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Difference between revisions 106491583 and 106513895 on dewiki[[Datei:Zeittafel_Jesus.gif|px300|miniatur|Zeittafel zum Leben Jesu, [[Provisorium|provisorische]] Skizze]] A '''chronology of Jesus''' aims to establish a [[timeline]] for some of the events of the life of [[Jesus]] in the four [[canonical gospels]]. The [[Christian]] gospels were primarily written as theological documents rather than historical chronicles and their authors showed little interest in an absolute chronology of Jesus. However, it is possible to correlate the [[New Testament]] with non-Christian sources such as [[Jewish]] and [[Greco-Roman]] documents to estimate specific date ranges for the major events in Jesus' life.<ref name=Rahner730 /><ref name=Wiarda75 /><ref name="brown964">{{cite book |authorlink= Raymond E. Brown |last=Brown |first=Raymond E. |year=1994 |location=New York |publisher=Doubleday, Anchor Bible Reference Library |page=964|isbn=978-0-385-19397-9 |title=The Death of the Messiah: from Gethsemane to the Grave: A Commentary on the Passion Narratives in the Four Gospels}}</ref><ref>Paula Fredriksen, 1999, ''Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews'', [[Alfred A. Knopf]] Publishers, pages=6–7, 105–10, 232–34, 266</ref> Two independent approaches can be used to estimate the year of birth of Jesus, one based on the [[Nativity of Jesus|nativity accounts]] in the gospels, the other by working backwards from the date of the start of [[Ministry of Jesus|his ministry]]. Most scholars assume a date of birth between 6 and 4 [[Before Christ|BC]].<ref name=JDG324 /> Three independent approaches to estimate the dates of the ministry of Jesus are: first, the fifteenth year of the reign of [[Tiberius Caesar]], second: the date of the building of the [[Herod's Temple|Jerusalem Temple]] and third, the date of the [[death of John the Baptist]].<ref name=Eerdmans246 /><ref name=CEvans67 /><ref name=ChronosPaul /><ref name=AmyJill55 /><ref name=fox25 /><ref name=Bromiley694 /> Scholars generally estimate that the ministry of Jesus began around 27-29 AD and lasted at least one year, and perhaps three years, or more.<ref name=Eerdmans246 /><ref name=ChronosPaul /><ref name=PAnderson200 /><ref name=Knoblet /> Diverse approaches have been used to estimate the date of the crucifixion of Jesus. One approach uses the attestations of non-Christian sources such as [[Josephus]] and [[Tacitus]].<ref name=autogenerated3 /><ref name="Paul William Meyer page 112">''The Word in this world'' by Paul William Meyer, John T. Carroll 2004 ISBN 0-664-22701-5 page 112</ref> Another method works backwards from the historically well established trial of [[Apostle Paul]] in [[Achaea]] to estimate the date of [[Conversion of Paul the Apostle|his conversion]].<ref name=Barnett19 /><ref name=Barnett19 /><ref name=Kostenberger77 /><ref name=Riesner /> Two independent astronomical methods have also been used, suggesting the same date, i.e. Friday, April 3, 33 AD.<ref name=Pratt1 /><ref name=HumphreysPlus /><ref name=Colin13 /> Scholars generally agree that Jesus died between 30-36 AD.<ref name=ChronosPaul /><ref name=Barnett19 /><ref name=Kostenberger140 /><ref name="Sanders" /> ==Context and overview== The Christian gospels were written as theological documents in the context of [[early Christianity]] rather than historical chronicles and their authors showed little interest in an absolute chronology of Jesus or in synchronizing the episodes of his life with the secular history of the age.<ref name=Rahner730 >''Encyclopedia of theology: a concise Sacramentum mundi'' by [[Karl Rahner]] 2004 ISBN 0-86012-006-6 pages 730-731</ref><ref name=Wiarda75 >''Interpreting Gospel Narratives: Scenes, People, and Theology'' by Timothy Wiarda 2010 ISBN 0-8054-4843-8 pages 75-78</ref> One manifestation of the gospels being theological documents rather than historical chronicles is that they devote about one third of their text to just seven days, namely the last week of the life of Jesus in [[Jerusalem in Christianity|Jerusalem]].<ref name=Turner613 >''Matthew'' by David L. Turner 2008 ISBN 0-8010-2684-9 page 613</ref> [[File:Josephus Antiquitates Iudaice.jpg|thumb|left|180px|A 1466 copy of Jewish historian [[Flavius Josephus]]' first century work ''[[Antiquities of the Jews]]'', widely used to establish the chronology of Jesus.<ref name=Leslie508 />]] Although the gospels do not provide enough details regarding exact dates, it is possible to draw from them a general picture of the life story of Jesus and to establish some date ranges regarding the major events in his life via correlations with non-Christian sources.<ref name=Rahner730 /><ref name=Wiarda75 /><ref name = autogenerated5>{{Cite document | title = The Historical Figure of Jesus | last = Sanders | first = EP | publisher = Penguin Books | place = London | year = 1995 | page = 3}}</ref> A number of historical non-Christian documents, such as Jewish and [[Greco-Roman]] sources, have been used in historical analyses of the existence of Jesus and his chronology.<ref name= Blomberg431 >''Jesus and the Gospels: An Introduction and Survey'' by Craig L. Blomberg 2009 ISBN 0-8054-4482-3 pages 431-436</ref> Virtually all modern historians agree that Jesus existed, and regard [[Baptism of Jesus|his baptism]] and [[Crucifixion of Jesus|his crucifixion]] as historical events, and assume that approximate ranges for these events can be estimated.<ref name=Ehrman285>In a 2011 review of the state of modern scholarship, [[Bart Ehrman]] wrote: "He certainly existed, as virtually every competent scholar of antiquity, Christian or non-Christian, agrees" B. Ehrman, 2011 ''Forged : writing in the name of God'' ISBN 978-0-06-207863-6. page 285</ref><ref name="autogenerated19">{{Cite document | quote = There is almost universal agreement that Jesus lived | first = Bernard L | last = Ramm | title = An Evangelical Christology: Ecumenic and Historic | publisher = Regent College Publishing | year = 1993 | page = 19}}</ref><ref name="autogenerated236">{{Cite document | quote = some judgements are so probable as to be certain; for example, Jesus really existed | first = Marcus | last = Wright | contribution = A Vision of the Christian Life | first1 = Marcus J | last1 = Borg | first2 = NT | title = The Meaning of Jesus: Two Visions | publisher = HarperCollins | year = 1999 | page = 236}}</ref> However, as stated in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#21:25|John 21:25]] the gospels do not claim to provide an exhaustive list of the events in the life of Jesus.<ref name=Gerald3 >''Christology: A Biblical, Historical, and Systematic Study of Jesus'' by Gerald O'Collins 2009 ISBN 0-19-955787-X pages 1-3</ref><ref name=MAPowell168 >''Jesus as a Figure in History: How Modern Historians View the Man from Galilee'' by Mark Allan Powell 1998 ISBN 0-664-25703-8 pages 168-173</ref><ref name="brown964"/> The year of birth of Jesus can be estimated using two independent approaches: one based on the [[Nativity of Jesus|nativity accounts]] in the gospels of [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] and [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]], the other by working backwards from the date of the start of [[Ministry of Jesus|his ministry]], when according to the Gospel of Luke he was about thirty years old. Most scholars assume a date of birth between 6 and 4 BC.<ref name=JDG324 /> Three independent approaches have been used to estimate the dates of the ministry of Jesus. One method relies on [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Luke#3:1|Luke 3:1-2]]'s statement that the ministry of [[John the Baptist]] (which preceded that of Jesus) started in the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar.<ref name=Eerdmans246 /><ref name=CEvans67 /> Another approach is to correlate [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#2:20|John 2:20]]'s statement about the Jerusalem Temple being in construction for 46 years with the date of the building of the [[Second Temple]].<ref name=Eerdmans246 /><ref name=ChronosPaul /> A third method uses the date of the [[death of John the Baptist]] based on the writings of [[Josephus]], and correlates it to [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#14:4|Matthew 14:4]].<ref name=AmyJill55 /><ref name=fox25 /><ref name=Bromiley694 /> Scholars generally estimate that the ministry of Jesus began around 27-29 AD and lasted one to three years.<ref name=Eerdmans246 /><ref name=ChronosPaul /><ref name=PAnderson200 /><ref name=Knoblet /> A number of approaches have been used to estimate the date of the [[crucifixion of Jesus]]. One approach uses the attestations of non-Christian sources such as [[Josephus]] and [[Tacitus]].<ref name=autogenerated3>{{cite book |last=Funk |first=Robert W. |coauthors=[[Jesus Seminar]] |authorlink=Robert W. Funk| title=The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus |year=1998 |publisher=Harper |location=San Francisco}}</ref><ref name="Paul William Meyer page 112"/> Another approach works backwards from the historically well established trial of [[Apostle Paul]] in Corinth to estimate the date of [[Conversion of Paul the Apostle|his conversion]], given that in the New Testament accounts Jesus' death takes place before this conversion.<ref name=Barnett19 /><ref name=Kostenberger77 /><ref name=Riesner /> Two independent astronomical methods have also been used, suggesting the same date. One method goes back to [[Isaac Newton]]'s calculation of the relative visibility of the crescent of the new moon between the [[Hebrew calendar|Hebrew]] and [[Julian calendar]]s.<ref name=Pratt1 /><ref name=Humphreys45 /><ref name=Newton /> The other method uses a [[lunar eclipse]] model and independently arrives at the same date, i.e. April 3, 33 AD.<ref name=HumphreysPlus /><ref name=Colin13 /> Scholars generally assume that Jesus died between 30-36 AD.<ref name=ChronosPaul /><ref name=Barnett19 /><ref name=Kostenberger140 /><ref name="Sanders">{{Cite document | last = Sanders | year = 1993 | pages = 11, 249 | postscript = . }}</ref> ==Year of birth estimates== The two major, and independent, approaches to estimating the year of the birth of Jesus combine the accounts given in some of the Canonical gospels with non-biblical historical data to arrive at a date range, as discussed in the two sub-sections below. There are a wide range of more speculative theories, and some are discussed at the end of this article in the "other theories" section. ===Nativity accounts: Luke and Matthew=== [[File:Bethlehem IMG 0524.JPG|thumb|A view of [[Bethlehem]] today, from the hills above it]] The "nativity-based" approach to estimating the year of birth of Jesus relies on the analysis of the [[Nativity of Jesus|nativity]] accounts (that only appear in the Gospels of Luke and Matthew) along with other corresponding historical data.<ref name=ChronosPaul /><ref name=Niswonger121 >''New Testament History'' by Richard L. Niswonger 1992 ISBN 0-310-31201-9 pages 121-124</ref> Luke or Matthew do not mention a date or time of year for the birth of Jesus (although Luke 2.2 refers to the [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Luke#2:2|first enrolment]] at the time of [[Census of Quirinius|Quirinius]], as discussed below) and [[Karl Rahner]] states that the authors of the gospels generally focus on theological elements rather than historical chronologies.<ref name=Rahner731 >''Encyclopedia of theology: a concise Sacramentum mundi'' by [[Karl Rahner]] 2004 ISBN 0-86012-006-6 page 731</ref> However, both Luke and Matthew associate Jesus' birth with the time of [[Herod the Great]].<ref name="Rahner731"/> [[Herod the Great]], is generally believed to have died around 4 BC, implying that the birth of Jesus was not after that year.<ref name=Niswonger121 /><ref name="Rahner731"/> [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#2:1|Matthew 2:1]] states that: "Jesus was born in Bethlehem of Judaea in the days of Herod the king" and [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Luke#1:5|Luke 1:5]] mentions the reign of Herod shortly before the birth of Jesus.<ref name=Niswonger121 /> Matthew also suggests that Jesus may have been as much as two years old at the time of the visit of the [[Biblical Magi|Magi]] and hence even older at the time of Herod's death.<ref>{{Cite document | first = Edwin D | last = Freed | title = Stories of Jesus’ Birth | publisher = Continuum International | year = 2004 | page = 119 }}</ref> Many scholars see a contradiction in that Luke places the birth of Jesus during the [[Census of Quirinius]], which took place in 6 AD, although Matthew states the conception took place during the reign of King Herod — at least 10 years earlier. Most scholars believe that Luke made an error in referring to the census but other scholars have attempted to reconcile its account with Matthew, ranging from a grammatical approach to the translation of the Greek word ''prote'' used in Luke to be read as "registration before Quirinius was governor of Syria" to archeological arguments and references to [[Tertullian]] that indicate that a "two step census" was performed, involving an early registration, given that [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Luke#2:2|Luke 2:2]] refers to the "first enrolment".<ref>{{Cite book | last=Archer | first=Gleason Leonard | authorlink=Gleason Leonard Archer | title=Encyclopedia of Bible Difficulties | year=1982 | month=April | publisher=Zondervan Pub. House | location=Grand Rapids, Mich. | isbn=0-310-43570-6 | page=366}}</ref><ref>Frederick Fyvie Bruce, ''The New Testament Documents: Are They Reliable?'' (1943; republished Eerdman, 2003), page 87-88.</ref> <ref name=CoxEasley289 >Steven L. Cox, Kendell H Easley, 2007 ''Harmony of the Gospels'' ISBN 0-8054-9444-8 pages 289-290</ref><ref name=Vardaman >Nikos Kokkinos, 1998, in ''Chronos, kairos, Christos 2'' by Ray Summers, Jerry Vardaman ISBN 0-86554-582-0 pages 121-126</ref><ref>C.F. Evans, ''Tertullian's reference to Sentius Saturninus and the Lukan Census'' in the ''Journal of Theological Studies (1973) XXIV(1): 24-39</ref><ref>''The Life of Jesus of Nazareth'' by Rush Rhees 2007 ISBN 1-4068-3848-9 Section 54</ref> Most scholars generally conclude a date of birth between 6 and 4 BC,<ref name=JDG324 >{{Cite document | first = James DG | last = Dunn | title = Jesus Remembered | publisher = Eerdmans Publishing | year = 2003 | page = 324}}</ref> though some widen the range to 7–2 BC.<ref>Some of the historians and Biblical scholars who place the birth and death of Jesus within this range include [[D. A. Carson]], [[Douglas J. Moo]] and [[Leon Morris]]. ''An Introduction to the New Testament.'' Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1992, 54, 56</ref><ref>[[Michael Grant (author)|Michael Grant]], ''Jesus: An Historian’s Review of the Gospels'', Scribner’s, 1977, p. 71.</ref><ref>[[Ben Witherington III]], "Primary Sources," ''Christian History'' 17 (1998) No. 3:12–20.</ref> ===Working backwards from the ministry=== [[File:Brooklyn Museum - The Pharisees Question Jesus (Les pharisiens questionnent Jésus) - James Tissot.jpg|thumb|left|Dispute of Jesus and the Pharisees, by [[James Tissot]], um 1890]] The ministry-based approach to estimating the year of birth of Jesus is independent of the nativity accounts and works backwards from the start of his ministry, based on the statement in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Luke#3:23|Luke 3:23]] that Jesus was "about 30 years of age" at that time.<ref name=ChronosPaul /><ref name=Kostenberger140 >''The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament'' by [[Andreas J. Köstenberger]], L. Scott Kellum 2009 ISBN 978-0-8054-4365-3 page 114</ref> The section below discusses three independent approaches to estimating the dates of the ministry of Jesus: first by using the "fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius" in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Luke#3:1|Luke 3:1-2]], second via the reference in the dispute of Jesus and the [[Pharisees]] in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#2:20|John 2:20]] ("Forty and six years was this temple in building, and you want to raise it up in three days?") and third by the reference of [[Flavius Josephus]] to the imprisonment and execution ([[wikisource:The Antiquities of the Jews/Book XVIII#Chapter 5|Ant 18.5.2]]) of [[John the baptist]] by [[Herod Antipas]]. The third reference (i.e. the execution of the Baptist in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#14:6|Matthew 14:6-12]]) relates to a time when Jesus had already started his ministry but the other two references relate to the beginning of Jesus' ministry. The generally assumed date range for the start of the ministry of [[John the baptist]] based on the reference to the reign of Tiberius in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Luke#3:1|Luke 3:1-2]] are about 28-29 AD, with the ministry of Jesus following it shortly thereafter.<ref name=Eerdmans246 /><ref name=CEvans67 /><ref name=Kostenberger140 /><ref name=Novak302 /><ref name="Hoehner 1978 29–37">{{Cite book|title = Chronological Aspects of the Life of Christ | last = Hoehner| first = Harold W | authorlink = Harold Hoehner|year= 1978|publisher=Zondervan |isbn= 0-310-26211-9|pages= 29–37| url = http://books.google.com/?id=6z-NcR7fVSIC&dq=CHronological+Aspects+of+the+Life+of+Christ}}</ref> As discussed in the section below, based on the reference in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#2:13|John 2:13]] to the Temple being in its 46th year of construction, scholarly estimates for Jesus' Temple visit in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#2:20|John 2:20]] are around 27-29 AD, when Jesus was "about thirty years of age".<ref name=Eerdmans246 /><ref name=Scarola >Jack V. Scarola, "A Chronology of the nativity Era" in ''Chronos, kairos, Christos 2'' by Ray Summers, Jerry Vardaman 1998 ISBN 0-86554-582-0 pages 61-81</ref> By working backwards from the start of his ministry, some scholars estimate the year 28 AD to be roughly the 32nd birthday of Jesus and his year of birth to be around 6-4 BC.<ref name=ChronosPaul /><ref name=Kostenberger140 /><ref name=Novak302 >''Christianity and the Roman Empire: background texts'' by Ralph Martin Novak 2001 ISBN 1-56338-347-{{See also|Gospel harmony|Historical Jesus|Historicity of Jesus}} [[File:Church of Christ icon.jpg|thumb|250px|right|upright|[[Medieval]] Russian [[icon]] depicting the [[Life of Christ|life of Jesus]]]] The '''chronology of Jesus''' aims to establish a historical order for some of the events of the life of [[Jesus]] in the four [[canonical gospels]]. The [[Christian]] gospels were primarily written as theological documents rather than historical chronicles and their authors showed little interest in an absolute chronology of Jesus. However, it is possible to correlate the [[New Testament]] with non-Christian sources such as [[Jewish]] and [[Greco-Roman]] documents to estimate specific date ranges for the major events in Jesus' life.<ref name=Rahner730 /><ref name=Wiarda75 /><ref name="brown964">{{cite book |authorlink= Raymond E. Brown |last=Brown |first=Raymond E. |year=1994 |location=New York |publisher=Doubleday, Anchor Bible Reference Library |page=964|isbn=9780385193979 |title=The Death of the Messiah: from Gethsemane to the Grave: A Commentary on the Passion Narratives in the Four Gospels}}</ref><ref> {{cite book|authorlink=Paula Fredriksen|author=Paula Fredriksen|work=Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews|publisher= [[Alfred A. Knopf]] |year=1999|pages=6–7, 105–10, 232–34, 266}}</ref> Two independent approaches can be used to estimate the year of birth of Jesus, one based on the nativity accounts in the gospels, the other by working backwards from the date of the start of [[Ministry of Jesus|his ministry]]. Most scholars assume a date of birth between 6 and 4 BC.<ref name=JDG324 /> Three independent approaches to estimate the dates of the ministry of Jesus are: first, the fifteenth year of the reign of [[Tiberius Caesar]], second: the date of the building of the [[Herod's Temple|Jerusalem Temple]] and third, the date of the [[death of John the Baptist]].<ref name=Eerdmans246 /><ref name=CEvans67 /><ref name=ChronosPaul /><ref name=Eerdmans246 /><ref name=AmyJill55 /><ref name=fox25 /><ref name=Bromiley694 /> Scholars generally estimate that the ministry of Jesus began around 27-29 AD and lasted at least one year, and perhaps three years, or more.<ref name=ChronosPaul /><ref name=Eerdmans246 /><ref name=PAnderson200 /><ref name=Knoblet /> Diverse approaches have been used to estimate the date of the crucifixion of Jesus. One approach uses the attestations of non-Christian sources such as [[Josephus]] and [[Tacitus]].<ref name=autogenerated3 /><ref>''The Word in this world'' by Paul William Meyer, John T. Carroll 2004 ISBN 0664227015 page 112</ref> Another method works backwards from the historically well established trial of [[Apostle Paul]] in [[Achaea]] to estimate the date of [[Conversion of Paul the Apostle|his conversion]].<ref name=Barnett19 /><ref name=Kostenberger77 /><ref name=Riesner /><ref name=Barnett19 /> Two independent astronomical methods have also been used, suggesting the same date, i.e. April 3rd, 33 AD.<ref name=Pratt1 /><ref name=HumphreysPlus /><ref name=Colin13 /> Scholars generally assume that Jesus died between 30-36 AD.<ref name=Kostenberger140 /><ref name=Barnett19 /><ref name=ChronosPaul /><ref name="Sanders" /> ==Context and overview== The Christian gospels were written as theological documents rather than historical chronicles and their authors showed little interest in an absolute chronology of Jesus or in synchronizing the episodes of his life with the secular history of the age.<ref name=Rahner730 >''Encyclopedia of theology: a concise Sacramentum mundi'' by [[Karl Rahner]] 2004 ISBN 0860120066 pages 730-731</ref> The gospels were primarily written for the purpose of indoctrination in the context of [[early Christianity]] with the chronological timelines as a secondary consideration.<ref name=Wiarda75 >''Interpreting Gospel Narratives: Scenes, People, and Theology'' by Timothy Wiarda 2010 ISBN 0805448438 pages 75-78</ref> One manifestation of the gospels being theological documents rather than historical chronicles is that they devote about one third of their text to just seven days, namely the last week of the life of Jesus in Jerusalem.<ref name=Turner613 >''Matthew'' by David L. Turner 2008 ISBN 0801026849 page 613</ref> [[File:Josephus Antiquitates Iudaice.jpg|thumb|left|167px|A 1466 copy of Jewish historian [[Flavius Josephus]]' first century work ''[[Antiquities of the Jews]]'', widely used to establish the chronology of Jesus.<ref name=Leslie508 />]] Although the gospels do not provide enough details regarding exact dates, it is possible to draw from them a general picture of the life story of Jesus, and establish some date ranges regarding the major events in his life via correlations with non-Christian sources.<ref name=Rahner730 /><ref name=Wiarda75 /><ref name = autogenerated5>{{Cite document | title = The Historical Figure of Jesus | last = Sanders | first = EP | publisher = Penguin Books | place = London | year = 1995 | page = 3}}</ref> A number of historical non-Christian documents, such as Jewish and [[Greco-Roman]] sources, have been used in historical analyses of the existence of Jesus and his chronology.<ref name= Blomberg431 >''Jesus and the Gospels: An Introduction and Survey'' by Craig L. Blomberg 2009 ISBN 0805444823 pages 431-436</ref> Most critical historians agree that Jesus existed, regard events such as [[Baptism of Jesus|his baptism]] and [[Crucifixion of Jesus|his crucifixion]] as historical, and assume that approximate ranges for some of these events can be estimated.<ref name="brown964"/><ref name="autogenerated19">{{Cite document | quote = There is almost Universal agreement that Jesus lived | first = Bernard L | last = Ramm | title = An Evangelical Christology: Ecumenic and Historic | publisher = Regent College Publishing | year = 1993 | page = 19}}</ref><ref name="autogenerated236">{{Cite document | quote = some judgements are so probable as to be certain; for example, Jesus really existed | first = Marcus | last = Wright | contribution = A Vision of the Christian Life | first1 = Marcus J | last1 = Borg | first2 = NT | title = The Meaning of Jesus: Two Visions | publisher = HarperCollins | year = 1999 | page = 236}}</ref> However, as stated in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#21:25|John 21:25]] the gospels do not claim to provide an exhaustive list of the events in the life of Jesus.<ref name=Gerald3 >''Christology: A Biblical, Historical, and Systematic Study of Jesus'' by Gerald O'Collins 2009 ISBN 019955787X pages 1-3</ref><ref name=MAPowell168 >''Jesus as a Figure in History: How Modern Historians View the Man from Galilee'' by Mark Allan Powell 1998 ISBN 0664257038 pages 168-173</ref> The year of birth of Jesus can be estimated using two independent approaches: one based on the nativity accounts in the gospels of [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] and [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]], the other by working backwards from the date of the start of [[Ministry of Jesus|his ministry]], when according to the Gospel of Luke he was about thirty years old. Most scholars assume a date of birth between 6 and 4 BC.<ref name=JDG324 /> Three independent approaches have been used to estimate the dates of the ministry of Jesus. One method relies on [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Luke#3:1|Luke 3:1-2]]'s statement that the ministry of [[John the Baptist]] (which preceded that of Jesus) started in the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar.<ref name=Eerdmans246 /><ref name=CEvans67 /> Another approach is to correlate [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#2:20|John 2:20]]'s statement about the Jerusalem Temple being in construction for 46 years with the date of the building of the Temple.<ref name=ChronosPaul /><ref name=Eerdmans246 /> A third method uses the date of the [[death of John the Baptist]] based on the writings of [[Josephus]], and correlates it to [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#14:4|Matthew 14:4]].<ref name=AmyJill55 /><ref name=fox25 /><ref name=Bromiley694 /> Scholars generally estimate that the ministry of Jesus began around 27-29 AD and lasted one to three years.<ref name=ChronosPaul /><ref name=Eerdmans246 /><ref name=PAnderson200 /><ref name=Knoblet /> A number for approaches have been used to estimate the date of the [[crucifixion of Jesus]]. One approach uses the attestations of non-Christian sources such as [[Josephus]] and [[Tacitus]].<ref name=autogenerated3>{{cite book |last=Funk |first=Robert W. |coauthors=[[Jesus Seminar]] |authorlink=Robert W. Funk| title=The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus |year=1998 |publisher=Harper |location=San Francisco}}</ref><ref>''The Word in this world'' by Paul William Meyer, John T. Carroll 2004 ISBN 0664227015 page 112</ref> Another approach works backwards from the historically well established trial of [[Apostle Paul]] in Corinth to estimate the date of [[Conversion of Paul the Apostle|his conversion]], given that in the New Testament accounts Jesus' death takes place before this conversion.<ref name=Barnett19 /><ref name=Kostenberger77 /><ref name=Riesner /><ref name=Barnett19 /> Two independent astronomical methods have also been used, suggesting the same date. One method goes back to [[Isaac Newton]]'s calculation of the relative visibility of the crescent of the new moon between the [[Hebrew calendar|Hebrew]] and [[Julian calendar]]s.<ref name=Humphreys45 /><ref name=Pratt1 /><ref name=Newton /> The other method uses a [[lunar eclipse]] model and independently arrives at the same date, i.e. April 3rd, 33 AD.<ref name=HumphreysPlus /><ref name=Colin13 /> Scholars generally assume that Jesus died between 30-36 AD.<ref name=Kostenberger140 /><ref name=Barnett19 /><ref name=ChronosPaul /><ref name="Sanders">{{Cite document | last = Sanders | year = 1993 | pages = 11, 249 | postscript = . }}</ref> ==Year of birth estimates== The two major, and independent, approaches to estimating the year of the birth of Jesus combine the accounts given in some of the Canonical gospels with non-biblical historical data to arrive at a date range, as discussed in the two sub-sections below. There are a wide range of more speculative theories, and some are discussed at the end of this article in the "other theories" section. ===Nativity accounts: Luke and Matthew=== [[File:Bethlehem IMG 0524.JPG|thumb|A view of [[Bethlehem]] today, from the hills above it]] The "nativity-based" approach to estimating the year of birth of Jesus relies on the analysis of the [[Nativity of Jesus|nativity]] accounts (that only appear in the Gospels of Luke and Matthew) along with other corresponding historical data.<ref name=ChronosPaul /><ref name=Niswonger121 >''New Testament History'' by Richard L. Niswonger 1992 ISBN 0310312019 pages 121-124</ref> Luke or Matthew do not mention a date or time of year for the birth of Jesus and [[Karl Rahner]] states that the authors of the gospels generally focus on theological elements rather than historical chronologies.<ref name=Rahner731 >''Encyclopedia of theology: a concise Sacramentum mundi'' by [[Karl Rahner]] 2004 ISBN 0860120066 page 731</ref> However, both Luke and Matthew associate Jesus' birth with the time of [[Herod the Great]].<ref name="Rahner731"/> [[Herod the Great]], is generally believed to have died around 4 BC, implying that the birth of Jesus was not after that year.<ref name=Niswonger121 /><ref name=Rahner731 >''Encyclopedia of theology: a concise Sacramentum mundi'' by [[Karl Rahner]] 2004 ISBN 0860120066 page 731</ref> [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#2:1|Matthew 2:1]] states that: "Jesus was born in Bethlehem of Judaea in the days of Herod the king" and [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Luke#1:5|Luke 1:5]] mentions the reign of Herod shortly before the birth of Jesus.<ref name=Niswonger121 /> Matthew also suggests that Jesus may have been as much as two years old at the time of the visit of the [[Biblical Magi|Magi]] and hence even older at the time of Herod's death.<ref>{{Cite document | first = Edwin D | last = Freed | title = Stories of Jesus’ Birth | publisher = Continuum International | year = 2004 | page = 119 }}</ref> Many scholars see a contradiction in that Luke places the birth of Jesus during the [[Census of Quirinius]], which took place in 6 AD, although Luke states the conception took place during the reign of King Herod — about 10 years earlier. Most scholars believe that Luke made an error in referring to the census but other scholars have attempted to reconcile its account with Matthew, ranging from a grammatical approach to the translation of the Greek word ''prote'' used in Luke to be read as "registration before Quirinius was governor of Syria" to archeological arguments and references to [[Tertullian]] that indicate that a "two step census" was performed, involving an early registration.<ref>{{Cite book | last=Archer | first=Gleason Leonard | authorlink=Gleason Leonard Archer | title=Encyclopedia of Bible Difficulties | year=1982 | month=April | publisher=Zondervan Pub. House | location=Grand Rapids, Mich. | isbn=0-310-43570-6 | page=366}}</ref><ref>Frederick Fyvie Bruce, ''The New Testament Documents: Are They Reliable?'' (1943; republished Eerdman, 2003), page 87-88.</ref> <ref name=CoxEasley289 >Steven L. Cox, Kendell H Easley, 2007 ''Harmony of the Gospels'' ISBN 0-8054-9444-8 pages 289-290</ref><ref name=Vardaman >Nikos Kokkinos, 1998, in ''Chronos, kairos, Christos 2'' by Ray Summers, Jerry Vardaman ISBN 0865545820 pages 121-126</ref><ref>C.F. Evans, ''Tertullian's reference to Sentius Saturninus and the Lukan Census'' in the ''Journal of Theological Studies (1973) XXIV(1): 24-39</ref><ref>''The Life of Jesus of Nazareth'' by Rush Rhees 2007 ISBN 1406838489 Section 54</ref> Most scholars generally assume a date of birth between 6 and 4 BC.<ref name=JDG324 >{{Cite document | first = James DG | last = Dunn | title = Jesus Remembered | publisher = Eerdmans Publishing | year = 2003 | page = 324}}</ref> Other scholars assume that Jesus was born sometime between 7–2 BC.<ref>Some of the historians and Biblical scholars who place the birth and death of Jesus within this range include [[D. A. Carson]], [[Douglas J. Moo]] and [[Leon Morris]]. ''An Introduction to the New Testament.'' Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1992, 54, 56</ref><ref>[[Michael Grant (author)|Michael Grant]], ''Jesus: An Historian’s Review of the Gospels'', Scribner’s, 1977, p. 71.</ref><ref>[[Ben Witherington III]], "Primary Sources," ''Christian History'' 17 (1998) No. 3:12–20.</ref> ===Working backwards from the ministry=== [[File:Brooklyn Museum - The Pharisees Question Jesus (Les pharisiens questionnent Jésus) - James Tissot.jpg|thumb|left|Dispute of Jesus and the Pharisees, by [[James Tissot]], c. 1890]] The ministry-based approach to estimating the year of birth of Jesus is independent of the nativity accounts and works backwards from the start of his ministry, based on the statement in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Luke#3:23|Luke 3:23]] that Jesus was "about 30 years of age" at that time.<ref name=Kostenberger140 >''The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament'' by [[Andreas J. Köstenberger]], L. Scott Kellum 2009 ISBN 9780805443653 page 114</ref><ref name=ChronosPaul /> The section below discusses three independent approaches to estimating the dates of the ministry of Jesus: first by using the "fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius" in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Luke#3:1|Luke 3:1-2]], second via the reference in the dispute of Jesus and the [[Pharisees]] in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#2:20|John 2:20]] ("Forty and six years was this temple in building, and you want to raise it up in three days?") and third by the reference of [[Flavius Josephus]] to the imprisonment and execution ([[wikisource:The_Antiquities_of_the_Jews/Book_XVIII#Chapter_5|Ant 18.5.2]]) of [[John the baptist]] by [[Herod Antipas]]. The third reference (i.e. the execution of the Baptist in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#14:6|Matthew 14:6-12]]) relates to a time when Jesus had already started his ministry but the other two references relate to the beginning of Jesus' ministry. The generally assumed date range for the start of the ministry of [[John the baptist]] based on the reference to the reign of Tiberius in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Luke#3:1|Luke 3:1-2]] are about 28-29 AD, with the ministry of Jesus following it shortly thereafter.<ref name=CEvans67 /><ref name=Kostenberger140 /><ref name=Eerdmans246 /><ref name=Novak302 /><ref>{{Cite book|title = Chronological Aspects of the Life of Christ | last = Hoehner| first = Harold W | authorlink = Harold Hoehner|year= 1978|publisher=Zondervan |isbn= 0310262119|pages= 29–37| url = http://books.google.com/?id=6z-NcR7fVSIC&dq=CHronological+Aspects+of+the+Life+of+Christ}}</ref> As discussed in the section below, based on the reference in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#2:13|John 2:13]] to the Temple being in its 46th years of construction, scholarly estimates for Jesus' Temple visit in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#2:20|John 2:20]] are around 27-29 AD, when Jesus was "about thirty years of age".<ref name=Eerdmans246 /><ref name=Scarola >Jack V. Scarola, "A Chronology of the nativity Era" in ''Chronos, kairos, Christos 2'' by Ray Summers, Jerry Vardaman 1998 ISBN 0865545820 pages 61-81</ref> By working backwards from the start of his ministry, some scholars estimate the year 28 AD to be roughly the 32nd birthday of Jesus and his year of birth to be around 6-4 BC.<ref name=Kostenberger140 /><ref name=ChronosPaul /><ref name=Novak302 >''Christianity and the Roman Empire: background texts'' by Ralph Martin Novak 2001 ISBN 1563383470 pages 302-303</ref> ==Years of ministry estimates== ⏎ ⏎ ===Reign of Tiberius and the Gospel of Luke=== [[File:Sapsaphas Madaba.jpg|thumb|Part of the [[Madaba Map]] showing [[Bethabara]] (Βέθαβαρά), calling it the place where John baptised]] One method for the estimation of the date of the beginning of the [[ministry of Jesus]] is based on the Gospel of Luke's specific statement in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Luke#3:1|Luke 3:1-2]] about the ministry of [[John the Baptist]] which preceded that of Jesus:<ref name=Eerdmans246 /><ref name=CEvans67 >''The Bible Knowledge Background Commentary: Matthew-Luke, Volume 1'' by Craig A. Evans 2003 ISBN 0-7814-3868-3 pages 67-69</ref> <blockquote> Now in the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar, Pontius Pilate being governor of Judaea, and Herod being tetrarch of Galilee, and his brother Philip tetrarch of the region of Ituraea and Trachonitis, and Lysanias tetrarch of Abilene, in the highpriesthood of Annas and Caiaphas, the word of God came unto John the son of Zacharias in the wilderness. </blockquote> There are, however, two approaches to determining when the reign of [[Tiberius Caesar]] started.<ref name=art201 /> The traditional approach is that of assuming that the reign of Tiberius started when he became co-regent in 11AD, placing the start of the ministry of John the Baptist around 26 AD. However, some scholars assume it to be upon the death of his predecessor [[Augustus Caesar]] in 14 AD, implying that the ministry of John the Baptist began in 29 AD.<ref name=art201 >''Luke 1-5: New Testament Commentary'' by John MacArthur 2009 ISBN 0-8024-0871-0 page 201</ref> The New Testament presents [[John the Baptist]]'s ministry as the pre-cursor to that of Jesus and the [[Baptism of Jesus]] as marking the beginning of Jesus' ministry.<ref name=Kellum140 /><ref name=Blomberg224 >''Jesus and the Gospels: An Introduction and Survey'' by Craig L. Blomberg 2009 ISBN 0-8054-4482-3 page 224-229</ref><ref name=Alister16 >''Christianity: an introduction'' by Alister E. McGrath 2006 ISBN 978-1-4051-0901-7 pages 16-22</ref> In his sermon in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Acts#10:37|Acts 10:37-38]], delivered in the house of [[Cornelius the Centurion|Cornelius]] the centurion, [[Apostle Peter]] gives an overview of the ministry of Jesus, and refers to what had happened "throughout all Judaea, beginning from Galilee, after the baptism which John preached" and that Jesus had then gone about "doing good".<ref>''Who is Jesus?: an introduction to Christology'' by Thomas P. Rausch 2003 ISBN 978-0-8146-5078-3 page</ref> The generally assumed dates for the start of the ministry of John the baptist based on this reference in the Gospel of Luke are about 28-29 AD, with the ministry of Jesus following it shortly thereafter.<ref name=Eerdmans246 /><ref name=CEvans67 /><ref name=Kostenberger140 /><ref name=Novak302 /><ref name="Hoehner 1978 29–37"/> ===Jerusalem Temple and the Gospel of John=== [[File:Jerus-n4i.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Israel Museum]] model of [[Herod's Temple]], referred to in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#2:13|John 2:13]].]] One method for estimating the start of the ministry of Jesus without reliance on the [[Synoptic gospels]] is to relate the information in the [[Gospel of John]] ([[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#2:13|2:13]] and [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#2:13|2:20]]) about the visit of Jesus to [[Herod's Temple]] in Jerusalem with historical data outside the gospels about dates of the construction of the Temple.<ref name=Eerdmans246 /><ref name=ChronosPaul /><ref name=Knoblet /> [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#2:13|John 2:13]] states that Jesus went to the [[Herod's Temple|Temple in Jerusalem]] around the start of his ministry and in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#2:20|John 2:20]] Jesus is told: "Forty and six years was this temple in building, and you want to raise it up in three days?".<ref name=Eerdmans246 >''Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible'' 2000 Amsterdam University Press ISBN 90-5356-503-5 page 249</ref><ref name=ChronosPaul >[[Paul L. Maier]] "The Date of the Nativity and Chronology of Jesus" in ''Chronos, kairos, Christos: nativity and chronological studies'' by Jerry Vardaman, Edwin M. Yamauchi 1989 ISBN 0-931464-50-1 pages 113-129</ref> Herod's Temple in Jerusalem was an extensive and long term construction on the [[Temple Mount]], with worship and religious rituals performed during the multi-decade building process, which was never fully completed, not even by the time that the Temple was destroyed by the Romans in 70AD.<ref name=Roller67 /><ref name=Lundquist /><ref name= Maxxix >''The biblical engineer: how the temple in Jerusalem was built'' by Max Schwartz 2002 ISBN 0-88125-710-9 pages xixx-xx</ref> Having built entire cities such as [[Caesarea Maritima]], Herod saw the construction of the Temple as a key, colossal monument.<ref name=Lundquist >''The Temple of Jerusalem: past, present, and future'' by John M. Lundquist 2007 ISBN 0-275-98339-0 pages101-103 [http://books.google.com/books?id=R9VeCEwbNvsC&pg=PA102&dq=%22john+2:20%22+temple&hl=en&ei=kpydTvvXB-qK4gSg2NHPCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=10&ved=0CFYQ6AEwCTgU#v=onepage&q=%22john%202%3A20%22%20temple&f=false]</ref> The dedication of the initial temple (sometimes called the inner Temple) followed an 17 or 18 month construction period, just after the visit of [[Augustus]] to Syria.<ref name=Kellum140 /><ref name=Roller67 >''The building program of Herod the Great'' by Duane W. Roller 1998 University of California Press ISBN 0-520-20934-6 pages 67-71 [http://books.google.com/books?id=2ZsB1yQOmyEC&pg=PA258&dq=herod+temple+construction&hl=en&ei=DredTu3cIqT64QSitp2nCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CD8Q6AEwAzge#v=onepage&q=temple%20construction&f=false]</ref> [[Josephus]] ([[wikisource:The Antiquities of the Jews/Book XV|Ant 15.11.1]]) states that the temple's reconstruction was started by Herod in the 18th year of his reign.<ref name=Eerdmans246 /><ref name="Kostenberger140"/><ref>''Encyclopedia of the historical Jesus'' by Craig A. Evans 2008 ISBN 0-415-97569-7 page 115</ref> But there is some uncertainty about how Josephus referred to and computed dates, which event marked the start of Herod's reign, and whether the initial date should refer to the inner Temple, or the subsequent construction.<ref name=ChronosPaul /><ref name=Knoblet /><ref name=Kellum140 /> Hence various scholars arrive at slightly different dates for the exact date of the start of the Temple construction, varying by a few years in their final estimation of the date of the Temple visit.<ref name=Knoblet /><ref name=Kellum140 >''The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament'' by Andreas J. Köstenberger, L. Scott Kellum 2009 ISBN 978-0-8054-4365-3 pages 140-141</ref> Given that it took 46 years of construction, scholarly estimates for the Temple visit in the Gospel of John are around 27-29 AD.<ref name=Eerdmans246 /><ref name=ChronosPaul /><ref name=PAnderson200 >''The Riddles of the Fourth Gospel: An Introduction to John'' by Paul N. Anderson 2011 ISBN 0-8006-0427-X pages 200</ref><ref name=Knoblet >''Herod the Great'' by Jerry Knoblet 2005 ISBN 0-7618-3087-1 page 183-184</ref><ref>''Jesus in Johannine tradition'' by Robert Tomson Fortna, Tom Thatcher 2001 ISBN 978-0-664-22219-2 page 77</ref> The visit of Jesus to the Temple is part of the [[Cleansing of the Temple]] episode and, while some scholars consider it the same episode as that towards the end of Jesus' ministry in the [[Synoptic gospels]] ({{bibleref2|Mark|11:15–19}} {{{bibleref2|Matthew|21:12–17}} and {{bibleref2|Luke|19:45–48}}), other scholars believe that these refer to two separate incidents, given that the Gospel of John includes more than one Passover.<ref name=Evans >''The Bible knowledge background commentary'' by Craig A. Evans 2005 ISBN 0-7814-4228-1 page 49</ref> The dating of the episode at the beginning of the ministry of Jesus provides support to the view that there were two separate visits to the Temple.<ref name=PAnderson200 /><ref name=Kellum140 /> ===Josephus' reference to the Baptist=== In the [[Antiquities of the Jews]], first century historian [[Flavius Josephus]] refers to the imprisonment and execution ([[wikisource:The Antiquities of the Jews/Book XVIII#Chapter 5|Ant 18.5.2]]) of [[John the baptist]] by [[Herod Antipas]] and also mentions ([[wikisource:The Antiquities of the Jews/Book XVIII#Chapter 5|Ant 18.5.4]]) how [[Herodias]] left her husband to marry Herod Antipas, in defiance of Jewish law.<ref name=AmyJill55 /><ref name=fox25 /><ref name=Bromiley694 /> [[File:Baptistry (Castiglione Olona) 003.jpg|thumb|[[John the Baptist|The Baptist]] scolds [[Herod Antipas|Herod]]. Fresco by [[Masolino da Panicale|Masolino]], 1435]] Most scholars view Josephus' accounts of the activities of John the Baptist as authentic.<ref name=AmyJill55 >Craig Evans, 2006 "Josephus on John the Baptist" in ''The Historical Jesus in Context'' edited by Amy-Jill Levine et al. Princeton Univ Press ISBN 978-0-691-00992-6 pages 55-58 [http://books.google.com/books?id=HIp_0N3uPPcC&pg=PA56&dq=%22Mark+6:17%22+death+baptist+josephus&hl=en&ei=hTubTpKeHcX54QTn1YHBAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCwQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Mark%206%3A17%22%20death%20baptist%20josephus&f=false]</ref><ref>''The new complete works of Josephus by Flavius Josephus'', William Whiston, Paul L. Maier ISBN 0-8254-2924-2 pages 662-663</ref> Given that the marriage of Herod and Herodias is also mentioned in the gospels, Josephus establishes a key connection between the historical events he recorded and the approximate chronology of specific episodes that appear in the gospels.<ref name=AmyJill55 /> However, although both the gospels and Josephus refer to Herod Antipas killing John the Baptist, they differ on the details and motives, e.g. whether this act was a consequence of the marriage of Herod Antipas and Herodias (as indicated in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#14:4|Matthew 14:4]], [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Mark#6:18|Mark 6:18]]), or a pre-emptive measure by Herod which possibly took place before the marriage to quell a possible uprising based on the remarks of John, as Josephus suggests in [[wikisource:The Antiquities of the Jews/Book XVIII#Chapter 5|Ant 18.5.2]].<ref name=Leslie508 >''Jesus in history, thought, and culture: an encyclopedia, Volume 1'' by James Leslie Houlden 2003 ISBN 1-57607-856-6 pages 508-509 [http://books.google.com/books?id=17kzgBusXZIC&pg=PA508&dq=baptist+josephus+antipas+jesus&hl=en&ei=5kmbTvPYB9TP4QSuzIDjAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5&sqi=2&ved=0CEAQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=baptist%20herodias%20josephus%20antipas%20jesus&f=false]</ref><ref>''Women in scripture'' by by Carol Meyers, Toni Craven and Ross Shepard Kraemer 2001 ISBN 0-8028-4962-8 pages 92-93 [http://books.google.com/books?id=MFbHT73BxpAC&pg=PA93&dq=herodias+herod&hl=en&ei=FJmcToy0M4abOtTmzIYJ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=herodias%20herod&f=false]</ref><ref>''Herod Antipas in Galilee: The Literary and Archaeological Sources'' by Morten H. Jensen 2010 ISBN 978-3-16-150362-7 pages 42-43 [http://books.google.com/books?id=I7fAyl2aG-gC&pg=PA43&dq=herodias+herod&hl=en&ei=FJmcToy0M4abOtTmzIYJ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=herodias%20herod&f=false]</ref><ref name=Cyndy48 >''The Emergence of Christianity: Classical Traditions in Contemporary Perspective'' by Cynthia White 2010 ISBN 0-8006-9747-2 page 48</ref> The exact year of the marriage of [[Herod Antipas]] and [[Herodias]] is subject to debate among scholars.<ref name=fox25 >''Herodias: at home in that fox's den'' by Florence Morgan Gillman 2003 ISBN 0-8146-5108-9 pages 25-30 [http://books.google.com/books?id=rFRFe8QdO1gC&pg=PA26&dq=herodias+herod+antipas&hl=en&ei=fECbTq31JvDc4QT8ubiZBA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=6&ved=0CEQQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=herodias%20herod%20antipas&f=false]</ref> While some scholars place the year of the marriage in the range 27-31AD, others have approximated a date as late as AD 35, but such a late date has much less support.<ref name=fox25 /> In his analysis of Herod's life, [[Harold Hoehner]] estimates that John the Baptist's imprisonment probably occurred around AD 30-31.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=oO0upEG0g7kC&pg=PA131&dq=herodias+herod+antipas&hl=en&ei=fECbTq31JvDc4QT8ubiZBA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCwQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=herodias%20herod%20antipas&f=false |title=''Herod Antipas'' by Harold W. Hoehner'' 1983 ISBN 0-310-42251-5 page 131 |publisher=Books.google.com |date=1983-01-28 |accessdate=2012-07-18}}</ref> The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia estimates the death of the Baptist to have occurred about AD 31-32.<ref name=Bromiley694 /> Josephus stated ([[wikisource:The Antiquities of the Jews/Book XVIII#Chapter 5|Ant 18.5.2]]) that the AD 36 defeat of Herod Antipas in the conflicts with [[Aretas IV Philopatris|Aretas IV]] of [[Nabatea]] was widely considered by the Jews of the time as misfortune brought about by Herod's unjust execution of John the Baptist.<ref name=Cyndy48 /><ref>''The relationship between John the Baptist and Jesus of Nazareth'' by Daniel S. Dapaah 2005 ISBN 0-7618-3109-6 page 48 [http://books.google.com/books?id=S0P18O3fGR4C&pg=PA48&dq=baptist+josephus+antipas+jesus&hl=en&ei=5kmbTvPYB9TP4QSuzIDjAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&sqi=2&ved=0CCwQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=baptist%20josephus%20antipas%20jesus&f=false]</ref><ref name=Hoehner125 /> Given that John the Baptist was executed before the defeat of Herod by Aretas, and based on the scholarly estimates for the approximate date of the marriage of Herod Antipas and Herodias, the last part of the ministry of John the Baptist and hence parts of the ministry of Jesus fall within the historical time span of AD 28-35, with the later year 35 having the least support among scholars.<ref name=fox25 /><ref name=Hoehner125 >''Herod Antipas'' by Harold W. Hoehner'' 1983 ISBN 0-310-42251-5 pages 125-127</ref><ref>''International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: A-D'' by Geoffrey W. Bromiley 1995 ISBN 0-8028-3781-6 pages 686-687</ref> The imprisonment of John the Baptist relates to the ministry of Jesus via the episode [[Messengers from John the Baptist]], as in Matthew 11:2-6 and Luke 7:18-23.<ref>''The Gospel of Matthew'' by Rudolf Schnackenburg 2002 ISBN 0-8028-4438-3 page 104</ref><ref name=Mercer459 >''Mercer dictionary of the Bible'' by Watson E. Mills, Roger Aubrey Bullard 1998 ISBN 0-86554-373-9 page 459</ref> This episode takes place towards the end of the ''[[Ministry of Jesus#Major Galilean ministry|major Galilean ministry]]'' of Jesus, and prior to the key episode [[Confession of Peter]] which appears about half way through the gospel narratives, before Jesus starts his final journey to Jerusalem through Judea.<ref name=Mercer459 /><ref>''The Cambridge companion to the Gospels'' by Stephen C. Barton ISBN 0-521-00261-180px|Part of the [[Madaba Map]] showing [[Bethabara]] (Βέθαβαρά), calling it the place where John baptised]] One method for the estimation of the date of the beginning of the [[ministry of Jesus]] is based on the Gospel of Luke's specific statement in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Luke#3:1|Luke 3:1-2]] about the ministry of [[John the Baptist]] which preceded that of Jesus:<ref name=Eerdmans246 /><ref name=CEvans67 >''The Bible Knowledge Background Commentary: Matthew-Luke, Volume 1'' by Craig A. Evans 2003 ISBN 0781438683 pages 67-69</ref> <blockquote> Now in the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar, Pontius Pilate being governor of Judaea, and Herod being tetrarch of Galilee, and his brother Philip tetrarch of the region of Ituraea and Trachonitis, and Lysanias tetrarch of Abilene, in the highpriesthood of Annas and Caiaphas, the word of God came unto John the son of Zacharias in the wilderness. </blockquote> There are, however, two approaches to determining when the reign of [[Tiberius Caesar]] started.<ref name=art201 /> The traditional approach is that of assuming that the the reign of Tiberius started when he became co-regent in 11AD, placing the start of the ministry of John the Baptist around 26 AD. However, some scholars assume it to be upon the death of his predecessor [[Augustus Caesar]] in 14 AD, implying that the ministry of John the Baptist began in 29 AD.<ref name=art201 >''Luke 1-5: New Testament Commentary'' by John MacArthur 2009 ISBN 0802408710 page 201</ref> The New Testament presents [[John the Baptist]]'s ministry as the pre-cursor to that of Jesus and the [[Baptism of Jesus]] as marking the beginning of Jesus' ministry.<ref name=Kellum140 /><ref name=Blomberg224 >''Jesus and the Gospels: An Introduction and Survey'' by Craig L. Blomberg 2009 ISBN 0805444823 page 224-229</ref><ref name=Alister16 >''Christianity: an introduction'' by Alister E. McGrath 2006 ISBN 9781405109017 pages 16-22</ref> In his sermon in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Acts#10:37|Acts 10:37-38]], delivered in the house of [[Cornelius the Centurion|Cornelius]] the centurion, [[Apostle Peter]] gives an overview of the ministry of Jesus, and refers to what had happened "throughout all Judaea, beginning from Galilee, after the baptism which John preached" and that Jesus had then gone about "doing good".<ref>''Who is Jesus?: an introduction to Christology'' by Thomas P. Rausch 2003 ISBN 9780814650783 page </ref> The generally assumed dates for the start of the ministry of John the baptist based on this reference in the Gospel of Luke are about 28-29 AD, with the ministry of Jesus following it shortly thereafter.<ref name=CEvans67 /><ref name=Kostenberger140 /><ref name=Eerdmans246 /><ref name=Novak302 /><ref>{{Cite book|title = Chronological Aspects of the Life of Christ | last = Hoehner| first = Harold W | authorlink = Harold Hoehner|year= 1978|publisher=Zondervan |isbn= 0310262119|pages= 29–37| url = http://books.google.com/?id=6z-NcR7fVSIC&dq=CHronological+Aspects+of+the+Life+of+Christ}}</ref> ===Jerusalem Temple and the Gospel of John=== [[Image:Jerus-n4i.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Israel Museum]] model of [[Herod's Temple]], referred to in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#2:13|John 2:13]].]] A method for estimating the start of the ministry of Jesus, without reliance on the [[Synoptic gospels]] is to relate the information in the [[Gospel of John]] ([[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#2:13|2:13]] and [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#2:13|2:20]]) about the visit of Jesus to [[Herod's Temple]] in Jerusalem with historical data outside the gospels about dates of the construction of the Temple.<ref name=Eerdmans246 /><ref name=ChronosPaul /><ref name=Knoblet /> [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#2:13|John 2:13]] states that Jesus went to the [[Herod's Temple|Temple in Jerusalem]] around the start of his ministry and in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#2:20|John 2:20]] Jesus is told: "Forty and six years was this temple in building, and you want to raise it up in three days?".<ref name=ChronosPaul >[[Paul L. Maier]] "The Date of the Nativity and Chronology of Jesus" in ''Chronos, kairos, Christos: nativity and chronological studies'' by Jerry Vardaman, Edwin M. Yamauchi 1989 ISBN 0931464501 pages 113-129</ref><ref name=Eerdmans246 >''Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible'' 2000 Amsterdam University Press ISBN 9053565035 page 249</ref> Herod's Temple in Jerusalem was an extensive and long term construction on [[Temple Mount]], with worship and religious rituals performed during the multi-decade building process, which never fully completed until the Temple was destroyed by the Romans in 70AD.<ref name=Roller67 /><ref name=Lundquist /><ref name= Maxxix >''The biblical engineer: how the temple in Jerusalem was built'' by Max Schwartz 2002 ISBN 0881257109 pages xixx-xx</ref> Having built entire cities such as [[Caesarea Maritima]], Herod saw the construction of the Temple as a key, colossal monument.<ref name=Lundquist >''The Temple of Jerusalem: past, present, and future'' by John M. Lundquist 2007 ISBN 0275983390 pages101-103 [http://books.google.com/books?id=R9VeCEwbNvsC&pg=PA102&dq=%22john+2:20%22+temple&hl=en&ei=kpydTvvXB-qK4gSg2NHPCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=10&ved=0CFYQ6AEwCTgU#v=onepage&q=%22john%202%3A20%22%20temple&f=false]</ref> The dedication of the initial temple (sometimes called the inner Temple) followed an 17 or 18 month construction period, just after the visit of [[Augustus]] to Syria.<ref name=Roller67 >''The building program of Herod the Great'' by Duane W. Roller 1998 University of California Press ISBN 0520209346 pages 67-71 [http://books.google.com/books?id=2ZsB1yQOmyEC&pg=PA258&dq=herod+temple+construction&hl=en&ei=DredTu3cIqT64QSitp2nCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CD8Q6AEwAzge#v=onepage&q=temple%20construction&f=false]</ref><ref name=Kellum140 /> [[Josephus]] ([[wikisource:The_Antiquities_of_the_Jews/Book_XV|Ant 15.11.1]]) states that the temple reconstruction was started by Herod in the 18th year of his reign.<ref name="Kostenberger140"/><ref name=Eerdmans246 /><ref>''Encyclopedia of the historical Jesus'' by Craig A. Evans 2008 ISBN 0415975697 page 115</ref> But there is some uncertainty about how Josephus referred to and computed dates, which event marked the start of Herod's reign, and whether the initial date should refer to the inner Temple, or the subsequent construction.<ref name=Kellum140 /><ref name=ChronosPaul /><ref name=Knoblet /> Hence various scholars arrive at slightly different dates for the exact date of the start of the Temple construction, varying by a few years in their final estimation of the date of the Temple visit.<ref name=Kellum140 >''The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament'' by Andreas J. Köstenberger, L. Scott Kellum 2009 ISBN 9780805443653 pages 140-141</ref><ref name=Knoblet /> Given that it took 46 years of construction, scholarly estimates for the Temple visit in the Gospel of John are around 27-29 AD.<ref name=ChronosPaul /><ref name=Eerdmans246 /><ref name=PAnderson200 >''The Riddles of the Fourth Gospel: An Introduction to John'' by Paul N. Anderson 2011 ISBN 080060427X pages 200</ref><ref name=Knoblet >''Herod the Great'' by Jerry Knoblet 2005 ISBN 0761830871 page 183-184</ref><ref>''Jesus in Johannine tradition'' by Robert Tomson Fortna, Tom Thatcher 2001 ISBN 9780664222192 page 77</ref> The visit of Jesus to the Temple is part of the [[Cleansing of the Temple]] episode, and while some scholars consider it the same episode as that towards the end of Jesus' ministry in the [[Synoptic gospels]] ({{bibleref2|Mark|11:15–19}}, {{{bibleref2|Matthew|21:12–17}} and {{bibleref2|Luke|19:45–48}}) other scholars believe that these refer to two separate incidents, in that the Gospel of John includes more than one passover.<ref name=Evans >''The Bible knowledge background commentary'' by Craig A. Evans 2005 ISBN 0781442281 page 49</ref> The dating of the episode at the beginning of the ministry of Jesus, provides support to the view that there were two separate visits to the Temple.<ref name=Kellum140 /><ref name=PAnderson200 /> === Josephus' reference to the Baptist=== In the [[Antiquities of the Jews]], first century historian [[Flavius Josephus]] refers to the imprisonment and execution ([[wikisource:The_Antiquities_of_the_Jews/Book_XVIII#Chapter_5|Ant 18.5.2]]) of [[John the baptist]] by [[Herod Antipas]] and also mentions ([[wikisource:The_Antiquities_of_the_Jews/Book_XVIII#Chapter_5|Ant 18.5.4]]) how [[Herodias]] left her husband to marry Herod Antipas, in defiance of Jewish law.<ref name=AmyJill55 /><ref name=fox25 /><ref name=Bromiley694 /> [[File:Baptistry (Castiglione Olona) 003.jpg|thumb|180px|[[John the Baptist|The Baptist]] scolds [[Herod Antipas|Herod]]. Fresco by [[Masolino da Panicale|Masolino]], 1435]] Most scholars view Josephus' accounts of the activities of John the Baptist as authentic.<ref name=AmyJill55 >Craig Evans, 2006 "Josephus on John the Baptist" in ''The Historical Jesus in Context'' edited by Amy-Jill Levine et al. Princeton Univ Press ISBN 9780691009926 pages 55-58 [http://books.google.com/books?id=HIp_0N3uPPcC&pg=PA56&dq=%22Mark+6:17%22+death+baptist+josephus&hl=en&ei=hTubTpKeHcX54QTn1YHBAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCwQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Mark%206%3A17%22%20death%20baptist%20josephus&f=false]</ref><ref>''The new complete works of Josephus by Flavius Josephus'', William Whiston, Paul L. Maier ISBN 0825429242 pages 662-663</ref> Given that the marriage of Herod and Herodias is also mentioned in the gospels, Josephus establishes a key connection between the historical events he recorded and the approximate chronology of specific episodes that appear in the gospels.<ref name=AmyJill55 /> However, although both the gospels and Josephus refer to Herod Antipas killing John the Baptist, they differ on the details and motives, e.g. whether this act was a consequence of the marriage of Herod Antipas and Herodias (as indicated in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#14:4|Matthew 14:4]], [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Mark#6:18|Mark 6:18]]), or a pre-emptive measure by Herod which possibly took place before the marriage to quell a possible uprising based on the remarks of John, as Josephus suggests in [[wikisource:The_Antiquities_of_the_Jews/Book_XVIII#Chapter_5|Ant 18.5.2]].<ref name=Leslie508 >''Jesus in history, thought, and culture: an encyclopedia, Volume 1'' by James Leslie Houlden 2003 ISBN 1576078566 pages 508-509 [http://books.google.com/books?id=17kzgBusXZIC&pg=PA508&dq=baptist+josephus+antipas+jesus&hl=en&ei=5kmbTvPYB9TP4QSuzIDjAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5&sqi=2&ved=0CEAQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=baptist%20herodias%20josephus%20antipas%20jesus&f=false]</ref><ref>''Women in scripture'' by by Carol Meyers, Toni Craven and Ross Shepard Kraemer 2001 ISBN 0802849628 pages 92-93 [http://books.google.com/books?id=MFbHT73BxpAC&pg=PA93&dq=herodias+herod&hl=en&ei=FJmcToy0M4abOtTmzIYJ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=herodias%20herod&f=false]</ref><ref>''Herod Antipas in Galilee: The Literary and Archaeological Sources'' by Morten H. Jensen 2010 ISBN 978-3-16-150362-7 pages 42-43 [http://books.google.com/books?id=I7fAyl2aG-gC&pg=PA43&dq=herodias+herod&hl=en&ei=FJmcToy0M4abOtTmzIYJ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=herodias%20herod&f=false]</ref><ref name=Cyndy48 >''The Emergence of Christianity: Classical Traditions in Contemporary Perspective'' by Cynthia White 2010 ISBN 0800697472 page 48</ref> The exact year of the the marriage of [[Herod Antipas]] and [[Herodias]] is subject to debate among scholars.<ref name=fox25 >''Herodias: at home in that fox's den'' by Florence Morgan Gillman 2003 ISBN 0814651089 pages 25-30 [http://books.google.com/books?id=rFRFe8QdO1gC&pg=PA26&dq=herodias+herod+antipas&hl=en&ei=fECbTq31JvDc4QT8ubiZBA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=6&ved=0CEQQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=herodias%20herod%20antipas&f=false]</ref> While some scholars place the year of the marriage in the range 27-31AD, others have approximated a date as late as AD 35, but such a late date has much less support.<ref name=fox25 /> In his analysis of Herod's life, [[Harold Hoehner]] estimates that John the Baptist's imprisonment probably occurred around AD 30-31.<ref>''Herod Antipas'' by Harold W. Hoehner'' 1983 ISBN 0310422515 page 131 [http://books.google.com/books?id=oO0upEG0g7kC&pg=PA131&dq=herodias+herod+antipas&hl=en&ei=fECbTq31JvDc4QT8ubiZBA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCwQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=herodias%20herod%20antipas&f=false]</ref> The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia estimates the death of the Baptist to have occurred about AD 31-32.<ref name=Bromiley694 /> Josephus stated ([[wikisource:The_Antiquities_of_the_Jews/Book_XVIII#Chapter_5|Ant 18.5.2]]) that the AD 36 defeat of Herod Antipas in the conflicts with [[Aretas IV Philopatris|Aretas IV]] of [[Nabatea]] was widely considered by the Jews of the time as misfortune brought about by Herod's unjust execution of John the Baptist.<ref>''The relationship between John the Baptist and Jesus of Nazareth'' by Daniel S. Dapaah 2005 ISBn 0761831096 page 48 [http://books.google.com/books?id=S0P18O3fGR4C&pg=PA48&dq=baptist+josephus+antipas+jesus&hl=en&ei=5kmbTvPYB9TP4QSuzIDjAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&sqi=2&ved=0CCwQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=baptist%20josephus%20antipas%20jesus&f=false]</ref><ref name=Hoehner125 /><ref name=Cyndy48 /> Given that John the Baptist was executed before the defeat of Herod by Aretas, and based on the scholarly estimates for the approximate date of the marriage of Herod Antipas and Herodias, the last part of the ministry of John the Baptist and hence parts of the ministry of Jesus fall within the historical time span of AD 28-35, with the later year 35 having the least support among scholars.<ref>''International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: A-D'' by Geoffrey W. Bromiley 1995 ISBN 0802837816 pages 6860687</ref><ref name=fox25 /><ref name=Hoehner125 >''Herod Antipas'' by Harold W. Hoehner'' 1983 ISBN 0310422515 pages 125-127</ref> The imprisonment of John the Baptist relates to the ministry of Jesus via the episode [[Messengers from John the Baptist]], as in Matthew 11:2-6 and Luke 7:18-23.<ref>''The Gospel of Matthew'' by Rudolf Schnackenburg 2002 ISBN 0802844383 page 104</ref><ref name=Mercer459 >''Mercer dictionary of the Bible'' by Watson E. Mills, Roger Aubrey Bullard 1998 ISBN 0865543739 page 459</ref> This episode takes place towards the end of the ''[[Ministry_of_Jesus#Major_Galilean_ministry|major Galilean ministry]]'' of Jesus, and prior to the key episode [[Confession of Peter]] which appears about half way through the gospel narratives, before Jesus starts his final journey to Jerusalem through Judea.<ref name=Mercer459 /><ref>''The Cambridge companion to the Gospels'' by Stephen C. Barton ISBN 0521002613 pages 132-133</ref> ==Year of death estimates== ⏎ ⏎ ===Prefecture of Pontius Pilate=== {{also|Pilate's Court|Tacitus on Christ}}⏎ [[File:Gaius Cornelius Tacitus mirror.jpg|thumb|180px|Roman historian [[Tacitus]]]] All four [[Canonical gospels]] state that Jesus was crucified in [[Calvary]] during the prefecture of [[Pontius Pilate]], the Roman who governed [[Roman Judaea|Judea]].<ref name="PC" /><ref>[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#27:27|Matthew 27:27-61]], [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Mark#15:1|Mark 15:1-47]], [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Luke#23:25|Luke 23:25-54]] and [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#19:1|John 19:1-38]]</ref> In these gospel accounts (usually called "Jesus in [[Pilate's Court]]") Jesus was brought before Pilate in the [[praetorium]] in Jerusalem after his [[Sanhedrin Trial of Jesus|Sanhedrin trial]] and was crucified shortly thereafter.<ref name="PC">Bromiley, Geoffrey W. (1995), ''International Standard Bible Encyclopedia''. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. vol. K-P. p. 929.</ref> In the ''[[Antiquities of the Jews]]'' (written about 93 AD) Jewish historian [[Josephus]], stated ([[wikisource:The Antiquities of the Jews/Book XVIII#Chapter 3|Ant 18.3]]) that Jesus was crucified by Pilate, writing that:<ref name=Theissen81 /> <blockquote> Now there was about this time Jesus, a wise man, .... He drew over to him both many of the Jews and many of the Gentiles... And when Pilate, at the suggestion of the principal men amongst us, had condemned him to the cross .... </blockquote> Josephus then stated that "the tribe of Christians, so named from him, are not extinct at this day." Most modern scholars agree that while the Testimonium Flavianum includes some interpolation, it originally consisted of an authentic nucleus with a reference to the execution of Jesus by Pilate.<ref name=Kostenberger104 >''The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament'' by [[Andreas J. Köstenberger]], L. Scott Kellum 2009 ISBN 978-0-8054-4365-3 page 104-108</ref><ref> Evans, Craig A. (2001). ''Jesus and His Contemporaries: Comparative Studies'' ISBN 0-391-04118-5 page 316</ref><ref>Wansbrough, Henry (2004). ''Jesus and the oral Gospel tradition'' ISBN 0-567-04090-9 page 185</ref> [[James Dunn (theologian)|James Dunn]] states that there is "broad consensus" among scholars regarding the nature of an authentic reference to the crucifixion of Jesus in the ''Testimonium''.<ref>Dunn, James (2003). ''Jesus remembered'' ISBN 0-8028-3931-2 page 141</ref> Josephus scholar [[Louis H. Feldman]] views the reference in the ''Testimonium'' as the first reference to Jesus and the reference to Jesus in the death of James passage in Book 20, Chapter 9, 1 of the ''Antiquities'' as "the aforementioned Christ", thus relating the two passages.<ref>Feldman, Louis H.; Hata, Gōhei, eds. (1987). ''Josephus, Judaism and Christianity'' ISBN 978-90-04-08554-1 page 55</ref> Another reference to the crucifixion of Jesus was made early in the second century by [[Tacitus]], generally considered one of the greatest Roman historians.<ref name=Voorst39 >Van Voorst, Robert E (2000). ''Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence'' Eerdmans Publishing ISBN 0-8028-4368-9 pages 39-42</ref><ref>''Backgrounds of early Christianity'' by Everett Ferguson 2003 ISBN 0-8028-2221-5 page 116</ref> Writing in ''[[The Annals]]'' (''c.'' 116 AD), Tacitus [[Tacitus on Christ|described the persecution]] of Christians by Nero and stated ([[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#44|Annals 15.44]]) that Pilate ordered the execution of Jesus:<ref name=Theissen81 >Theissen 1998, pp. 81-83</ref><ref name="Green1997">{{Cite book|last=Green|first=Joel B.|year=1997|title=The Gospel of Luke : new international commentary on the New Testament|page=168|url=http://books.google.com/?id=koYlW6IoOjMC&pg=PR85&dq=Joel+B.+Green,+The+Gospel+of+Luke,+(Eerdmans,+1997),+page+168|isbn=0-8028-2315-7|publisher=W.B. Eerdmans Pub. Co.|location=Grand Rapids, Mich.}}</ref><ref name="Green1997"/> <blockquote> Nero fastened the guilt and inflicted the most exquisite tortures on a class hated for their abominations, called Christians by the populace. Christus, from whom the name had its origin, suffered the extreme penalty during the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our procurators, Pontius Pilatus. </blockquote> Tacitus was a patriotic Roman senator.<ref>''Josephus, the Bible, and history'' by Louis H. Feldman 1997 ISBN 90-04-08931-4 page 381</ref><ref name= MAPowell33 >''Jesus as a figure in history: how modern historians view the man from Galilee'' by Mark Allan Powell 1998 ISBN 0-664-25703-8 page 33</ref> His writings shows no sympathy towards Christians or knowledge of who their leader was.<ref name=CEvans42 /><ref>''Ancient Rome'' by William E. Dunstan 2010 ISBN 0-7425-6833-4 page 293</ref><ref>Tacitus' characterization of "Christian abominations" may have been based on the rumors in Rome that during the [[Eucharist]] rituals Christians ate the body and drank the blood of their God, interpreting the symbolic ritual as cannibalism by Christians. References: ''Ancient Rome'' by William E. Dunstan 2010 ISBN 0-7425-6833-4 page 293 and ''An introduction to the New Testament and the origins of Christianity'' by Delbert Royce Burkett 2002 ISBN 0-521-00720-8 page 485</ref> Scholars generally consider his reference to the execution by Pilate to be genuine, and of historical value as an independent Roman source.<ref name=Voorst39 /><ref name=CEvans42 >''Jesus and His Contemporaries: Comparative Studies'' by Craig A. Evans 2001 ISBN 0-391-04118-5 page 42</ref><ref>''Mercer dictionary of the Bible'' by Watson E. Mills, Roger Aubrey Bullard 2001 ISBN 0-86554-373-9 page 343</ref><ref>''Pontius Pilate in History and Interpretation'' by Helen K. Bond 2004 ISBN 0-521-61620-4 page xi</ref> By almost all historical accounts, Pontius Pilate was governor of Judea from 26 AD until 36 AD, after which he was replaced by [[Marcellus (prefect of Judea)|Marcellus]], either in 36 AD or 37 AD, establishing the date of the death of Jesus prior to 37 AD.<ref>''Pontius Pilate: portraits of a Roman governor'' by Warren Carter 2003 ISBN 0-8146-5113-5 pages 44-45</ref><ref>''The history of the Jews in the Greco-Roman world'' by Peter Schäfer 2003 ISBN 0-415-30585-3 page 108</ref><ref>''Backgrounds of early Christianity'' by Everett Ferguson 2003 ISBN 0-8028-2221-5 page 416</ref> ===Reign of Herod Antipas=== In the [[Gospel of Luke]], while Jesus is in [[Pilate's Court]], Pilate realizes that Jesus is a Galilean and thus is under the jurisdiction of [[Herod Antipas]].<ref name=Niswonger >''New Testament History'' by Richard L. Niswonger 1992 ISBN 0-310-31201-9 page 172</ref><ref name=Carter120 >''Pontius Pilate: portraits of a Roman governor'' by Warren Carter 2003 ISBN 978-0-8146-5113-1 pages 120-121</ref> Given that Herod was in Jerusalem at that time, Pilate decided to send Jesus to Herod to be tried.<ref name=Niswonger /><ref name=Carter120 /> This episode is only described in the [[Gospel of Luke]] ([[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Luke#23:7|23:7-15]]).<ref>''The Synoptics: Matthew, Mark, Luke'' by Ján Majerník, Joseph Ponessa 2005 ISBN 1-931018-31-6 page 181</ref><ref name=Patella >''The Gospel according to Luke'' by Michael Patella 2005 ISBN 0-8146-2862-1 page 16</ref><ref>''Luke: The Gospel of Amazement'' by Michael Card 2011 ISBN 978-0-8308-3835-6 page 251</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biblestudyworkshop.com/data/Lesson228.pdf |title=Bible Study Workshop - Lesson 228 |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2012-07-18}}</ref> While some scholars have questioned the authenticity of this episode, given that it is unique to the Gospel of Luke, the International Standard Bible Encyclopedia states that it fits well with the theme of Luke and should not be seriously questioned.<ref name=Bromiley694 >''International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: E-J'' by Geoffrey W. Bromiley 1982 ISBN 0-8028-3782-4 pages 694-695 [http://books.google.com/books?id=yklDk6Vv0l4C&pg=PA695&dq=herodias+john+baptist&hl=en&ei=PJacToTRNK-L4gThwKGkCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=herodias%20john%20baptist&f=false]</ref> Herod Antipas, a son of [[Herod the Great]], was born before 20 BC and was exiled in the summer of 39 AD following a lengthy intrigue involving [[Caligula]] and [[Agrippa I]], the grandson of his father.<ref>''Herod Antipas'' by Harold W. Hoehner 1983 ISBN 0-310-42251-5 page 262</ref><ref>''All the people in the Bible'' by Richard R. Losch 2008 ISBN 0-8028-2454-4 page 159</ref> Although this episode provides a wider range date for the death of Jesus, it is in concord with the other estimates in that it indicates that Jesus' death took place before AD39.<ref>''The Content and the Setting of the Gospel Tradition'' by Mark Harding, Alanna Nobbs 2010 ISBN 0-8028-3318-7 pages 88-89</ref><ref>''The Emergence of Christianity'' by Cynthia White 2010 ISBN 0-8006-9747-2 page 11</ref> ===Conversion of Paul=== [[File:The Temple of Apollo at Delphi.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Temple of Apollo (Delphi)|Temple of Apollo]] in [[Delphi]], Greece, where the [[Delphi Inscription]] was discovered early in the 20th century.<ref name=CCPaul20 /><ref name=Marrow45 />]] Another approach to estimating an [[upper bound]] for the year of death of Jesus is the estimation of the date of [[Conversion of Paul the Apostle]] given that in the New Testament accounts Jesus' death takes place before this conversion.<ref name=Barnett19 /><ref name=Kostenberger77 /><ref name=Riesner /> Paul's conversion is discussed in both the [[Letters of Paul]] and in the [[Acts of the Apostles]], and in both accounts takes place after the death of Jesus.<ref name=Barnett19 /><ref>Bromiley, Geoffrey William (1979). ''International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: A-D'' Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. pp. 689. ISBN 0-8028-3781-6.</ref> In the [[First Epistle to the Corinthians]] ([[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/1 Corinthians#15:3|15:3-8]]), Paul refers to his conversion after the death of Jesus. The [[Acts of the Apostles]] includes three separate references to Paul's conversion experience, in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Acts#9|Acts 9]], [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Acts#22|Acts 22]] and [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Acts#26|Acts 26]].<ref>''Paul and His Letters'' by John B. Polhill 1999 ISBN 0-8054-1097-X pages 49-50</ref><ref>''The Blackwell Companion to Natural Theology'' by William Lane Craig, James Porter Moreland 2009 ISBN 1-4051-7657-1 page 616</ref> The estimation of the year of Paul's conversion relies on a series of calculations that work backwards from the well-established date of his trial before [[Junius Annaeus Gallio|Junius Gallio]] in [[Achaea]] Greece ([[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Acts#18:12|Acts 18:12-17]]) around 51-52 AD, a date which gained historical credibility early in the 20th century following the discovery of four stone fragments as part of the [[Delphi Inscription]]s, at [[Delphi]] across the Gulf from [[Corinth]].<ref name=Marrow45 >''Paul: his letters and his theology'' by Stanley B. Marrow 1986 ISBN 0-8091-2744-X pages 45-49</ref><ref name=Novak18 >''Christianity and the Roman Empire: background texts'' by Ralph Martin Novak 2001 ISBN 1-56338-347-0 pages 18-22</ref> Most historians estimate that Gallio (son of the [[Seneca the Elder]]) became [[proconsul]] between the spring of 51 AD and the summer of 52 AD, and that his position ended no later than 53 AD.<ref name=CCPaul20 >''The Cambridge Companion to St Paul'' by James D. G. Dunn (Nov 10, 2003) Cambridge Univ Press ISBN 0521786940 page 20</ref><ref name=Marrow45 /><ref name=Novak18 /><ref>''The Greco-Roman world of the New Testament era'' by James S. Jeffers 1999 ISBN 0-8308-1589-9 pages 164-165</ref><ref name=CEvansA248 >''The Bible Knowledge Background Commentary: Acts-Philemon'' by Craig A. Evans 2004 ISBN 0-7814-4006-8 page 248</ref> However, the trial of Paul is generally assumed to be in the earlier part of Gallio's tenure, based on the reference ([[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Acts#18:2|Acts 18:2]]) to his meeting in Corinth with [[Priscilla and Aquila]], who had been recently expelled from Rome based on Emperor [[Claudius]]' expulsion of some Jews from Rome, which is dated to 49-50 AD.<ref name=Novak18 /><ref>''The Bible Knowledge Commentary: New Testament edition'' by John F. Walvoord, Roy B. Zuck 1983 ISBN 0-88207-812-7 page 405</ref> According to the New Testament, Paul spent eighteen months in Corinth, approximately seventeen years after his conversion.<ref name=Marrow45 /><ref name=Eerdsman1019 >''Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible'' Amsterdam University Press, 2000 ISBN 90-5356-503-5 page 1019</ref> [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Galatians#2:1|Galatians 2:1-10]] states that Paul went [[Paul the apostle#Visits to Jerusalem in Acts and the epistles|back to Jerusalem]] fourteen years after his conversion, and various missions (at times with [[Barnabas]]) such as those in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Acts#11:25|Acts 11:25-26]] and [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/2 Corinthians#11:23|2 Corinthians 11:23-33]] appear in the Book of Acts.<ref name=Barnett19 /><ref name=Kostenberger77 /> The generally accepted scholarly estimate for the date of conversion of Paul is 33-36 AD, placing the death of Jesus before this date range.<ref name=Barnett19 >''Jesus & the Rise of Early Christianity: A History of New Testament Times'' by Paul Barnett 2002 ISBN 0-8308-2699-8 pages 19-21</ref><ref name=Kostenberger77 >''The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament'' by Andreas J. Köstenberger, L. Scott Kellum 2009 ISBN 978-0-8054-4365-3 pages 77-79</ref><ref name=Riesner >''Paul's early period: chronology, mission strategy, theology'' by [[Rainer Riesner]] 1997 ISBN 978-0-8028-4166-7 page 19-27 (page 27 has a table of various scholarly estimates)</ref> ===Astronomical analysis=== ====Newton's method==== [[File:Bolton-newton.jpg|thumb|[[Isaac Newton]]]] In 1733, [[Isaac Newton]] became one of the first scientists to estimate the date of the crucifixion by calculating the relative visibility of the crescent of the new moon between the [[Hebrew calendar|Hebrew]] and [[Julian calendar]]s.<ref name=Pratt1 /><ref name=Humphreys45 /> In chapter XI of the first Part I of [[wikisource:Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel/Part I Chap XI|Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel]] Newton stated that assuming "the passion was on friday the 14th day of the month Nisan", one could compute the exact date of the crucifixion because "the 14th day of Nisan always fell on the full moon next after the vernal Equinox". Using this line of reasoning, Newton calculated the date of the crucifixion as Friday, April 23, AD 34.<ref name=Newton >[[Isaac Newton|Newton, Isaac]] (1733). "[[s:Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel/Part I Chap XI|Of the Times of the Birth and Passion of Christ]]", in ''[[s:Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel|Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse of St. John]]''</ref> In the computations, Newton first narrowed the possible years to AD 33 and AD 34; and selected AD 34 by using a postponement rule from the modern Hebrew calendar.<ref name=Pratt1 /><ref name=Newton /> In time, a number of other scientists used similar methods of relating the Hebrew and Julian calendars with the version developed by [[John Knight Fotheringham|J. K. Fotheringham]] becoming a standard by the middle of the 20th century.<ref name=Humphreys45 >[[Colin Humphreys]], ''The Mystery of the Last Supper'' Cambridge University Press 2011 ISBN 978-0-521-73200-0, pages 45-48</ref><ref>Fotheringham, J.K., 1910. "On the smallest visible phase of the moon," ''Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society'' 70, 527-531.</ref> Fotheringham dated the crucifixion in a similar manner.<ref>Fotheringham, J.K. 1910 "Astronomical Evidence for the Date of the Crucifixion," ''Journal of Theological Studies'' 12, 120-127.</ref><ref>Fotheringham, J.K. 1934. "The Evidence of Astronomy and Technical Chronology for the Date of the Crucifixion," ''Journal of Theological Studies'' 35, 146-162.</ref> Using similar computations, in 1990 astronomer [[Bradley E. Schaefer]] arrived at the date, Friday, April 3, AD 33 for the crucifixion.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Schaefer |first=B. E. |year=1990 |title=Lunar Visibility and the Crucifixion |journal=Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=53–67 |bibcode=1990QJRAS..31...53S }}</ref> According to John Pratt, Fotheringham and Schaefer seem to have been unaware of Newton's computations.<ref name=Pratt1 /> Writing in the Journal of the [[Royal Astronomical Society]] in 1991, Pratt stated that Newton and Schaefer agreed on dates of lunar visibility, but not on the resulting date for the crucifixion. By working through Newton's calculations, Pratt rejected the claim that Newton selected April 23 because it happened to be [[St. George's day]].<ref name=Pratt1 /> Pratt argued that Newton's reasoning was effectively sound, but included a minor, non-mathematical error at the end, given that the "postponement rule" from the modern [[Hebrew calendar]] was shown not to have been in use at the time over a century after Newton. Pratt suggested the year AD 33 as the accurate answer.<ref name=Pratt1 >{{cite journal |last=Pratt |first=J. P. |year=1991 |title=Newton's Date for the Crucifixion |journal=Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=301–304 |bibcode=1991QJRAS..32..301P }} [http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1991QJRAS..32..301P]</ref> Humphreys and Waddington have supported Newton's approach to the reconstruction of the first century Jewish Calendar, and Humphreys has presented methods for how it can be confirmed with further calculations.<ref name=HumphreysPlus >{{cite journal |last=Humphreys |first=Colin J. |year= 1983 |month=December |title=Dating the Crucifixion |journal=Nature |volume=306 |issue=5945 |pages=743–746 |doi=10.1038/306743a0 |coauthors=W. G. Waddington |bibcode=1983Natur.306..743H}}</ref><ref name=Humphreys45 /> Unlike scientist [[Colin Humphreys]], who considers astronomy a viable method of dating biblical episodes, historian [[E. P. Sanders]] contends that astronomical analysis can neither prove nor disprove the chronology of Jesus.<ref>[[Colin Humphreys]], ''The Mystery of the Last Supper'' Cambridge University Press 2011 ISBN 978-0-521-73200-0, page 37</ref><ref>E. P. Sanders, ''The Historical Figure of Jesus'' (Penguin, 1993) pages 285-286.</ref> ====Lunar eclipse method==== [[File:Eclipse 2008 Sar.JPG|thumb|A [[solar eclipse]], August 2008.]] [[File:Lunar eclipse March 2007.jpg|thumb|A [[lunar eclipse]], March 2007.]] In the accounts of the crucifixion in the [[Synoptic Gospels]], a period of darkness occurs ([[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#27:45|Matthew 27:45]], [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Mark#15:33|Mark 15:33]], [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Luke#23:44|Luke 23:44]]) on the first day of Passover beginning around noon ("the sixth hour") and continuing until 3 o'clock ("the ninth hour").<ref>''The Bible Knowledge Commentary: New Testament'' by John F. Walvoord, Roy B. Zuck 1983 ISBN 978-0-88207-812-0 page 88</ref> In the 6th century [[Cassiodorus|Aurelius Cassiodorus]] stated that the crucifixion occurred when there was a great eclipse the same year [[Sejanus]] became the [[List of Roman consuls|consul]] with [[Tiberius]], AD 31.<ref>{{cite book |title=A New Analysis of Chronology and Geography, History and Prophecy |last=Hales |first=William |author-link=William Hales |year=1830 |volume=1 |page=70 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=aNfVAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA70#v=onepage&q&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Opus de emendatione temporum hac postrema Editione |last=Scaliger |first=Joseph |author-link=Joseph Justus Scaliger |year=1629 |page=563 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=vTZBAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA563#v=onepage&q&f=false}}</ref> Modern astronomers have debated the possibility of a [[solar eclipse]] during the crucifixion, but have generally raised objections to it.<ref name=Milone >''Exploring Ancient Skies: A Survey of Ancient and Cultural Astronomy'' by David H. Kelley, Eugene F. Milone 2011 ISBN 1-4419-7623-X pages 250-251</ref> Given that a solar eclipses only occur during the new moon phase, and that the 14th of Nisan always corresponds to a full moon, biblical scholars instead suggest that the darkness may have been due to a storm of some kind and not to a solar eclipse.<ref>''Historical Dictionary of Jesus'' by Daniel J. Harrington 2010 ISBN 0-8108-7667-1 pages 43-44</ref> Moreover, a solar eclipse takes about an hour for the moon to cover the sun, with total coverage lasting four to six minutes.<ref>''Astronomy: The Solar System and Beyond'' by Michael A. Seeds, Dana Backman, 2009 ISBN 0-495-56203-3 page 34</ref><ref>Meeus, J. (2003, December). ''The maximum possible duration of a total solar eclipse''. Journal of the British Astronomical Association, 113(6), 343-348.</ref> In 1983, [[Colin Humphreys|Humphreys]] and Waddington of [[Oxford University]] noted that the separate reference made by [[Apostle Peter]] in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Acts#2:20|Acts 2:20]] to a "moon of blood" is a term used for [[lunar eclipse]]s as far back as 331 BC.<ref name=HumphreysPlus /><ref name=Humphreys86 >[[Colin Humphreys]], ''The Mystery of the Last Supper'' Cambridge University Press 2011 ISBN 978-0-521-73200-0, pages 86-87</ref> A lunar eclipse can last a few hours, total coverage lasting about an hour.<ref>http://www.crh.noaa.gov/fsd/astro/suneclipse.php</ref> Humphreys and Waddington computed the Jewish calendar for the first century AD and also reconstructed the scenario for a lunar eclipse, and arrived at the conclusion that Friday, 3 April 33 AD was the date of the Crucifixion.<ref name=HumWadJASA>Colin J. Humphreys and W. G. Waddington, ''The Date of the Crucifixion'' Journal of the American Scientific Affiliation 37 (March 1985)[http://www.asa3.org/aSA/PSCF/1985/JASA3-85Humphreys.html]</ref> The lunar eclipse approach used for the determination of the date April 3 33 AD is totally independent and distinct from the Newton-like construction of the Jewish calendar, but arrives at the same date.<ref name=Colin13 >[[Colin Humphreys]], ''The Mystery of the Last Supper'' Cambridge University Press 2011 ISBN 978-0-521-73200-0, page 13</ref> According to the computations of Humphreys and Waddington, a lunar eclipse on Friday, April 3, 33 AD, would have begun at 3:43 pm, would have reached its maximum at 5:15 pm with approximately 60% of the moon eclipsed, and would have ended at 6:50 pm.<ref name=HumWadJASA/> In their view, the failure of any of the gospel accounts to refer to a lunar eclipse was likely the result of a scribe incorrectly amending a text to refer to a solar eclipse.<ref name="henige">{{cite book | last=Henige | first=David P. | authorlink=David Henige | title=Historical evidence and argument | publisher=University of Wisconsin Press | isbn=978-0-299-21410-4 | page=150| year=2005}}</ref> Although this model provides a date for the crucifixion which is consistent with the reconstruction of the Jewish calendar, and arrives at the same date as the modified Newton method, it does not address the preceding reference to the darkened sun in the gospels.<ref name=HumphreysPlus /><ref name=HumWadJASA/> Bradley E. Schaefer supports the year 33 AD using his own computations through the reconstruction of the Jewish calendar and does not deny the possibility of a lunar eclipse on that day; but he rejects the visibility that eclipse in Jerusalem based on his approach to computing "celestial glare".<ref>Schaefer, B. E. (1990, March). Lunar visibility and the crucifixion. Royal Astonomical Society Quarterly Journal, 31(1), 53-67</ref><ref>Schaefer, B. E. (1991, July). Glare and celestial visibility. Publications of the Astonomical Society of the Pacific, 103, 645-660.</ref><ref>''Marking time: the epic quest to invent the perfect calendar'' by Duncan Steel 1999 ISBN 0-471-29827-1 page 341</ref> Ruggles supports Schaefer's views and Gaskel has argued that a lunar eclipse during the day of the crucifixion could have received significant attention.<ref>Ruggles, C. (1990, June). Archaeoastronomy – the Moon and the crucifixion. Nature, 345(6277), 669-670.</ref><ref>Gaskel, C. M. (1993, December). Beyond visibility: The "Crucifixion eclipse" in the context of some other astronomical events of the times. ''Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society'', '''25''', 1334. 183rd AAS Meeting [Abstract 27.04].</ref> ==Day and time estimates== ===Day of birth=== The nativity accounts in the New Testament gospels of Matthew and Luke do not mention a day for the birth of Jesus. [[Karl Rahner]] states that given that the gospels were written as theological documents they do not pay attention to such details.<ref name="Rahner731"/> Scholars such as [[E.P. Sanders]] consider the birth narratives non-historical and not a reliable method for determining the day of birth.<ref>Sanders, E. P. ''The historical figure of Jesus''. Penguin, 1993 pages 85-88</ref> [[File:BL Harley Gospels 109r.jpg|thumb|180px|The [[Incipit]] to the [[Gospel of Luke]], in the [[Harley Golden Gospels]], 800-825]] Neither Luke nor Matthew mention a season for when Jesus was born. However, scholarly arguments regarding the realism of shepherds grazing their flock at night during the winter have taken place, both challenging a winter birth for Jesus, as well as defending it by relying on the mildness of winters in ancient Israel and [[Rabbinic Judaism|rabbinic]] rules regarding sheep near Bethlehem before February.<ref>"New Testament History" by Richard L. Niswonger 1992 ISBN 0-310-31201-9 pp. 121-124</ref><ref>''Luke: an introduction and commentary'' by Leon Morris 1988 ISBN 0-8028-0419-5 page 93</ref><ref>''Stories of Jesus' Birth'' by Edwin D. Freed 2004 ISBN 0-567-08046-3 pages 136-137</ref> An indirect, and unsuccessful approach to determining the day of birth has been based on the statement in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Luke#1:5|Luke 1:5-8]] that [[John the Baptist]], who was six months older than Jesus, was conceived around the time when his father, a priest in the division of [[Abijah]], was on duty at the temple. The division of Abijah was the eighth among the 24 divisions to serve at the temple in strict order, one or possibly two weeks at a time. This has been used to argue for a birth date around [[Sukkot|The Feast of Tabernacles]].<ref name="Punton">{{cite book|title=The World Jesus Knew|author=Anne Punton|year=2009|pages=38–40}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Armageddon: Appointment with Destiny|author=[[Grant Jeffrey]]}}</ref> If one assumes that the schedule of divisions at the temple always assigned the first division on the first week of the Jewish calendar, and proceeds with one division per week, with three one-week breaks around major festivals (thus allowing each division to serve twice a year), the first course of Abijah would occur in mid-[[Sivan]] (late May to early June), and it can be deduced that Jesus was born in mid-[[Tishri]] (late September to early October), or right around the Feast of Tabernacles.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://biblelight.net/sukkoth.htm|title=On What Day Was Jesus Born?}}</ref> However, uncertainties regarding the exact schedule in place in 1st-century B.C. Israel are so substantial that the date derived this way is but one of multiple possibilities.<ref name="Punton" /> One important reason to doubt this "solution" is that, when the Jerusalem temple was destroyed in 70 A.D. during the fifth month of the Jewish calendar, the division of Jehoiarib (first in the cycle) was on duty.<ref>Mishnah (b. Ta'an 29a)</ref> It has recently been argued for a cycle that commenced each year on the first Saturday in [[Tishri]] (the seventh month), which would place the birth of Jesus in July or January.<ref>{{cite book|title=Calendar and chronology, Jewish and Christian: biblical, intertestamental and patristic studies|author=Roger T. Beckwith|year=2001|pages=79–92}}</ref> The day of birth of Jesus, celebrated as [[Christmas]] is based on a feast rather than historical analysis. In the 1st and 2nd centuries, the [[Lord's Day]] (Sunday) was the earliest Christian celebration and included a number of theological themes. In the 2nd century, the [[Resurrection of Jesus]] became a separate feast as [[Easter]] and in the same century [[Epiphany (holiday)|Epiphany]] began to be celebrated in the Churches of the East on January 6.<ref>''An introductory dictionary of theology and religious studies'' by Orlando O. Espín, James B. Nickoloff 2007 ISBN 0-8146-5856-3 page 237</ref> The festival of the Nativity which later turned into Christmas was a 4th century feast in the [[Western Church]] notably in Rome and North Africa, although it is uncertain exactly where and when it was first celebrated.<ref>''Christian worship in Reformed Churches past and present'' by Lukas Vischer 2002 ISBN 0-8028-0520-5 pages 400-401</ref> The earliest source stating the 25th of December as the date of birth of [[Jesus]] is likely by [[Hippolytus of Rome]], written very early in the 3rd century, based on the assumption that the conception of Jesus took place at the [[Spring equinox]] which he placed on March 25th, and then added 9th months - festivals on that date were then celebrated.<ref>''Mercer Dictionary'' of the Bible by Watson E. Mills, Edgar V. McKnight and Roger A. Bullard 2001 ISBN 0-86554-373-9 page 142</ref> [[John Chrysostom]] also argued for a December 25 date in the late 4th century, basing his argument on the assumption that the offering of incense in Luke 1:8-11 was the offering of incense by a high priest on [[Yom Kippur]] (early October), and, as above, counting fifteen months forward. However, this was very likely a retrospective justification a choice already made rather than a genuine attempt to derive the correct birth date.<ref>Beckwith, p. 72</ref> ===Day of death=== [[File:Papyrus 90 (John 19.1-7).jpg|thumb|180px|A [[Papyrus 90]] fragment of [[Gospel of John|John 19]]]] Tradition (and the [[Synoptic Gospels]]) hold that the [[Last Supper]] took place on the first night of [[Passover]], which is defined in the [[Torah]] as occurring after the daylight of the [[Quartodeciman|14th of Nisan]] ({{Bibleverse||Lev|23:5-6|he}}). However, [[the Gospel of John]] implies that at the time of the trial the Jewish leaders had not yet eaten the Passover meal{{Bibleref2c|Jn.|18:28}} <ref>Paul Barnett, ''Jesus & the Rise of Early Christianity: A History of New Testament Times'', page 21 (InterVarsity Press, 1999). ISBN 978-0-8308-2699-5</ref> and states just prior to his sentencing "Now it was the day of Preparation of the Passover. It was about the sixth hour."{{Bibleref2c|Jn.|19:14}} John's account places the crucifixion on [[Nisan]] [[Quartodecimanism|14]], since the law mandated the lamb had to be sacrificed between 3:00 pm and 5:00 pm and eaten before midnight on Nisan 14.<ref>{{cite web|author=[[Philo]] |title=''De Specialibus Legibus'' 2.145 |url=http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book28.html}}</ref><ref>[[Josephus]]. ''[[s:The War of the Jews|The War of the Jews]]'' [[s:The War of the Jews/Book VI#Chapter 9|6.9.3]]</ref><ref>''[[Mishnah]], [[Pesahim]]'' 5.1.</ref> This understanding fits well with [[Old Testament]] [[Typology (theology)|typology]], in which Jesus entered [[Jerusalem]] to identify himself as the [[Korban Pesach|Paschal lamb]] on Nisan 10{{Bibleref2c|Jn.|Ex.|12:1-6}} was crucified and died at 3:00 in the afternoon of Nisan 14, at the same time the High Priest would have sacrificed the Paschal lamb,{{Bibleref2c|1Cor|5:7||1 Cor. 5:7}} {{Bibleref2c|Isaiah|53:7-9||cf. Isa. 53:7-9}} and rose before dawn the morning of Nisan 16, as a type of offering of the [[First Fruits]].{{Bibleref2c|1Cor|15:23||1 Cor. 15:23}} {{Bibleref2c|Lev.|23:9-14||cf. Lev. 23:9-14}} However, "the day of preparation" has been seen to mean either the day before Passover or simply Friday; or both.<ref>''The Complete Gospels'', Robert J. Miller, ed., 1992, page 241, commentary on verse 19:31</ref> The chronology presented by John has been viewed as problematic in reconciling with the Synoptic passages and the tradition in that the [[Last Supper]] was a Passover meal,<ref>{{Bibleref2|Matthew|26:17-19}}; {{Bibleref2|Mark|14:12-16}}; {{Bibleref2|Luke|22:7-8}}</ref> placing the crucifixion instead on Nisan 15. However, the apparent contradiction may be resolved by postulating differences in how post-exilic Jews reckoned time.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Does the Day Begin in the Evening or Morning? Some Biblical Observations |author=Stroes, H. R. |journal=[[Vetus Testamentum]] |volume=16 |issue=4 |month=October |year=1966 |pages=460–475 |doi=10.2307/1516711 |publisher=BRILL |jstor=1516711}}</ref> For Jesus and his disciples, the Passover could have begun at dawn Thursday, while for traditional Jews (following {{Bibleref2|Leviticus|23:5}}), it would not have begun until dusk that same day.<ref>{{cite web |title=Daily Life In The Time Of Jesus |author=Ross, Allen |url=http://www.bible.org/page.php?page_id=3953}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=[[Harold Hoehner|Hoehner, Harold]] |title=Chronological Aspects of the Life of Christ |year=1977 |location=Grand Rapids |publisher=Zondervan}}</ref> Another potential solution is that Jesus chose to celebrate the Passover meal a day early with his disciples.{{Bibleref2c|Mt.|26:18}} {{Bibleref2c|Lk.|22:15}} <ref>{{cite journal |title=The Time of the Last Supper |author=Heawood, Percy J. |journal=The Jewish Quarterly Review, New Series |volume=42 |issue=1 |month=July |year=1951 |pages=37–44 |jstor=1452717 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=The Character of Christ's Last Meal |author=Schmidt, Nathaniel |journal=Journal of Biblical Literature |volume=11 |issue=1 |year=1892 |pages=1–21 |doi=10.2307/3259075 |publisher=The Society of Biblical Literature |jstor=3259075}}</ref> A small number of Biblical scholars claim the traditional [[Holy Week]] calendar is inaccurate and Jesus was crucified on Wednesday, not Friday. This theory is based in part on literal interpretation of the Biblical texts indicating Jesus was dead for three days and three nights.<ref>{{cite news|last=Akin|first=Jimmy|title=The Crucifixion: Wednesday or Friday?|url=http://www.ncregister.com/blog/the-crucifixion-wednesday-or-friday/|accessdate=11 March 2012|newspaper=The National Catholic Register|date=21 April 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Ashley|first=Scott|title=Jesus Wasn't Crucified on Friday or Resurrected on Sunday|url=http://www.ucg.org/doctrinal-beliefs/jesus-wasnt-crucified-friday-or-resurrected-sunday/|publisher=The Good News Magazine of Understanding|accessdate=27 February 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Humphreys|first=Colin|title=The Mystery of the Last Supper: Reconstructing the Final Days of Jesus|year=2011|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-73200-X|url=http://www.amazon.com/The-Mystery-Last-Supper-Reconstructing/dp/052173200X/ref=sr_1_12?ie=UTF8&qid=1331442636&sr=8-12}}</ref> Mainstream scholars disagree with that and contend that the Jewish idiom "day and night" may refer to any part of a 24 hour period.<ref name=Blomberg225 >''Jesus and the Gospels: An Introduction and Survey'' by Craig L. Blomberg 2009 ISBN 0-8054-4482-3 page 225</ref> ====Hour of death==== [[Image:Museum side roman sun dial.JPG|thumb|left|A [[Roman system of timekeeping|Roman era sundial]], at a museum in Turkey]] The estimation of the hour of death of Jesus is only based on the New Testament accounts and the timing presented in the gospel of Mark and John have been the subject of debate among scholars.<ref name= KEasley323 /><ref name=RBrown959 /> Mark's narrative of the passion has three hour segments: in the early part Jesus is before Pilate, the Crucifixion takes place at the third hour (9am) in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Mark#15:25|Mark 15:25]], darkness appears at the six hour (noon) and Jesus' death at the ninth hour (3pm).<ref name=Harrington442>''The Gospel of Mark, Volume 2'' by John R. Donahue, Daniel J. Harrington 2002 ISBN 0-8146-5965-9 page 442</ref> However, in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#19:14|John 19:14]] Jesus is still before Pilate at the sixth hour.<ref name= KEasley323 /> Scholars have presented a number of arguments to deal with the issue.<ref name= KEasley323 /> [[Raymond E. Brown]] reviews various approaches that have been presented and suggests that they can not be easily reconciled.<ref name=RBrown959 >''Death of the Messiah, Volume 2'' by Raymond E. Brown 1999 ISBN 0-385-49449-1 pages 959-960</ref> On the other hand, [[Colin Humphreys]] contends that an approximate reconciliation can be achieved, and states that the Jewish method of time keeping began at sunrise (which in Jerusalem is about 6am) while the [[Roman timekeeping system]] reckoned time from midnight and John may have been using that method, with Roman hours.<ref name=Colin188 /> In the ''Roman clock'', time was divided into 12 [[hour]]s (Latin ''horae'') of light and 12 hours of darkness, and the length of each hour changes throughout the year.<ref>Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire - Page 543 Matthew Bunson - 2002 "The Roman day was divided into 12 hours of light and 12 hours of darkness. By the middle of the second century BCE, the Romans understood that the length of daylight varied throughout the year and also depended upon latitude.</ref> Humphreys's provides table based on "morning and afternoon" characterizations showing a somewhat close proximity of the events presented in the gospel accounts.<ref name=Colin188 >[[Colin Humphreys]], ''The Mystery of the Last Supper'' Cambridge University Press 2011 ISBN 978-0-521-73200-0, pages 188-190</ref> Several notable scholars have argued that the modern precision of marking the time of day should not be read back into the gospel accounts, written at a time when no standardization of timepieces, or exact recording of hours and minutes was available.<ref name= KEasley323 >Steven L. Cox, Kendell H Easley, 2007 Harmony of the Gospels ISBN 0-8054-9444-8 pages 323-323</ref> Richard L. Niswonger states that in antiquity times were always approximate, and that John's "about the 6th hour" may be close enough to Mark's time because sundials were not accurate.<ref>''New Testament History'' by Richard L. Niswonger 1992 ISBN 0-310-31201-9 pages 173-174</ref> [[Andreas Köstenberger]] states that early in the first century time was often estimated to the closest three-hour mark, and hence any time between 9am and noon may have resulted in someone saying that an event occurred at about the third or the sixth hour.<ref name=Kellum538 /> Köstenberger then adds: "Mark's concern likely was to provide the setting for the three hours of darkness (15:25, 33), while John seeks to stress the length of the proceedings, starting in the 'early morning'"<ref name=Kellum538 >''The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament'' by Andreas J. Köstenberger, L. Scott Kellum 2009 ISBN 978-0-8054-4365-3 page 538</ref> ==Other approaches== A wide range of approaches to the chronology of Jesus have been suggested over the centuries, but have little support among modern scholars, e.g. [[Maximus the Confessor]], [[Eusebius of Caesarea|Eusebius]], and [[Cassiodorus]] recorded the death of Jesus in 31 AD_Antiquities_of_the_Jews/Book_XVIII#Chapter_3|Ant 18.3]]) that Jesus was crucified by Pilate, writing that:<ref name=Theissen81 /> <blockquote> Now there was about this time Jesus, a wise man, .... He drew over to him both many of the Jews and many of the Gentiles. He was [the] Christ. And when Pilate, at the suggestion of the principal men amongst us, had condemned him to the cross .... </blockquote> Josephus then stated that "the tribe of Christians, so named from him, are not extinct at this day." The statement by Josephus is generally considered a high quality historical reference by scholars and Josephus scholar [[Louis H. Feldman]] has stated that few have doubted the genuineness of Josephus' reference.<ref name=JospehusM662 >''The new complete works of Josephus'' by Flavius Josephus, William Whiston, Paul L. Maier ISBN 0825429242 pages 662-663</ref><ref>''Josephus XX'' by [[Louis H. Feldman]] ISBN 0674995023 1965 page 496</ref> Another reference to the crucifixion of Jesus was made early in the second century by [[Tacitus]], generally considered one of the greatest Roman historians.<ref name=Voorst39 >Van Voorst, Robert E (2000). ''Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence'' Eerdmans Publishing ISBN 0802843689 pages 39-42</ref><ref>''Backgrounds of early Christianity'' by Everett Ferguson 2003 ISBN 0802822215 page 116</ref> Writing in ''[[The Annals]]'' (''c.'' 116 AD), Tacitus [[Tacitus on Christ|described the persecution]] of Christians by Nero and stated ([[wikisource:The_Annals_(Tacitus)/Book_15#44|Annals 15.44]]) that Pilate ordered the execution of Jesus:<ref name=Theissen81 >Theissen 1998, pp. 81-83</ref><ref name="Green1997">{{Cite book|last=Green|first=Joel B.|year=1997|title=The Gospel of Luke : new international commentary on the New Testament|page=168|url=http://books.google.com/?id=koYlW6IoOjMC&pg=PR85&dq=Joel+B.+Green,+The+Gospel+of+Luke,+(Eerdmans,+1997),+page+168|isbn=0802823157|publisher=W.B. Eerdmans Pub. Co.|location=Grand Rapids, Mich.}}</ref><ref name="Green1997">{{Cite book|last=Green|first=Joel B.|year=1997|title=The Gospel of Luke : new international commentary on the New Testament|page=168|url=http://books.google.com/?id=koYlW6IoOjMC&pg=PR85&dq=Joel+B.+Green,+The+Gospel+of+Luke,+(Eerdmans,+1997),+page+168|isbn=0802823157|publisher=W.B. Eerdmans Pub. Co.|location=Grand Rapids, Mich.}}</ref> <blockquote> Nero fastened the guilt and inflicted the most exquisite tortures on a class hated for their abominations, called Christians by the populace. Christus, from whom the name had its origin, suffered the extreme penalty during the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our procurators, Pontius Pilatus. </blockquote> Tacitus was a patriotic Roman senator.<ref>''Josephus, the Bible, and history'' by Louis H. Feldman 1997 ISBN 9004089314 page 381</ref><ref name= MAPowell33 >''Jesus as a figure in history: how modern historians view the man from Galilee'' by Mark Allan Powell 1998 ISBN 0664257038 page 33</ref> His writings shows no sympathy towards Christians, or knowledge of who their leader was.<ref name=CEvans42 /><ref>''Ancient Rome'' by William E. Dunstan 2010 ISBN 0742568334 page 293</ref><ref>Tacitus' characterization of "Christian abominations" may have been based on the rumors in Rome that during the [[Eucharist]] rituals Christians ate the body and drank the blood of their God, interpreting the symbolic ritual as cannibalism by Christians. References: ''Ancient Rome'' by William E. Dunstan 2010 ISBN 0742568334 page 293 and ''An introduction to the New Testament and the origins of Christianity'' by Delbert Royce Burkett 2002 ISBN 0521007208 page 485</ref> Scholars generally consider his reference to the execution by Pilate to be genuine, and of historical value an independent Roman source.<ref name=CEvans42 >''Jesus and His Contemporaries: Comparative Studies'' by Craig A. Evans 2001 ISBN 0391041185 page 42</ref><ref>''Mercer dictionary of the Bible'' by Watson E. Mills, Roger Aubrey Bullard 2001 ISBN 0865543739 page 343</ref><ref name=Voorst39 /><ref>''Pontius Pilate in History and Interpretation'' by Helen K. Bond 2004 ISBN 0521616204 page xi</ref> By almost all historical accounts, Pontius Pilate was governor of Judea from 26 AD until 36 AD after which he was replaced by [[Marcellus (prefect of Judea)|Marcellus]] either in 36 AD or 37 AD, establishing the date of the death of Jesus prior to 37 AD.<ref>''Pontius Pilate: portraits of a Roman governor'' by Warren Carter 2003 ISBN 0814651135 pages 44-45</ref><ref>''The history of the Jews in the Greco-Roman world'' by Peter Schäfer 2003 ISBN 0415305853 page 108</ref><ref>''Backgrounds of early Christianity'' by Everett Ferguson 2003 ISBN 0802822215 page 416</ref> ===Reign of Herod Antipas=== {{also|Jesus at Herod's Court}} In the [[Gospel of Luke]], while Jesus is in [[Pilate's Court]], Pilate realizes that Jesus is a Galilean, and thus under the jurisdiction of [[Herod Antipas]].<ref name=Niswonger >''New Testament History'' by Richard L. Niswonger 1992 ISBN 0310312019 page 172</ref><ref name=Carter120 >''Pontius Pilate: portraits of a Roman governor'' by Warren Carter 2003 ISBN 9780814651131 pages 120-121</ref> Given that Herod was in Jerusalem at that time, Pilate decides to send Jesus to Herod to be tried.<ref name=Niswonger /><ref name=Carter120 /> This episode is only described in the [[Gospel of Luke]] ([[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Luke#23:7|23:7-15]]).<ref>''The Synoptics: Matthew, Mark, Luke'' by Ján Majerník, Joseph Ponessa 2005 ISBN 1931018316 page 181</ref><ref name=Patella >''The Gospel according to Luke'' by Michael Patella 2005 ISBN 0814628621 page 16</ref><ref>''Luke: The Gospel of Amazement'' by Michael Card 2011 ISBN 9780830838356 page 251</ref><ref>[http://www.biblestudyworkshop.com/data/Lesson228.pdf Bible Study Workshop - Lesson 228]</ref> While some scholars have questioned the authenticity of this episode given that it is unique to the Gospel of Luke, the International Standard Bible Encyclopedia states that it fits well with the theme of Luke should not be seriously questioned.<ref name=Bromiley694 >''International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: E-J'' by Geoffrey W. Bromiley 1982 ISBN 0802837824 pages 694-695 [http://books.google.com/books?id=yklDk6Vv0l4C&pg=PA695&dq=herodias+john+baptist&hl=en&ei=PJacToTRNK-L4gThwKGkCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=herodias%20john%20baptist&f=false] </ref> Herod Antipas, a son of [[Herod the Great]], was born before 20 BC and was exiled in the summer of 39 AD following a lengthy intrigue involving [[Caligula]] and [[Agrippa I]], the grandson of his father.<ref>''Herod Antipas'' by Harold W. Hoehner 1983 ISBN 0310422515 page 262</ref><ref>''All the people in the Bible'' by Richard R. Losch 2008 ISBN 0802824544 page 159</ref> Although this episode provides a wider range date for the death of Jesus, it is in concord with the other estimates in that it indicates that Jesus' death took place before AD39.<ref>''The Content and the Setting of the Gospel Tradition'' by Mark Harding, Alanna Nobbs 2010 ISBN 0802833187 pages 88-89</ref><ref>''The Emergence of Christianity'' by Cynthia White 2010 ISBN 0800697472 page 11</ref> ===Conversion of Paul=== Another approach to estimating an [[upper bound]] for the year of death of Jesus is the estimation of the date of [[Conversion of Paul the Apostle]], given that in the New Testament accounts Jesus' death takes place before this conversion.<ref name=Barnett19 /><ref name=Kostenberger77 /><ref name=Riesner /> Paul's conversion is discussed in both in the [[Letters of Paul]] himself, and in the [[Acts of the Apostles]], and in both accounts takes place after the death of Jesus.<ref>Bromiley, Geoffrey William (1979). ''International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: A-D'' Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. pp. 689. ISBN 0-8028-3781-6.</ref><ref name=Barnett19 /> [[File:The Temple of Apollo at Delphi.jpg|thumb|left|180px|The [[Temple of Apollo]] in [[Delphi]], Greece, where the [[Delphi Inscription]] was discovered early in the 20th century.<ref name=Marrow45 />]] In the [[First Epistle to the Corinthians]] ([[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/1 Corinthians#15:3|15:3-8]]) Paul refers to his conversion after the death of Jesus. The [[Acts of the Apostles]] includes three separate references to Paul's conversion experience in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Acts#9|Acts 9]], [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Acts#22|Acts 22]] and [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Acts#26|Acts 26]].<ref>''Paul and His Letters'' by John B. Polhill 1999 ISBN 080541097X pages 49-50</ref><ref>''The Blackwell Companion to Natural Theology'' by William Lane Craig, James Porter Moreland 2009 ISBN 1405176571 page 616</ref> The estimation of the year of Paul's conversion relies on a series of calculations working backwards from the well established date of his trial before [[Junius Annaeus Gallio|Junius Gallio]] in [[Achaea]] Greece ([[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Acts#18:12|Acts 18:12-17]]) around 51-52 AD, a date which gained historical credibility early in the 20th century, following the discovery of four stone fragments as part of the [[Delphi Inscription]]s, at [[Delphi]] across the Gulf from [[Corinth]].<ref name=Marrow45 >''Paul: his letters and his theology'' by Stanley B. Marrow 1986 ISBN 080912744X pages 45-49</ref><ref name=Novak18 >''Christianity and the Roman Empire: background texts'' by Ralph Martin Novak 2001 ISBN 1563383470 pages 18-22</ref> Most historians estimate that Gallio (son of the [[Seneca the Elder]]) became [[proconsul]] between the spring of 51 AD and the summer of 52 AD and that his position ended no later than 53 AD.<ref name=Novak18 /><ref name=Marrow45 /><ref>''The Greco-Roman world of the New Testament era'' by James S. Jeffers 1999 ISBN 0830815899 pages 164-165</ref><ref name=CEvansA248 >''The Bible Knowledge Background Commentary: Acts-Philemon'' by Craig A. Evans 2004 ISBN 0781440068 page 248</ref> However, the trial of Paul is generally assumed to be in the earlier part of Gallio's tenure, based on the reference ([[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Acts#18:2|Acts 18:2]]) to his meeting in Corinth with [[Priscilla and Aquila]] who had been recently expelled from Rome based on Emperor [[Claudius]]' expulsion of some Jews from Rome, which is dated to 49-50 AD.<ref name=Novak18 /><ref>''The Bible Knowledge Commentary: New Testament edition'' by John F. Walvoord, Roy B. Zuck 1983 ISBN 0882078127 page 405</ref> According to the New Testament, Paul spent eighteen months in Corinth, approximately seventeen years after his conversion.<ref name=Eerdsman1019 >''Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible'' Amsterdam University Press, 2000 ISBN 9053565035 page 1019</ref><ref name=Marrow45 /> [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Galatians#2:1|Galatians 2:1-10]] states that Paul went [[Paul_the_apostle#Visits_to_Jerusalem_in_Acts_and_the_epistles|back to Jerusalem]] fourteen years after his conversion, and various missions (at times with [[Barnabas]]) such as those in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Acts#11:25|Acts 11:25-26]] and [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/2 Corinthians#11:23|2 Corinthians 11:23-33]] appear in the Book of Acts.<ref name=Barnett19 /><ref name=Kostenberger77 /> The generally accepted scholarly estimate for the date of conversion of Paul is 33-36 AD, placing the death of Jesus before this date range.<ref name=Barnett19 >''Jesus & the Rise of Early Christianity: A History of New Testament Times'' by Paul Barnett 2002 ISBN 0830826998 pages 19-21</ref><ref name=Kostenberger77 >''The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament'' by Andreas J. Köstenberger, L. Scott Kellum 2009 ISBN 9780805443653 pages 77-79</ref><ref name=Riesner >''Paul's early period: chronology, mission strategy, theology'' by Rainer Riesner 1997 ISBN 9780802841667 page 19-27 (page 27 has a table of various scholarly estimates)</ref> ===Astronomical analysis=== ====Newton's method==== [[File:Bolton-newton.jpg|thumb|180px|[[Isaac Newton]]]] In 1733, [[Isaac Newton]] became one of the first scientists to estimate the date of the crucifixion by calculating the relative visibility of the crescent of the new moon between the [[Hebrew calendar|Hebrew]] and [[Julian calendar]]s.<ref name=Humphreys45 /><ref name=Pratt1 /> In chapter XI of the first Part I of [[wikisource:Observations_upon_the_Prophecies_of_Daniel/Part_I_Chap_XI|Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel]] Newton stated that assuming "the passion was on friday the 14th day of the month Nisan", one could compute the exact date of the crucifixion because "the 14th day of Nisan always fell on the full moon next after the vernal Equinox". Using this line of reasoning, Newton calculated the date of the crucifixion as Friday, April 23, AD 34.<ref name=Newton >[[Isaac Newton|Newton, Isaac]] (1733). "[[s:Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel/Part I Chap XI|Of the Times of the Birth and Passion of Christ]]", in ''[[s:Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel|Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse of St. John]]''</ref> In the computations, Newton first narrowed the possible years to AD 33 and AD 34; and selected AD 34 by using a postponement rule from the modern Hebrew calendar.<ref name=Newton /><ref name=Pratt1 /> In time, a number of other scientists used similar methods of relating the Hebrew and Julian calendars with the version developed by [[John Knight Fotheringham|J. K. Fotheringham]] becoming a standard by the middle of the 20th century.<ref name=Humphreys45 >[[Colin Humphreys]], ''The Mystery of the Last Supper'' Cambridge University Press 2011 ISBN 9780521732000, pages 45-48</ref><ref>Fotheringham, J.K., 1910. "On the smallest visible phase of the moon," ''Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society'' 70, 527-531.</ref> Fotheringham dated the crucifixion in a similar manner.<ref>Fotheringham, J.K. 1910 "Astronomical Evidence for the Date of the Crucifixion," ''Journal of Theological Studies'' 12, 120-127.</ref><ref>Fotheringham, J.K. 1934. "The Evidence of Astronomy and Technical Chronology for the Date of the Crucifixion," ''Journal of Theological Studies'' 35, 146-162.</ref> Using similar computations, in 1990 astronomer [[Bradley E. Schaefer]] arrived at the date, Friday, April 3, AD 33 for the crucifixion.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Schaefer |first=B. E. |year=1990 |title=Lunar Visibility and the Crucifixion |journal=Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=53–67 |bibcode=1990QJRAS..31...53S }}</ref> According to John Pratt, Fotheringham and Schaefer seem to have been unaware of Newton's computations.<ref name=Pratt1 /> Writing in the Journal of the [[Royal Astronomical Society]] in 1991, Pratt stated that Newton and Schaefer agreed on dates of lunar visibility, but not on the resulting date for the crucifixion. By working through Newton's calculations, Pratt rejected the claim that Newton selected April 23 because it happened to be [[St. George's day]].<ref name=Pratt1 /> Pratt argued that Newton's reasoning was effectively sound, but included a minor, non-mathematical error at the end, given that the "postponement rule" from the modern [[Hebrew calendar]] was shown not to have been in use at the time over a century after Newton. Pratt suggested the year AD 33 as the accurate answer.<ref name=Pratt1 >{{cite journal |last=Pratt |first=J. P. |year=1991 |title=Newton's Date for the Crucifixion |journal=Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=301–304 |bibcode=1991QJRAS..32..301P }} [http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1991QJRAS..32..301P]</ref> Humphreys and Waddington have supported Newton's approach to the reconstruction of the first century Jewish Calendar, and Humphreys has presented methods for how it can be confirmed with further calculations.<ref name=HumphreysPlus >{{cite journal |last=Humphreys |first=Colin J. |year= 1983 |month=December |title=Dating the Crucifixion |journal=Nature |volume=306 |issue=5945 |pages=743–746 |doi=10.1038/306743a0 |coauthors=W. G. Waddington |bibcode=1983Natur.306..743H}}</ref><ref name=Humphreys45 /> Unlike scientist [[Colin Humphreys]] who considers astronomy a viable method of dating biblical episodes, historian [[E. P. Sanders]] contends that astronomical analysis can neither prove, nor disprove the chronology of Jesus.<ref>[[Colin Humphreys]], ''The Mystery of the Last Supper'' Cambridge University Press 2011 ISBN 9780521732000, page 37</ref><ref>E. P. Sanders, ''The Historical Figure of Jesus'' (Penguin, 1993) pages 285-286.</ref> ====Lunar eclipse method==== [[File:Eclipse 2008 Sar.JPG|thumb|180px|A [[solar eclipse]], August 2008.]] [[File:Lunar eclipse March 2007.jpg|thumb|180px|A [[lunar eclipse]], March 2007.]] In the accounts of the crucifixion in the [[Synoptic Gospels]], a period of darkness occurs ([[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#27:45|Matthew 27:45]], [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Mark#15:33|Mark 15:33]], [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Luke#23:44|Luke 23:44]]) on the first day of Passover beginning around noon ("the sixth hour") and continuing until 3 o'clock ("the ninth hour").<ref>''The Bible Knowledge Commentary: New Testament'' by John F. Walvoord, Roy B. Zuck 1983 ISBN 9780882078120 page 88</ref> In the 6th century [[Cassiodorus|Aurelius Cassiodorus]] stated that the crucifixion occurred when there was a great eclipse the same year [[Sejanus]] became the [[List of Roman consuls|consul]] with [[Tiberius]], AD 31.<ref>{{cite book |title=A New Analysis of Chronology and Geography, History and Prophecy |last=Hales |first=William |author-link=William Hales |year=1830 |volume=1 |page=70 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=aNfVAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA70#v=onepage&q&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Opus de emendatione temporum hac postrema Editione |last=Scaliger |first=Joseph |author-link=Joseph Justus Scaliger |year=1629 |page=563 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=vTZBAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA563#v=onepage&q&f=false}}</ref> Modern astronomers have debated the possibility of a [[solar eclipse]] during the crucifixion, but have generally raised objections to it.<ref name=Milone >''Exploring Ancient Skies: A Survey of Ancient and Cultural Astronomy'' by David H. Kelley, Eugene F. Milone 2011 ISBN 144197623X pages 250-251</ref> Given that a solar eclipses only occur during the new moon phase, and 14th of Nisan always corresponds to a full moon, biblical scholars instead suggest that the the darkness may have been due to a storm of some kind, and not a solar eclipse.<ref>''Historical Dictionary of Jesus'' by Daniel J. Harrington 2010 ISBN 0810876671 pages 43-44 </ref> Moreover, a solar eclipse it takes about an hour for the moon to cover the sun, with total coverage lasting a few minutes.<ref>''Astronomy: The Solar System and Beyond'' by Michael A. Seeds, Dana Backman, 2009 ISBN 0495562033 page 34</ref><ref>Meeus, J. (2003, December). ''The maximum possible duration of a total solar eclipse''. Journal of the British Astronomical Association, 113(6), 343-348.</ref> In 1983, [[Colin Humphreys|Humphreys]] and Waddington of [[Oxford University]] noted that the separate reference made by [[Apostle Peter]] in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Acts#2:20|Acts 2:20]] to a "moon of blood" is a term used for [[lunar eclipse]]s as far back as 331 BC.<ref name=HumphreysPlus /><ref name=Humphreys86 >[[Colin Humphreys]], ''The Mystery of the Last Supper'' Cambridge University Press 2011 ISBN 9780521732000, pages 86-87</ref> A lunar eclipse can last a few hours, total coverage being about an hour.<ref>[http://www.crh.noaa.gov/fsd/astro/suneclipse.php National weather service]</ref> Humphreys and Waddington computed the Jewish calendar for the first century AD, and also reconstructed the scenario for a lunar eclipse, and arrived at the conclusion that Friday April 3 33AD was the date of the Crucifixion.<ref name=HumWadJASA>Colin J. Humphreys and W. G. Waddington, ''The Date of the Crucifixion'' Journal of the American Scientific Affiliation 37 (March 1985)[http://www.asa3.org/aSA/PSCF/1985/JASA3-85Humphreys.html]</ref> The lunar eclipse approach used for the determination of the date April 3rd 33 AD is totally independent and distinct from the Newton-like construction of the Jewish calendar, but arrives at the same date.<ref name=Colin13 >[[Colin Humphreys]], ''The Mystery of the Last Supper'' Cambridge University Press 2011 ISBN 9780521732000, page 13</ref> According to the computations of Humphreys and Waddington a lunar eclipse on Friday April 3rd 33 AD would begin at 3:40pm and would reach a maximum at 5:15pm, with 60% of the moon eclipsed. A lunar eclipse on April 3rd 33 AD would finish at 6:50pm.<ref name=HumWadJASA/> In their view, the failure of any of the gospel accounts to refer to a lunar eclipse was likely the result of a scribe wrongly amending a text to refer to a solar eclipse.<ref name="henige">{{cite book | last=Henige | first=David P. | authorlink=David Henige | title=Historical evidence and argument | publisher=University of Wisconsin Press | isbn=978-0299214104 | page=150| year=2005}}</ref> Although this model provides a date for the crucifixion which is consistent with the reconstruction of the Jewish calendar, and arrives at the same date as the modified Newton method,, it does not address the preceding reference to the darkened sun in the gospels.<ref name=HumWadJASA/><ref name=HumphreysPlus /> Bradley E. Schaefer supports the year 33 AD using his own computations through the reconstruction of the Jewish calendar, and does not deny the possibility of a lunar eclipse on that day, but he rejects the visibility that eclipse in Jerusalem based on his approach to computing "celestial glare".<ref>Schaefer, B. E. (1990, March). Lunar visibility and the crucifixion. Royal Astonomical Society Quarterly Journal, 31(1), 53-67</ref><ref>Schaefer, B. E. (1991, July). Glare and celestial visibility. Publications of the Astonomical Society of the Pacific, 103, 645-660.</ref><ref>''Marking time: the epic quest to invent the perfect calendar'' by Duncan Steel 1999 ISBN 0471298271 page 341</ref> Ruggles supports Schaefer's views and Gaskel has argued that a lunar eclipse during the day of the crucifixion could have received significant attention.<ref>Ruggles, C. (1990, June). Archaeoastronomy – the Moon and the crucifixion. Nature, 345(6277), 669-670.</ref><ref>Gaskel, C. M. (1993, December). Beyond visibility: The "Crucifixion eclipse" in the context of some other astronomical events of the times. ''Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society'', '''25''', 1334. 183rd AAS Meeting [Abstract 27.04].</ref> ==Theories on days of birth and death== ===Day of birth=== The nativity accounts in the New Testament gospels of Matthew and Luke do not mention a day for the birth of Jesus and [[Karl Rahner]] states that given that the gospels were written as theological documents they do not pay attention to such details.<ref name=Rahner731 >''Encyclopedia of theology: a concise Sacramentum mundi'' by [[Karl Rahner]] 2004 ISBN 0860120066 page 731</ref> Neither Luke nor Matthew mention a season for when Jesus was born. However, scholarly arguments regarding the realism of shepherds grazing their flock during the winter have taken place, both challenging a winter birth for Jesus, as well as defending it by relying on the mildness of winters in Palestine and [[Rabbinic Judaism|rabbinic]] rules regarding sheep near Bethlehem before February.<ref>"New Testament History" by Richard L. Niswonger 1992 ISBN 0310312019 pp. 121-124</ref><ref>''Luke: an introduction and commentary'' by Leon Morris 1988 ISBN 0802804195 page 93</ref><ref>''Stories of Jesus' Birth'' by Edwin D. Freed 2004 ISBN 0567080463 pages 136-137</ref> The day of birth of Jesus, celebrated as [[Christmas]] is based on a feast rather than historical analysis. In the 1st and 2nd centuries, the [[Lord's Day]] (Sunday) was the earliest Christian celebration and included a number of theological themes. In the 2nd century, the [[Resurrection of Jesus]] became a separate feast as [[Easter]] and in the same century [[Epiphany (holiday)|Epiphany]] began to be celebrated in the Churches of the East on January 6.<ref>''An introductory dictionary of theology and religious studies'' by Orlando O. Espín, James B. Nickoloff 2007 ISBN 0814658563 page 237</ref> The festival of the Nativity which later turned into Christmas was a 4th century feast in the [[Western Church]] notably in Rome and North Africa, although it is uncertain exactly where and when it was first celebrated.<ref>''Christian worship in Reformed Churches past and present'' by Lukas Vischer 2002 ISBN 0802805205 pages 400-401</ref> ===Day of death=== {{Jesus}} Tradition (and the [[Synoptic Gospels]]) hold that the [[Last Supper]] took place on the first night of [[Passover]], which is defined in the [[Torah]] as occurring after the daylight of the [[Quartodeciman|14th of Nisan]] ({{Bibleverse||Lev|23:5-6|he}}). However, [[the Gospel of John]] implies that at the time of the trial the Jewish leaders had not yet eaten the Passover meal{{Bibleref2c|Jn.|18:28}} and states just prior to his sentencing "Now it was the day of Preparation of the Passover. It was about the sixth hour."{{Bibleref2c|Jn.|19:14}} This places the crucifixion on [[Nisan]] [[Quartodecimanism|14]], since the law mandated the lamb had to be sacrificed between 3:00 pm and 5:00 pm and eaten before midnight on Nisan 14.<ref>{{cite web|author=[[Philo]] |title=''De Specialibus Legibus'' 2.145 |url=http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book28.html}}</ref><ref>[[Josephus]]. ''[[s:The War of the Jews|The War of the Jews]]'' [[s:The War of the Jews/Book VI#Chapter 9|6.9.3]]</ref><ref>''[[Mishnah]], [[Pesahim]]'' 5.1.</ref> This understanding fits well with [[Old Testament]] [[Typology (theology)|typology]], in which Jesus entered [[Jerusalem]] to identify himself as the [[Korban Pesach|Paschal lamb]] on Nisan 10{{Bibleref2c|Jn.|Ex.|12:1-6}} was crucified and died at 3:00 in the afternoon of Nisan 14, at the same time the High Priest would have sacrificed the Paschal lamb,{{Bibleref2c|1Cor|5:7||1 Cor. 5:7}} {{Bibleref2c|Isaiah|53:7-9||cf. Isa. 53:7-9}} and rose before dawn the morning of Nisan 16, as a type of offering of the [[First Fruits]].{{Bibleref2c|1Cor|15:23||1 Cor. 15:23}} {{Bibleref2c|Lev.|23:9-14||cf. Lev. 23:9-14}} However, "the day of preparation" has been seen to mean either the day before Passover or simply Friday; or both.<ref>''The Complete Gospels'', Robert J. Miller, ed., 1992, page 241, commentary on verse 19:31</ref> The chronology presented by John has been viewed as problematic in reconciling with the Synoptic passages and the tradition in that the [[Last Supper]] was a Passover meal,<ref>{{Bibleref2|Matthew|26:17-19}}; {{Bibleref2|Mark|14:12-16}}; {{Bibleref2|Luke|22:7-8}}</ref> placing the crucifixion instead on Nisan 15. However, the apparent contradiction may be resolved by postulating differences in how post-exilic Jews reckoned time.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Does the Day Begin in the Evening or Morning? Some Biblical Observations |author=Stroes, H. R. |journal=[[Vetus Testamentum]] |volume=16 |issue=4 |month=October |year=1966 |pages=460–475 |doi=10.2307/1516711 |publisher=BRILL |jstor=1516711}}</ref> For Jesus and his disciples, the Passover could have begun at dawn Thursday, while for traditional Jews (following {{Bibleref2|Leviticus|23:5}}), it would not have begun until dusk that same day.<ref>{{cite web |title=Daily Life In The Time Of Jesus |author=Ross, Allen |url=http://www.bible.org/page.php?page_id=3953}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=[[Harold Hoehner|Hoehner, Harold]] |title=Chronological Aspects of the Life of Christ |year=1977 |location=Grand Rapids |publisher=Zondervan}}</ref> Another potential solution is that Jesus chose to celebrate the Passover meal a day early with his disciples.{{Bibleref2c|Mt.|26:18}} {{Bibleref2c|Lk.|22:15}} <ref>{{cite journal |title=The Time of the Last Supper |author=Heawood, Percy J. |journal=The Jewish Quarterly Review, New Series |volume=42 |issue=1 |month=July |year=1951 |pages=37–44 |jstor=1452717 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=The Character of Christ's Last Meal |author=Schmidt, Nathaniel |journal=Journal of Biblical Literature |volume=11 |issue=1 |year=1892 |pages=1–21 |doi=10.2307/3259075 |publisher=The Society of Biblical Literature |jstor=3259075}}</ref> ==Other approaches== A wide range of approaches to the chronology of Jesus have been suggested over the centuries, but have no significant support among modern scholars. [[Maximus the Confessor]], [[Eusebius of Caesarea|Eusebius]], and [[Cassiodorus]] recorded the death of Jesus in 31 AD, but the 14th of Nisan would probably have been on a Tuesday that year. The 3rd/4th century Roman historian [[Lactantius]] states that Jesus was crucified on a particular day in 29 AD, but that did not correspond to a full moon.<ref>Lactantius, ''Of the Manner In Which the Persecutors Died'' 2: "In the latter days of the Emperor Tiberius, in the consulship of Ruberius (''sic'') Geminus and Fufius Geminus, and on the tenth of the kalends of April, as I find it written".</ref> Some commentators have attempted to establish the date of birth by identifying the [[Star of Bethlehem]] with some known astronomical or astrological phenomenon.<ref>For example, astronomer Michael Molnar identified April 17, 6 BC as the likely date of the Nativity, since that date corresponded to the [[heliacal rising]] and lunar [[occultation]] of Jupiter, while it was momentarily stationary in the sign of Aries; according to Molnar, to knowledgeable astrologers of this time, this highly unusual combination of events would have indicated that a regal personage would be (or had been) born in Judea. Michael R. Molnar, "The Star of Bethlehem: The Legacy of the Magi," Rutgers University Press, 1999.</ref> There are many possible phenomena and none seems to match the Gospel account.<ref>Raymond E. Brown, ''101 Questions and Answers on the Bible'', Paulist Press (2003), page 79.</ref> Many scholars regard the star as a literary invention of the author of the [[Gospel of Matthew]], to claim fulfillment of an Old Testament prophecy (Numbers 24:17).<ref>Joseph J. Walsh, ''Were They Wise Men or Kings?'', Westminster John Knox Press, (2001), p. 40</ref> ==See also== * [[Jesus von Nazareth]] * [[Gospel harmony]] * [[Historischer Jesus]] * [[Testimonium Flavianum]] * [[Jesus in Christianity]]Detailed Christian timeline]] * [[Gospel harmony]] * [[Historical Jesus]] * [[Jesus in Christianity]] *''[[Life of Christ]]'' in art * [[New Testament view on Jesus' life]] * [[Timeline of the Bible]] ==Einzelnachweise== <references />References== {{Reflist|2}} ==External links== * [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08377a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia (1910): Chronology of the Life of Jesus Christ] <nowiki>{{Jesus footer}} {{Timeline of religion}} {{Christianityfooter{{Timeline of religion}} {{New Testament people|collapsed}} {{Christianityfooter}} {{Christian History|collapsed}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Chronology Of Jesus}} [[Category:Jesus]] [[Category:Chronology]] [[Category:Religion timelines|Jesus]] [[Category:Jesus and history]] [[Category:New Testament history]] [[Category:1st-century Christianity]] [[eo:Dato de la morto de Jesuo]] [[id:Kronologi kehidupan Yesus]] [[it:Data della morte di Gesù]] [[no:Tidspunktet for Jesu Kristi fødsel]] [[ckb:کرۆنۆلۆجی یەسووع]]⏎ [[sr:Hronologija Isusa]] [[sh:Kronologija Isusa]] [[fi:Jeesuksen kronologia]]</nowiki> All content in the above text box is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike license Version 4 and was originally sourced from https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?diff=prev&oldid=106513895.
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