the result of a scribe incorrectly amending a text to refer to a solar eclipse.<ref name="henige">{{cite book | last=Henige | first=David P. | authorlink=David Henige | title=Historical evidence and argument | publisher=University of Wisconsin Press | isbn=978-0-299-21410-4 | page=150| year=2005}}</ref> Although this model provides a date for the crucifixion which is consistent with the reconstruction of the Jewish calendar, and arrives at the same date as the modified Newton method, it does not address the preceding reference to the darkened sun in the gospels.<ref name=HumphreysPlus /><ref name=HumWadJASA/>

Bradley E. Schaefer supports the year 33 AD using his own computations through the reconstruction of the Jewish calendar and does not deny the possibility of a lunar eclipse on that day; but he rejects the visibility that eclipse in Jerusalem based on his approach to computing "celestial glare".<ref>Schaefer, B. E. (1990, March). Lunar visibility and the crucifixion. Royal Astonomical Society Quarterly Journal, 31(1), 53-67</ref><ref>Schaefer, B. E. (1991, July). Glare and celestial visibility. Publications of the Astonomical Society of the Pacific, 103, 645-660.</ref><ref>''Marking time: the epic quest to invent the perfect calendar'' by Duncan Steel 1999 ISBN 0-471-29827-1 page 341</ref> Ruggles supports Schaefer's views and Gaskel has argued that a lunar eclipse during the day of the crucifixion could have received significant attention.<ref>Ruggles, C. (1990, June). Archaeoastronomy – the Moon and the crucifixion. Nature, 345(6277), 669-670.</ref><ref>Gaskel, C. M. (1993, December).  Beyond visibility: The "Crucifixion eclipse" in the context of some other astronomical events of the times.  ''Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society'', '''25''', 1334.  183rd AAS Meeting [Abstract 27.04].</ref>

==Day and time estimates==
===Day of birth===
The nativity accounts in the New Testament gospels of Matthew and Luke do not mention a day for the birth of Jesus.  [[Karl Rahner]] states that given that the gospels were written as theological documents they do not pay attention to such details.<ref name="Rahner731"/> Scholars such as [[E.P. Sanders]] consider the birth narratives non-historical and not a reliable method for determining the day of birth.<ref>Sanders, E. P. ''The historical figure of Jesus''. Penguin, 1993 pages 85-88</ref>

[[File:BL Harley Gospels 109r.jpg|thumb|180px|The [[Incipit]] to the [[Gospel of Luke]], in the [[Harley Golden Gospels]], 800-825]]
Neither Luke nor Matthew mention a season for when Jesus was born. However, scholarly arguments regarding the realism of shepherds grazing their flock at night during the winter have taken place, both challenging a winter birth for Jesus, as well as defending it by relying on the mildness of winters in ancient Israel and [[Rabbinic Judaism|rabbinic]] rules regarding sheep near Bethlehem before February.<ref>"New Testament History" by Richard L. Niswonger 1992 ISBN 0-310-31201-9 pp. 121-124</ref><ref>''Luke: an introduction and commentary'' by Leon Morris 1988 ISBN 0-8028-0419-5 page 93</ref><ref>''Stories of Jesus' Birth'' by Edwin D. Freed 2004 ISBN 0-567-08046-3 pages 136-137</ref> 

An indirect, and unsuccessful approach to determining the day of birth has been based on the statement in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Luke#1:5|Luke 1:5-8]] that [[John the Baptist]], who was six months older than Jesus, was conceived around the time when his father, a priest in the division of [[Abijah]], was on duty at the temple. The division of Abijah was the eighth among the 24 divisions to serve at the temple in strict order, one or possibly two weeks at a time. This has been used to argue for a birth date around [[Sukkot|The Feast of Tabernacles]].<ref name="Punton">{{cite book|title=The World Jesus Knew|author=Anne Punton|year=2009|pages=38–40}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Armageddon: Appointment with Destiny|author=[[Grant Jeffrey]]}}</ref>
If one assumes that the schedule of divisions at the temple always assigned the first division on the first week of the Jewish calendar, and proceeds with one division per week, with three one-week breaks around major festivals (thus allowing each division to serve twice a year), the first course of Abijah would occur in mid-[[Sivan]] (late May to early June), and it can be deduced that Jesus was born in mid-[[Tishri]] (late September to early October), or right around the Feast of Tabernacles.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://biblelight.net/sukkoth.htm|title=On What Day Was Jesus Born?}}</ref> However, uncertainties regarding the exact schedule in place in 1st-century B.C. Israel are so substantial that the date derived this way is but one of multiple possibilities.<ref name="Punton" /> One important reason to doubt this "solution" is that, when the Jerusalem temple was destroyed in 70 A.D. during the fifth month of the Jewish calendar, the division of Jehoiarib (first in the cycle) was on duty.<ref>Mishnah (b. Ta'an 29a)</ref> It has recently been argued for a cycle that commenced each year on the first Saturday in [[Tishri]] (the seventh month), which would place the birth of Jesus in July or January.<ref>{{cite book|title=Calendar and chronology, Jewish and Christian: biblical, intertestamental and patristic studies|author=Roger T. Beckwith|year=2001|pages=79–92}}</ref>

The day of birth of Jesus, celebrated as [[Christmas]] is based on a feast rather than historical analysis. In the 1st and 2nd centuries, the [[Lord's Day]] (Sunday) was the earliest Christian celebration and included a number of theological themes. In the 2nd century, the [[Resurrection of Jesus]] became a separate feast as [[Easter]] and in the same century [[Epiphany (holiday)|Epiphany]] began to be celebrated in the Churches of the East on January 6.<ref>''An introductory dictionary of theology and religious studies'' by Orlando O. Espín, James B. Nickoloff 2007 ISBN 0-8146-5856-3 page 237</ref> The festival of the Nativity which later turned into Christmas was a 4th century feast in the [[Western Church]] notably in Rome and North Africa, although it is uncertain exactly where and when it was first celebrated.<ref>''Christian worship in Reformed Churches past and present'' by Lukas Vischer 2002 ISBN 0-8028-0520-5 pages 400-401</ref> 

The earliest source stating the 25th of December as the date of birth of [[Jesus]] is likely by [[Hippolytus of Rome]], written very early in the 3rd century, based on the assumption that the conception of Jesus took place at the [[Spring equinox]] which he placed on March 25th, and then added 9th months - festivals on that date were then celebrated.<ref>''Mercer Dictionary'' of the Bible by Watson E. Mills, Edgar V. McKnight and Roger A. Bullard 2001 ISBN 0-86554-373-9 page 142</ref> [[John Chrysostom]] also argued for a December 25 date in the late 4th century, basing his argument on the assumption that the offering of incense in Luke 1:8-11 was the offering of incense by a high priest on [[Yom Kippur]] (early October), and, as above, counting fifteen months forward. However, this was very likely a retrospective justification a choice already made rather than a genuine attempt to derive the correct birth date.<ref>Beckwith, p. 72</ref>

===Day of death===
[[File:Papyrus 90 (John 19.1-7).jpg|thumb|180px|A [[Papyrus 90]] fragment of [[Gospel of John|John 19]]]]
Tradition (and the [[Synoptic Gospels]]) hold that the [[Last Supper]] took place on the first night of [[Passover]], which is defined in the [[Torah]] as occurring after the daylight of the [[Quartodeciman|14th of Nisan]] ({{Bibleverse||Lev|23:5-6|he}}). However, [[the Gospel of John]] implies that at the time of the trial the Jewish leaders had not yet eaten the Passover meal{{Bibleref2c|Jn.|18:28}} <ref>Paul Barnett, ''Jesus & the Rise of Early Christianity: A History of New Testament Times'', page 21  (InterVarsity Press, 1999). ISBN 978-0-8308-2699-5</ref> and states just prior to his sentencing "Now it was the day of Preparation of the Passover. It was about the sixth hour."{{Bibleref2c|Jn.|19:14}} John's account places the crucifixion on [[Nisan]] [[Quartodecimanism|14]], since the law mandated the lamb had to be sacrificed between 3:00&nbsp;pm and 5:00&nbsp;pm and eaten before midnight on Nisan 14.<ref>{{cite web|author=[[Philo]] |title=''De Specialibus Legibus'' 2.145 |url=http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book28.html}}</ref><ref>[[Josephus]]. ''[[s:The War of the Jews|The War of the Jews]]'' [[s:The War of the Jews/Book VI#Chapter 9|6.9.3]]</ref><ref>''[[Mishnah]], [[Pesahim]]'' 5.1.</ref> This understanding fits well with [[Old Testament]] [[Typology (theology)|typology]], in which Jesus entered [[Jerusalem]] to identify himself as the [[Korban Pesach|Paschal lamb]] on Nisan 10{{Bibleref2c|Jn.|Ex.|12:1-6}} was crucified and died at 3:00 in the afternoon of Nisan 14, at the same time the High Priest would have sacrificed the Paschal lamb,{{Bibleref2c|1Cor|5:7||1 Cor. 5:7}}  {{Bibleref2c|Isaiah|53:7-9||cf. Isa. 53:7-9}} and rose before dawn the morning of Nisan 16, as a type of offering of the [[First Fruits]].{{Bibleref2c|1Cor|15:23||1 Cor. 15:23}} {{Bibleref2c|Lev.|23:9-14||cf. Lev. 23:9-14}} However, "the day of preparation" has been seen to mean either the day before Passover or simply Friday; or both.<ref>''The Complete Gospels'', Robert J. Miller, ed., 1992, page 241, commentary on verse 19:31</ref>

The chronology presented by John has been viewed as problematic in reconciling with the Synoptic passages and the tradition in that the [[Last Supper]] was a Passover meal,<ref>{{Bibleref2|Matthew|26:17-19}}; {{Bibleref2|Mark|14:12-16}}; {{Bibleref2|Luke|22:7-8}}</ref> placing the crucifixion instead on Nisan 15. However, the apparent contradiction may be resolved by postulating differences in how post-exilic Jews reckoned time.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Does the Day Begin in the Evening or Morning? Some Biblical Observations |author=Stroes, H. R. |journal=[[Vetus Testamentum]] |volume=16 |issue=4 |month=October |year=1966 |pages=460–475 |doi=10.2307/1516711 |publisher=BRILL |jstor=1516711}}</ref> For Jesus and his disciples, the Passover could have begun at dawn Thursday, while for traditional Jews (following {{Bibleref2|Leviticus|23:5}}), it would not have begun until dusk that same day.<ref>{{cite web |title=Daily Life In The Time Of Jesus |author=Ross, Allen |url=http://www.bible.org/page.php?page_id=3953}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=[[Harold Hoehner|Hoehner, Harold]] |title=Chronological Aspects of the Life of Christ |year=1977 |location=Grand Rapids |publisher=Zondervan}}</ref> Another potential solution is that Jesus chose to celebrate the Passover meal a day early with his disciples.{{Bibleref2c|Mt.|26:18}} {{Bibleref2c|Lk.|22:15}} <ref>{{cite journal |title=The Time of the Last Supper |author=Heawood, Percy J. |journal=The Jewish Quarterly Review, New Series |volume=42 |issue=1 |month=July |year=1951 |pages=37–44 |jstor=1452717 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=The Character of Christ's Last Meal |author=Schmidt, Nathaniel |journal=Journal of Biblical Literature |volume=11 |issue=1 |year=1892 |pages=1–21 |doi=10.2307/3259075 |publisher=The Society of Biblical Literature |jstor=3259075}}</ref>

A small number of Biblical scholars claim the traditional [[Holy Week]] calendar is inaccurate and Jesus was crucified on Wednesday, not Friday. This theory is based in part on literal interpretation of the Biblical texts indicating Jesus was dead for three days and three nights.<ref>{{cite news|last=Akin|first=Jimmy|title=The Crucifixion: Wednesday or Friday?|url=http://www.ncregister.com/blog/the-crucifixion-wednesday-or-friday/|accessdate=11 March 2012|newspaper=The National Catholic Register|date=21 April 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Ashley|first=Scott|title=Jesus Wasn't Crucified on Friday or Resurrected on Sunday|url=http://www.ucg.org/doctrinal-beliefs/jesus-wasnt-crucified-friday-or-resurrected-sunday/|publisher=The Good News Magazine of Understanding|accessdate=27 February 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Humphreys|first=Colin|title=The Mystery of the Last Supper: Reconstructing the Final Days of Jesus|year=2011|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-73200-X|url=http://www.amazon.com/The-Mystery-Last-Supper-Reconstructing/dp/052173200X/ref=sr_1_12?ie=UTF8&qid=1331442636&sr=8-12}}</ref> Mainstream scholars disagree with that and contend that the Jewish idiom "day and night" may refer to any part of a 24 hour period.<ref name=Blomberg225 >''Jesus and the Gospels: An Introduction and Survey'' by Craig L. Blomberg 2009 ISBN 0-8054-4482-3 page 225</ref>

====Hour of death====
[[Image:Museum side roman sun dial.JPG|thumb|left|A [[Roman system of timekeeping|Roman era sundial]], at a museum in Turkey]]
The estimation of the hour of death of Jesus is only based on the New Testament accounts and the timing presented in the gospel of Mark and John have been the subject of debate among scholars.<ref name= KEasley323 /><ref name=RBrown959 /> Mark's narrative of the passion has three hour segments: in the early part Jesus is before Pilate, the Crucifixion takes place at the third hour (9am) in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Mark#15:25|Mark 15:25]], darkness appears at the  six hour (noon) and Jesus' death at the ninth hour (3pm).<ref name=Harrington442>''The Gospel of Mark, Volume 2'' by John R. Donahue, Daniel J. Harrington 2002 ISBN 0-8146-5965-9 page 442</ref> However, in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#19:14|John 19:14]] Jesus is still before Pilate at the sixth hour.<ref name= KEasley323 />

Scholars have presented a number of arguments to deal with the issue.<ref name= KEasley323 /> [[Raymond E. Brown]] reviews various approaches that have been presented and suggests that they can not be easily reconciled.<ref name=RBrown959 >''Death of the Messiah, Volume 2'' by Raymond E. Brown 1999 ISBN 0-385-49449-1 pages 959-960</ref> On the other hand, [[Colin Humphreys]] contends that an approximate reconciliation can be achieved, and states that the Jewish method of time keeping began at sunrise (which in Jerusalem is about 6am) while the [[Roman timekeeping system]] reckoned time from midnight and John may have been using that method, with Roman hours.<ref name=Colin188 /> In the ''Roman clock'', time was divided into 12 [[hour]]s (Latin ''horae'') of light and 12 hours of darkness, and the length of each hour changes throughout the year.<ref>Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire - Page 543 Matthew Bunson - 2002 "The Roman day was divided into 12 hours of light and 12 hours of darkness. By the middle of the second century BCE, the Romans understood that the length of daylight varied throughout the year and also depended upon latitude.</ref> Humphreys's provides table based on "morning and afternoon" characterizations showing a somewhat close proximity of the events presented in the gospel accounts.<ref name=Colin188 >[[Colin Humphreys]], ''The Mystery of the Last Supper'' Cambridge University Press 2011 ISBN 978-0-521-73200-0, pages 188-190</ref> 

Several notable scholars have argued that the modern precision of marking the time of day should not be read back into the gospel accounts, written at a time when no standardization of timepieces, or exact recording of hours and minutes was available.<ref name= KEasley323 >Steven L. Cox, Kendell H Easley, 2007 Harmony of the Gospels ISBN 0-8054-9444-8 pages 323-323</ref> Richard L. Niswonger states that in antiquity times were always approximate, and that John's "about the 6th hour" may be close enough to Mark's time because sundials were not accurate.<ref>''New Testament History'' by Richard L. Niswonger 1992 ISBN 0-310-31201-9 pages 173-174</ref> [[Andreas Köstenberger]] states that early in the first century time was often estimated to the closest three-hour mark, and hence any time between 9am and noon may have resulted in someone saying that an event occurred at about the third or the sixth hour.<ref name=Kellum538 /> Köstenberger then adds: "Mark's concern likely was to provide the setting for the three hours of darkness (15:25, 33), while John seeks to stress the length of the proceedings, starting in the 'early morning'"<ref name=Kellum538 >''The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament'' by Andreas J. Köstenberger, L. Scott Kellum 2009 ISBN 978-0-8054-4365-3 page 538</ref>

==Other approaches==
A wide range of approaches to the chronology of Jesus have been suggested over the centuries, but have little support among modern scholars, e.g. [[Maximus the Confessor]], [[Eusebius of Caesarea|Eusebius]], and [[Cassiodorus]] recorded the death of Jesus in 31 AD. The 3rd/4th century Roman historian [[Lactantius]] states that Jesus was crucified on a particular day in 29 AD,  but that did not correspond to a full moon.<ref>Lactantius, ''Of the Manner In Which the Persecutors Died'' 2: "In the latter days of the Emperor Tiberius, in the consulship of Ruberius (''sic'') Geminus and Fufius Geminus, and on the tenth of the kalends of April, as I find it written".</ref>

Some commentators have attempted to establish the date of birth by identifying the [[Star of Bethlehem]] with some known astronomical or astrological phenomenon.<ref>For example, astronomer Michael Molnar identified April 17, 6 BC as the likely date of the Nativity, since that date corresponded to the [[heliacal rising]] and lunar [[occultation]] of Jupiter, while it was momentarily stationary in the sign of Aries; according to Molnar, to knowledgeable astrologers of this time, this highly unusual combination of events would have indicated that a regal personage would be (or had been) born in Judea. Michael R. Molnar, "The Star of Bethlehem: The Legacy of the Magi," Rutgers University Press, 1999.</ref> There are many possible phenomena and none seems to match the Gospel account.<ref>Raymond E. Brown, ''101 Questions and Answers on the Bible'', Paulist Press (2003), page 79.</ref> Many scholars regard the star as a literary invention of the author of the [[Gospel of Matthew]], to claim fulfillment of an Old Testament prophecy (Numbers 24:17).<ref>Joseph J. Walsh, ''Were They Wise Men or Kings?'', Westminster John Knox Press, (2001), p. 40</ref>

==See also==
* [[Jesus von Nazareth]]
* [[Gospel harmony]]
* [[Historischer Jesus]]
* [[Testimonium Flavianum]]
* [[Jesus in Christianity]]
* [[New Testament view on Jesus' life]]
* [[Timeline of the Bible]]

==Einzelnachweise==
<references />

==External links==
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08377a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia (1910): Chronology of the Life of Jesus Christ]

<nowiki>{{Jesus footer}}
{{Timeline of religion}}
{{Christianityfooter{{See also|Gospel harmony|Historical Jesus|Historicity of Jesus}}
[[File:Church of Christ icon.jpg|thumb|240px|right|upright|[[Medieval]] Russian [[icon]] depicting the life of Jesus.]]
The '''Chronology of Jesus''' depicts the attempt to establish a historical [[chronology]] for the events of the life of [[Jesus]] depicted in the four canonical [[gospels]] (which allude to various dates for several events). Certain events in the chronology of Jesus as described in the [[Gospels]] can be cross-referenced to Jewish festivals, and to the tenure of historical rulers and high priests. However, other events such as the specific years of Jesus's birth and death cannot be accurately determined. When correlated with external secular sources, the accounts of the four canonical gospels describe something like the following outline:<ref>[[John P. Meier]], [[John P. Meier#A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus|''A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus'']]'', v.1, ch. 11.</ref>

* [[Nativity of Jesus|Jesus was born]] either before 4 BC (when [[Herod the Great]] died) or in 6 AD (when the historical [[Census of Quirinius]] was undertaken). The traditional date, 25 December [[1 BC]] (not [[1 AD]], see below), is a combination between a symbolic choice (for the  day of the year) and a calculation of [[Dionysius Exiguus]] (for the year itself).
* [[Baptism of Jesus|Jesus was baptized by John the Baptist]] during John's ministry, which according to {{Bibleverse||Luke|3:1-2}} began in the "15th year of [[Tiberius]]" (around 28/29 AD)<ref>David Noel Freedman, Allen C. Myers, Astrid B. Beck, ''Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible'', (Eerdmans, 2000), page 249.</ref> and may have lasted up until 32 AD;<ref name="Graham N 2002 page 185">[[Graham N. Stanton|Graham Stanton]], ''The Gospels and Jesus'' (Oxford University Press, 2002), page 185.</ref>
* [[Ministry of Jesus|Jesus' ministry]] lasted around three years according to the [[Gospel of John]] or one year, according to the Synoptic Gospels;<ref>Carol A. Newsom, Sharon H. Ringe, The Women's Bible Commentary, (Westminster John Knox Press, 1998) page 381. [http://books.google.com/books?id=ymp4S2qZJ4cC&pg=PA381&vq=three-year&dq=The+Women%27s+Bible+Commentary&source=gbs_search_s&cad=0 Google Book Search preview]</ref>
* Jesus was executed by [[Pontius Pilate]], the governor of [[Judaea (Roman province)|Iudaea province]] between 26 AD (when Pilate was appointed as governor) and 36 AD (when Pilate was removed.)
* According to the Gospel accounts, Jesus [[Resurrection of Jesus|was raised from the dead]] on the [[Sunday|first day of the week]] following his crucifixion.

{| class="toccolours"  style="float:right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; width:246px; text-align:left; clear:right;"
| style="background:#dddddd; text-align:center;" colspan="2" | 
<big><center>'''Chronology of Jesus'''</center></big>
</center>
|-
| row valign="top" |
{{Jesus}}
| 
|-
| style="background:#dddddd; text-align:center;" colspan="2" | 
<big><center>'''Biblical Timeline'''</center></big>
</center>
|-
|colspan="2" |
{{Main|Gospel Harmony}}
<div style="align: left;">
[[Image:Petrus Christus 002.jpg|noframe|128px|right]]
'''''c''. [[Jesus#Chronology|6 BC]]'''
:Suggested [[Jesus#Date of birth and death|birth]]  : [[Bethlehem]]
:Visit by [[shepherd]]s : [[Bethlehem]]
:[[Presentation of Jesus at the Temple|Presentation at the Temple]] : [[Jerusalem]]
:Return to [[Nazareth]] : Lower [[Galilee]]

'''''c''. 5 BC'''
:[[Adoration of the Magi|Visit by the Wise Men]] : [[Bethlehem]]
:[[Flight to Egypt]] : [[Nile Delta]]

'''''c''. 4 BC'''
:[[Herod the Great]] dies
[[Image:Baptism-christ.jpg|noframe|128px|right]]
:[[John the Baptist]] is born

'''''c''. 3/2 BC'''
:Traditional [[Jesus#Date of birth and death|birth]]

'''''c''. [[Jesus#Date of birth and death|1 AD]]'''
:Suggested birth : [[Bethlehem]]

'''''c''. [[Jesus#Date of birth and death|6]]'''
:Suggested birth (Latest). [[Quirinius]] census

'''''c''. 7'''
:[[Finding in the temple|Visit to temple]] as a boy : [[Jerusalem]]

'''''c''. 26 - 36'''
:[[Baptism|Baptized]] : [[Jordan River]]
:[[Temptation of Christ]] by [[Satan]] : the [[Desert]] and Jerusalem
:[[Jesus and the money changers|Cleansing of the temple]] : [[Jerusalem]]
:Jesus and [[Nicodemus]]  : [[Jerusalem]]
:[[Pontius Pilate|Pilate]] appointed Roman [[governor]] of [[Iudaea (Roman province)|Judea]]
:Talks to [[Samaritan]] woman : [[Samaria]]
[[Image:Cana1.jpg|noframe|128px|right]]
:[[Wedding at Cana|Turning water into wine at the wedding feast]] ("''first miracle''") : [[Cana]]
:heals nobleman's son: [[Cana]]
:Four fishermen become followers : [[Sea of Galilee]]
:heals [[Saint Peter|Peter]]'s mother-in-law  : [[Capernaum]]
:Town attempts to kill Jesus : [[Nazareth]]
:First preaching trip : [[Galilee]]
:[[Matthew the Evangelist|Matthew]] joins Jesus : [[Capernaum]]
:Suggested [[Jesus as Christ and Messiah#Arrest, sentencing, and crucifixion|death]] (Earliest) : [[Golgotha]]
:Chooses 12 [[Twelve Apostles|disciples]] : [[Capernaum]]
:[[Jesus#The ministry and message of Jesus|Ministry]] begins : [[Galilee]]
:Preaches "[[Sermon on the Mount]]" : [[Capernaum]]
:[[Sin]]ful woman anoints Jesus : [[Capernaum]]
:Travels through Galilee : [[Galilee]]
:Teaches [[Parables of Jesus|parables about kingdom]] : [[Galilee]]
:Calms the storm : [[Sea of Galilee]]
:heals the Gerasene Demoniacs : [[Gedera]] [[Gerasa]] or [[Gergesa]]
:[[Jairus]]'s daughter back to life : [[Capernaum]]
:Sends disciples to preach and heal : [[Capernaum]]
:[[John the Baptist]] killed by Herod : [[Machaerus]]
:Feeds 5,000 people : [[Bethsaida]]
:[[Walking on water|Walks on water]] : [[Bethsaida]]
:Travels to [[Tyre (Lebanon)|Tyre]]/[[Sidon]]
:Feeds 4,000 people : [[Tyre (Lebanon)|Tyre]]/[[Sidon]]
:Peter states Jesus is "''[[Son of God]]''" : [[Tyre (Lebanon)|Tyre]]/Sidon
:States soon he will die : [[Caesarea Philippi]]
:[[Transfiguration of Jesus|Transfigured]] : [[Caesarea Philippi]]
:Pays temple taxes : [[Capernaum]]
:Attends the [[Feast of Tabernacles]]: [[Jerusalem]]
:heals a man who was born blind : [[Jerusalem]]
:Second preaching trip : [[Galilee]]
:Begins last trip : [[Jerusalem]]
:Blesses little children : [[Jordan]]
:Talks to [[wealth|rich]] and young man : [[Jordan]]
:Tells about death and [[resurrection]] : [[Jordan]]
:heals blind [[Bartimaeus (Biblical)|Bartimaeus]] : [[Jericho]]
:Talks to [[Zacchaeus]] : [[Jericho]]
:Visits [[Martha]] and [[Mary, sister of Lazarus|Mary]] : [[Bethany (Israel)|Bethany]]
:Raises [[Lazarus]] from the dead : [[Bethany (Israel)|Bethany]]
:[[Palm Sunday|The Triumphal Entry]] : [[Jerusalem]]
:[[Curse]]s the [[ficus|fig]] tree : [[Jerusalem]]
:Cleanses the temple : [[Jerusalem]]
:Authority of Jesus questioned : [[Jerusalem]]
:Teaches in the temple : [[Jerusalem]]
:[[Anoint]]ed : [[Bethany (Israel)|Bethany]]
:The plot against Jesus : [[Bethany (Israel)|Bethany]]
:[[The Last Supper]] : [[Bethany (Israel)|Bethany]]
:Comforts the disciples : [[Bethany (Israel)|Bethany]]
:[[Gethsemane]] : [[Bethany (Israel)|Bethany]]
:[[Jesus as Christ and Messiah#Arrest, trial, and crucifixion|Arrest and trial]] : [[Bethany (Israel)|Bethany]]
:[[Jesus as Christ and Messiah#Arrest, trial, and crucifixion|Crucifixion]] and death : [[Golgotha]]
:The burial of Jesus : [[Joseph of Arimathea|Joseph's Tomb]]
:[[Mary Magdalene]] : [[Jerusalem]]
:Appears to the two travelers : [[Emmaus]]
:Appears to 11 disciples : [[Jerusalem]]
:Talks with some disciples : [[Sea of Galilee]]
:[[Ascension of Jesus Christ|Ascension]] : [[Mount of Olives]]

'''''c''. [[Jesus as Christ and Messiah#Arrest, trial, and crucifixion|30]]'''
: Possible date of [[Crucifixion of Jesus|death]].
:  [[Jesus as Christ and Messiah#Resurrection, Ascension, and Second Coming|Resurrection]] : [[Mount of Olives]]

'''''c''. [[Jesus as Christ and Messiah#Arrest, trial, and crucifixion|33]]'''
: Possible date of [[Crucifixion of Jesus|death]].
:  [[Jesus as Christ and Messiah#Resurrection, Ascension, and Second Coming|Resurrection]] : [[Mount of Olives]]

'''''c''. [[Jesus#Date of birth and death|36]] '''
: Suggested [[Jesus as Christ and Messiah#Arrest, trial, and crucifixion|death]] (Latest);
: [[Jesus as Christ and Messiah#Resurrection, Ascension, and Second Coming|Resurrection]] : [[Mount of Olives]]

'''''c''. 36 / 37'''
:[[Pontius Pilate|Pilate]] removed from office.
</div>
</div> <!-- //list container --> </div> <!-- //inner container --> </div> <!-- //floating right column -->
|}

==Birth==
===Year of birth===
{{See also|Nativity of Jesus|Census of Quirinius}}
The only sources of information on Jesus' birth are the gospels of Matthew and Luke of the [[Bible]].

Matthew describes [[Herod the Great|King Herod]] as the ruler during the time of the Nativity, and Herod is believed to have died in 4 BC. Furthermore, to kill Jesus and eliminate him as a rival king, Herod orders the "[[Massacre of the Innocents]]"&nbsp;— the killing of all male children in Bethlehem aged two years and under. This means that Jesus would likely have been up to two years old or younger by Herod's death in 4 BC, possibly setting the Nativity around 6 BC.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Theology: 
The Concise Sacramentum Mundi |last=Rahner |first=Karl |year=2004 |page=731 |isbn=0860120066}}</ref>

Luke places the Nativity during the [[Census of Quirinius]], which took place in 6 AD, although Luke states the conception took place during the reign of King Herod&nbsp;— about 10 years earlier.

Because both Gospel accounts agree that the birth took place before the death of Herod, historians generally assume Jesus was born around 4 BC or slightly before.<ref>[[E. P. Sanders]], ''The Historical Figure of Jesus'', Penguin Books, 1993, pp. 10–11.</ref>  Evidence uncovered in 1923 by archeologists digging near Ankara Turkey which describes of an empire wide tax collection in 8 BC like the one described in Luke 2:1-5 in the ruins of a Roman Temple there, generally supports this as word of the tax would have taken years to reach all parts of the empire.<ref name="astronomy jan2010">{{cite journal|last=Bakich|first=Michael|title=What was the Star of Bethlehem|journal=Astronomy|year=2010|month=January}}</ref>

Some commentators have attempted to establish the date of birth by identifying the [[Star of Bethlehem]] with some known astronomical or astrological phenomenon.<ref>For example, astronomer Michael Molnar identified April 17, 6 BC as the likely date of the Nativity, since that date corresponded to the [[heliacal rising]] and lunar [[occultation]] of Jupiter, while it was momentarily stationary in the sign of Aries; according to Molnar, to knowledgeable astrologers of this time, this highly unusual combination of events would have indicated that a regal personage would be (or had been) born in Judea. Michael R. Molnar, "The Star of Bethlehem: The Legacy of the Magi," Rutgers University Press, 1999.</ref> There are many possible phenomena and none seems to match the Gospel account.<ref>Raymond E. Brown, ''101 Questions and Answers on the Bible'', Paulist Press (2003), page 79.</ref> Many scholars regard the star as a literary invention of the author of the [[Gospel of Matthew]], to claim fulfillment of an Old Testament prophecy (Numbers 24:17).<ref>Joseph J. Walsh, ''Were They Wise Men or Kings?'', Westminster John Knox Press, (2001), p. 40</ref>

Church historian [[Eusebius of Caesarea]] estimated that Jesus was born in 2 BC. In the 6th century, [[Dionysius Exiguus]] made the incarnation of Jesus the basis for his chart of [[Easter]] dates, although he did not specify whether incarnation meant conception or birth. Dionysius labeled the years since Jesus' incarnation ''[[Anno Domini]]'' (meaning "in the year of the Lord" in [[Latin]]), which is now abbreviated "AD". Later the abbreviation "BC", which stands for ''Before Christ'' was added. In this new Christian chronology, year 1 started either from the [[Annunciation]] on 25 March 753 of the [[Ab urbe condita|Roman Era]] or from the [[Nativity of Jesus|Nativity]] on 25 December 753: with the second choice (which eventually prevailed), 1 AD consisted of the last seven days of 753 [[Ab urbe condita|AUC]] and most of 754 [[Ab urbe condita|AUC]]. In the 16th century, [[New Year's Day]] was delayed to 1 January and the start of 1 AD retroactively reported to 1 January 754 [[Ab urbe condita|AUC]], with the unexpected consequence of dating the birth of Jesus of 25 December 753 in the year 1 BC (i.e. "before Christ"); that discrepancy was partly corrected by the astronomer [[Jacques Cassini]], who renamed 1 BC as the [[0 (year)|year 0]] (for calculations). But Dionysius' estimate is generally thought to be inaccurate; "although scholars generally believe that Christ was born some years before AD 1, the historical evidence is too sketchy to allow a definitive dating".<ref>Doggett. (1992). [http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/SEhelp/calendars.html "Calendars"] (Ch. 12), in P. Kenneth Seidelmann (Ed.) ''Explanatory supplement to the astronomical almanac.'' Sausalito, CA: University Science Books. ISBN 0-935702-68-7.</ref>

===Day of birth===
The New Testament provides no information regarding the date of the birth of Jesus.<ref>Watson E. Mills, Roger Aubrey Bullard, eds., ''Mercer dictionary of the Bible'', (Mercer University Press, 1990) page 142.</ref> The traditional date is 25 December, which is mid-winter in Judea. Because the Luke account says that shepherds were outdoors with their flocks it has sometimes been suggested that this implies a spring, summer or autumn date.<ref name="Paul L. Maier 1998 p28">Paul L. Maier, ''In the Fullness of Time: A Historian Looks at Christmas, Easter, and the Early Church'', Kregel Publications (1998), p28</ref> However, the climate of Palestine is quite mild and in fact sheep are allowed to forage even in December.<ref name="Paul L. Maier 1998 p28"/><ref>Edwin D. Freed, ''The stories of Jesus' birth: a critical introduction'', (Chalice Press, 2001) page 136.</ref> Scholarly arguments regarding the realism of shepherds grazing their flock during the winter have taken place, both challenging a winter birth for Jesus, as well as defending it by relying on the mildness of winters in Palestine and [[Rabbinic Judaism|rabbinic]] rules regarding sheep near Bethlehem before February.<ref>"New Testament History" by Richard L. Niswonger 1992 ISBN 0310312019 pp. 121-124</ref><ref>''Luke: an introduction and commentary'' by Leon Morris 1988 ISBN 0802804195 page 93</ref><ref>''Stories of Jesus' Birth'' by Edwin D. Freed 2004 ISBN 0567080463 pages 136-137</ref>

[[Early Christianity|Early Christians]] sought to calculate the date of Christ's birth based on the idea that [[Old Testament]] [[prophet]]s died either on an anniversary of their birth or of their conception. They reasoned that Jesus died on an anniversary of his conception, so the date of his birth was nine months after the date of [[Good Friday]], either December 25 or January 6.

At least as early as 354 AD, Jesus' birth was celebrated on December 25 in [[Rome]], according to [[Chronography of 354]]. Other cities had other traditional dates. The history of Christmas is closely associated with that of the [[Epiphany (feast)|Epiphany]]. If the currently prevailing opinion about the compilation of the gospels is accepted, the earliest body of gospel tradition, represented by [[gospel of Mark|Mark]] no less than by the primitive non-Marcan document ([[Q document]]) embodied in the first and third gospels, begins, not with the birth and childhood of Jesus, but with his [[baptism]]; and this order of accretion of gospel matter is faithfully reflected in the time order of the invention-of feasts. The church in general adopted Christmas much later than Epiphany, and before the 5th century there was no consensus as to when it should come in the calendar, whether on January 6 or December 25.

The next surviving mention of December 25 is in [[Hippolytus of Rome|Hippolytus]]' (c. 202) commentary on [[Daniel]]. Jesus, he says, was born at [[Bethlehem]] on December 25, a Wednesday, in the forty-second year of [[Augustus]]. As late as 245, [[Origen]], in his eighth homily on [[Leviticus]], repudiates as sinful the very idea of keeping the birthday of Jesus "as if he were a king [[Pharaoh]]."  Thus, it was important to the early Christians not to have indecorous parties on that day, but to keep it a time of devotion, reflection, and communion.

The first early mention of December 25 is in a Latin chronographer of 354 AD, first published in complete form by [[Theodor Mommsen|Mommsen]]. It runs thus in {{lang-en|"Year I after Christ}}, in the consulate of [[Augustus Caesar]] and [[Paulus]], the Lord Jesus Christ was born on 25 December, a Friday and 15th day of the [[new moon]]." here again no festal celebration of the day is attested.

====Other Dates====
There were many speculations in the 2nd century about the date of Jesus' birth. [[Clement of Alexandria]], towards its close, mentions several such, and condemns them as superstitions. Some chronologists, he says, alleged the birth to have occurred in the twenty-eighth year of Augustus, on the 25th of [[Pachon]], the [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] month (May 20). These were probably the [[Basilideans]]. Others set it on the 24th or 25th of [[Pharmuthi]] ([[April 19|19th]] or [[April 20|20 April]]). Clement himself sets it on November 17, 3 BC.<!--this is about easter, not Christmas!  The author of a Latin tract, called the ''De [[Easter|Pascha]] computus,'' written in [[Africa]] in 243, sets Easter by private revelation, ''ab ipso deo inspirali'', on March 28. he argues that the world was created perfect, flowers in bloom, and trees in leaf, therefore in [[spring (season)|spring]]; also at the [[equinox]], and when the moon just created was [[full moon|full]]. Now the [[moon]] and [[sun]] were created on a Wednesday. The 28th of March suits all these considerations. Jesus, therefore, being the Sun of Righteousness, was resurrected on the 28th of March.  Of course "Pascha" means Easter, so this does not belong in this section.-->

The same symbolic reasoning led [[Polycarp]] (before 160) to set his birth on Sunday, when the world's creation began, but his baptism on Wednesday, for it was the analogue of the sun's creation. On such grounds certain Latins as early as 354 may have transferred the human birthday from January 6 to December 25 and is by the chronographer above referred to, but in another part of his compilation, termed [[Sol invictus|Natalis invicti solis]], or birthday of the unconquered Sun. (Under the [[Julian Calendar]], the [[winter solstice]] occurs on December 24, so starting with December 25, the days begin to get longer again.) [[Cyprian]] invokes ''Christus Sol verus'', Ambrose ''Sol novus noster'', and such rhetoric was widespread. The [[Syria]]ns and [[Armenia]]ns, who clung to January 6, accused the [[Roman Catholicism|Roman]]s of sun-worship and idolatry, contending with great probability that the feast of 25 December had been invented by disciples of [[Cerinthus]] and its readings by [[Artemon]] to commemorate the natural birth of Jesus. [[Ambrose]], '''On Virgins''', writing to his sister, implies that as late as the [[papacy]] of [[Pope Liberius|Liberius]] 352 - 356, the Birth from the [[the Virgin Mary|Virgin]] was feasted together with the Marriage of Cana and the Feeding of the 4000, which were never celebrated on any other day but January 6.

Chrysostom, in a sermon preached at [[Antioch]] on December 20, 386 or 388, says that some held the feast of December 25 to have been held in the West, from Thrace as far as [[Cádiz]], ''from the beginning.'' It certainly originated in the West, but spread quickly eastwards. In 353 - 361 it was observed at the court of [[Constantius II]]. [[Basil of Caesarea]] (died 379) adopted it. [[Flavius Augustus Honorius|Honorius]], emperor (395 - 423) in the West, informed his mother and brother [[Arcadius]] (395 - 408) in [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantium]] of how the new feast was kept in Rome, separate from January 6, with its own [[troparia]] and [[sticharia]]. They adopted it, and recommended it to Chrysostom, who had long been in favour of it. [[Epiphanius]] of [[Crete]] was won over to it, as were also the other three patriarchs, [[Theophilus of Alexandria]], [[Bishop John II of Jerusalem|John II of Jerusalem]], [[Flavian I of Antioch]]. This was under [[Pope Anastasius I]], 398 - 400.

John or Wahan of [[Nice]], in a letter printed by [[François Combefis]] in his ''Historia monoizeii tarurn'', affords the above details. The new feast was communicated by [[Proclus]], patriarch of [[Constantinople]] (434 - 446), to [[Sahak]], [[Catholicos of Armenia]], about 440. The letter was betrayed to the Persian king, who accused Sahak of [[Greece|Greek]] intrigues, and deposed him.  However, the Armenians, at least those within the Byzantine pale, adopted it for about thirty years, but finally abandoned it together with the decrees of [[Chalcedon]] early in the 8th century.  Many writers of the period 375 - 450, e.g. [[Epiphanius]], [[Cassian of Imola|Cassian]], [[Asterius]], [[Basil of Caesarea|Basil]], Chrysostom and [[Jerome]], contrast the new feast with that of the Baptism as that of the birth after the flesh, from which we infer that the latter was generally regarded as a birth according to the Spirit.  Instructive as showing that the new feast travelled from West eastwards is the fact (noticed by [[Usener]]) that in 387 the new feast was reckoned according to the [[Julian calendar]] by writers of the province of Asia, who in referring to other feasts use the reckoning of their local calendars. As early as 400 in Rome an imperial rescript includes Christmas among the three feasts (the others are [[Easter]] and Epiphany) on which theatres must be closed.

</div>

==Start of Ministry==
According to the gospel of Luke (Luke 3:1-2), John the Baptist started his ministry in the "15th year of Tiberius". This is one of the few events in the New Testament for which any clear indication of the year of occurrence is given. [[Tiberius]] was emperor of Rome from 14 to 37 AD. All gospel accounts have Jesus beginning his own ministry after John had begun his. Accordingly, the earliest year either John or Jesus could have begun his own ministry would be, if Luke is accurate, the year 29 AD. However, one source, [[Tertullian]] (died 230), in ''Adversus Marcionem xv'', expresses a Roman tradition that placed the crucifixion in the twelfth year of Tiberius Caesar, lending support for an earlier date of 26 AD. Josephus implies that [[Herod Antipas]] had John the Baptist put to death around 32 AD.<ref name="Graham N 2002 page 185"/>

The Gospel of Luke indicates that Jesus was "about 30 years old" at his baptism by John.{{bibleref2c|Lk|3:23}} The approximate year can be calculated from the date of birth.

==Death==<!-- This section is linked from [[Eucharist]] -->
{{See also|Crucifixion_of_Jesus#Date of the Crucifixion|l1=Date of Crucifixion}}

===Day of death===
Tradition (and the [[Synoptic Gospels]]) hold that the [[Last Supper]] took place on the first night of [[Passover]], which is defined in the [[Torah]] as occurring after the daylight of the [[Quartodeciman|14th of Nisan]] ({{Bibleverse||Lev|23:5-6|he}}), however the Gospel of John likely places the crucifixion itself on the 14th of Nisan ("the day of preparation", e.g., {{Bibleverse-nb||John|19:14}}, {{Bibleverse-nb||John|19:31}}, {{Bibleverse-nb||John|19:42}}).<ref>''The Complete Gospels'', Robert J. Miller, ed., 1992, page 241, commentary on verse 19:31: "''the day of preparation'' (here and in v. 14) can mean either the day before Passover or simply Friday; in this case it is both."</ref>  In the Biblical calendar, a new day begins after sunset, rather than at midnight as in the modern western calendar. However, to determine the [[Gregorian calendar|Gregorian]] date of Jesus' death, one needs to know the year, because the 15th of [[Nisan]]&nbsp;– corresponding to one of the first two full moons after [[Vernal Equinox]]&nbsp;– can occur on any date in late March or April in the western calendar.

The season was that of the [[Passover]]. The day leading up to the Passover would have been Nisan 14. All Gospels agree that Jesus died and was taken off the cross on the day of the Jewish [[Shabbat|sabbath]] before sunset (the Jewish calendar counts the day as beginning with the evening). John elaborates that that Sabbath was "an high day" (John 19:31), which suggests that he died on the preparation for the annual Sabbath, the 15th of Nisan. Later traditions assume he died on a Friday ([[Good Friday]]), the preparation for the weekly Sabbath. However, before the year 500, the calendar months were adjusted in accordance with astronomical observations.  Therefore, it is not possible to state exactly on which day of the week the 14 of Nisan occurred for any year before 500 without historical documents that attest to a particular day of the week, though it is possible to guess based on astronomy.

More precise calculation of Jesus' date of death is complicated by apparent inconsistencies in the reports in the [[Synoptic Gospels]] as compared to the [[Gospel of John]].<ref>''The Complete Gospels'', Robert J. Miller, ed., 1992, page 195, Introduction to the Gospel of John: "From early times Christians have recognized that "the Gospel according to John" is dramatically different from the synoptic gospels (Mark, Matthew, Luke)."</ref> In the Synoptic Gospels, the [[Last Supper]] is generally interpreted to be the [[Passover]] meal (see e.g. {{Bibleverse||Mark|14:12}}). In this case Passover would have started on the night before Jesus' crucifixion. This is highly problematic from a historical standpoint&nbsp;— the first day of Passover is a holy day for Jews, during which no work can be performed and many rituals of [[Shabbat]] are observed, so events described by the Gospels (particularly the [[Sanhedrin Trial of Jesus|trial]]) could not have taken place.

According to John, however, the Last Supper was eaten on the evening at the start of the [[Quartodeciman|14th of Nisan]]<ref>''The Complete Gospels'', Robert J. Miller, ed., 1992, translation note to John 19:31: "...''the day of preparation'' (here and in v. 14) can mean either the day before Passover or simply Friday; in this case it is both."</ref> and the crucifixion was on the 14th during the following daylight, with Jesus dying approximately at the same time that the lambs for the Passover were being slaughtered in [[Herod's Temple]] of [[Jerusalem in Christianity|Jerusalem]]&nbsp;— around 3 PM ("at the ninth hour"), so that the Jews could celebrate the Passover that evening (following Jesus' death).

According to Orthodox theology, the Last Supper celebrated on the evening before Jesus' crucifixion was ''not'' the Jewish Passover meal.{{citation needed|date=March 2010}}

===Year of death===
====Historical and Biblical analysis====
One of the facts considered by historians to be practically beyond dispute is that Jesus was executed on the orders of the Roman prefect Pontius Pilate.<ref>[[E. P. Sanders]], ''The Historical Figure of Jesus'' (Penguin Books, London 1993), page 11.</ref> Pilate held this position from 26–36 AD, during which the only years in which Nisan 14 could have fallen on a Friday were 27 (although it could have been on a Thursday), 30, and 33 AD, although this depends on when the [[new moon]] (first visible crescent) would have been visible in [[Jerusalem]] (which depends on the weather).<ref name="Humphreys">Humphreys, Colin J., and W. G. Waddington, "Dating the Crucifixion," Nature 306 (December 22/29, 1983), pp. 743-46. [http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v306/n5945/abs/306743a0.html]</ref> The 15th of Nisan could have fallen on a Friday in 27 or 34 AD. Different scholars have defended various of these dates. [[Maximus the Confessor|Maximus Monachus]], [[Eusebius of Caesarea|Eusebius]], and [[Cassiodorus]] recorded the death of Jesus in 31 AD, but the 14th of Nisan would probably have been on a Tuesday that year. The 3rd/4th century Roman historian [[Lactantius]] states that Jesus was crucified on a particular day in 29 AD,<ref>Lactantius, ''Of the Manner In Which the Persecutors Died'' 2: "In the latter days of the Emperor Tiberius, in the consulship of Ruberius (''sic'') Geminus and Fufius Geminus, and on the tenth of the kalends of April, as I find it written".</ref> but that did not correspond to a full moon.

[[John P. Meier]]'s ''A Marginal Jew'' cites 7 April 30 AD, 3 April 33 AD, and 30 March 36 AD as astronomically possible Friday Nisan 14 dates during Pilate's tenure in office. The 14th, not the 15th, of Nisan, implies that Jesus died at the time that the lambs were slaughtered. In the [[Gospel of Luke]], it is stated that Jesus was "about 30 years old" <ref>{{nasb|Luke|3:23|Luke 3:23}}</ref> when he was baptised by [[John the Baptist]] but this doesn't help much because of the vagueness of the expression and the uncertainty about his date of birth.

Another fact to be considered is Luke's statement that [[John the Baptist]]'s ministry began in the fifteenth year of the reign of emperor [[Tiberius]] (Luke 3:1-2). Tiberius' reign began after Augustus' death on 19 August 14 AD, placing John's appearance in 28 or 29 AD (counting August 14 AD to August 15 AD as the first year). On the other hand, [[Tertullian]] writes in his ''Adversus Marcionem'' of a Roman tradition that placed the crucifixion in the twelfth year of Tiberius' rule, i.e. 25 or 26 AD. Unlike the Synoptic Gospels, the [[Gospel of John]] points to three separate Passovers during Jesus' ministry, which would favour 33 AD.

Some Scholars refer to the prophet Daniel's [[Prophecy of Seventy Weeks]] to determine the year of the crucifixion.<ref>C. Mervyn Maxwell, ''God Cares" Vol 1 (Nampa, ID: Pacific Press, 1981), p. 225.</ref><ref>Zdravko Stefanovic, ''Daniel: Wisdom for the Wise" (Nampa, ID: Pacific Press, 1981), p. 365.</ref> Taking the decree to restore and rebuild Jerusalem as [[457 BC]] gives a date of 31 AD for the crucifixion.

The chronology of the reign of Herod Antipas also comes into play. Early in his reign, Antipas had married the daughter of King [[Aretas IV Philopatris|Aretas IV]] of [[Nabatea]]. However, while staying in Rome to secure the territory of his recently-deceased half-brother [[Herod Philip II]] (c. AD 34), he fell in love with his brother's widow [[Herodias]] (granddaughter of Herod the Great and [[Mariamne (second wife of Herod)|Mariamne I]]), and the two agreed to marry each other, after Herod Antipas had divorced his wife.<ref>Josephus, ''Antiquities'' [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=J.+AJ+18.109 18.109–110]; Nikos Kokkinos, ''The Herodian Dynasty'' (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1998), p. 268. {{Bibleverse||Mark|6:17|NRSV}} calls Herodias' former husband Philip.</ref> The marriage of Antipas and Herodias took place sometime in AD 34.<ref>Kokkinos, ''The Herodian Dynasty'', pp. 268, 277.</ref> On learning of this, Aretas' daughter traveled to the fortress of [[Machaerus]], from where Nabatean forces escorted her to her father. Relations between Antipas and Aretas soured and war broke out in AD 36.<ref>Josephus, ''Antiquities'' [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=J.+AJ+18.111 18.111–113]</ref> According to the Gospel of Mark (6:17), the arrest of John the Baptist resulted from his criticism of the marriage of Herod and Herodias, and his death would have come a short time later. Also according to Mark, John was executed while Jesus was still alive (6:14), so this would place Jesus' death after AD 34.

====Astronomical analysis====
The use of astronomical evidence to estimate the year of the [[Crucifixion of Jesus]] has led to AD 33 by two different groups, and originally as AD 34 by [[Isaac Newton]] via the differences between the Biblical and [[Julian calendar]]s and the crescent of the moon. John Pratt argued that Newton's reasoning was effectively sound, but included a minor error at the end. Pratt suggested the year 33 AD as the accurate answer. Using similar computations, in 1990 astronomer Bradley Schaefer arrived at the same date, Saturday, April 4 33 AD.<ref>Isaac Newton, 1733, ''Of the Times of the Birth and Passion of Christ'', in "Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse of St. John" (London: J. Darby and T. Browne).</ref><ref>Bradley Schaefer, 1990, ''Lunar Visibility and the Crucifixion'' Quarterly. Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society 31.</ref><ref>[http://www.mirabilis.ca/archives/000736.html Astronomers on the Date of the Crucifixion]</ref><ref>[http://english.pravda.ru/science/tech/16-05-2003/2819-christ-0 Astronomers on Date of Christ's Death]</ref><ref>John Pratt ''Newton's Date For The Crucifixion'' "Quarterly Journal of Royal Astronomical Society", September 1991.</ref><ref>[http://www.johnpratt.com/items/docs/newton.html Newton's Date For The Crucifixion]</ref>
<ref>[http://www.heraldsun.com.au/news/sunday-heraldsun/easter-a-time-of-new-hope/story-e6frf92o-1111115861913 herald Sun]</ref> A third method, using a completely different astronomical approach based on a lunar [[Crucifixion darkness and eclipse]] model (consistent with [[Apostle Peter]]'s reference to a "moon of blood" in [[Acts of the Apostles|Acts 2:20]]) arrives at the same date, namely Saturday April 4, AD 33.<ref name="Humphreys"/><ref name=HumWadJASA>Colin J. Humphreys and W. G. Waddington, ''The Date of the Crucifixion'' Journal of the American Scientific Affiliation 37 (March 1985)[http://www.asa3.org/aSA/PSCF/1985/JASA3-85Humphreys.html]</ref> However the [[Hebrew calendar|Jewish calendar]] was based not on astronomical calculation but on observations of the new moon and barley harvest.<ref>{{cite |title=Babylonian Talmud |chapter=Tractate Sanhedrin 10b |url=http://www.come-and-hear.com/sanhedrin/sanhedrin_10.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite |title=Babylonian Talmud |chapter=Tractate Sanhedrin 11b |url=http://www.come-and-hear.com/sanhedrin/sanhedrin_11.html}}</ref> Since we cannot recreate local atmospheric and agricultural conditions of two thousand years ago without an eyewitness account, as [[E. P. Sanders]] has pointed out: "the synoptic chronology cannot be confirmed by astronomy, but neither can it be disproved."<ref>E. P. Sanders, ''The Historical Figure of Jesus'' (Penguin, 1993) 285-286.</ref>

==See also==
* [[Gospel harmony]]
* [[New Testament view on Jesus' life]]
* [[Historical Jesus]]
* [[Detailed Christian timeline]]
*''[[Life of Christ]]'' in art
* [[Timeline of the Bible]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08377a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia (1910): Chronology of the Life of Jesus Christ]
* [http://www.catholic.org/clife/jesus/chron.php Catholic.org Chronology of Jesus]
* [http://www.doig.net/NT_Chronology.htm New Testament Chronology]
{{Timeline of religion}}
{{New Testament people|collapsed}}
{{Christianityfooter}}
{{Christian History|collapsed}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Chronology Of Jesus}}
[[Category:Jesus]]
[[Category:Chronology]]
[[Category:Religion timelines|Jesus]]
[[Category:Jesus and history]]
[[Category:New Testament history]]
[[Category:1st-century Christianity]]

[[eo:Dato de la morto de Jesuo]]⏎
[[id:Kronologi kehidupan Yesus]]
[[it:Data della morte di Gesù]]
[[no:Tidspunktet for Jesu Kristi fødsel]]
[[ckb:کرۆنۆلۆجی یەسووع]]
[[sr:Hronologija Isusa]]⏎
[[sh:Kronologija Isusa]]
[[fi:Jeesuksen kronologia]]</nowiki>