Difference between revisions 112479833 and 112479834 on dewiki

{{Infobox Military Conflict|
image=[[Image:Greekfire-madridskylitzes1.jpg|center|300px]]|
caption=[[Greek fire]], first used by the [[Byzantine Navy]] during the Byzantine-Arab Wars.|
conflict=Byzantine-Arab Wars|
partof=the [[Muslim conquests]]|
date=[[629]], [[634]]-[[717]], [[800s]]-[[1025]], [[, 634-717, 800s-1025, 1169]]|
place=Palestine, Syria, Egypt, North Africa, Anatolia, Crete, Sicily|
result= [[Arab]] conquests|
territory=[[Palestine]], [[Egypt]] and the whole of [[North Africa]] annexed by [[Arab]]s.|
combatant1=[[Byzantine Empire]],<ref name="Levies">The Empire's levies included [[Christian]] [[Armenia]]ns, [[Slavic peoples|Slavs]], and Arab [[Ghassanids]]
(contracted; show full)the 7th and 12th centuries AD. These started during the initial [[Muslim conquests]] under the [[Rashidun]] and [[Umayyad]] [[caliph]]s and continued in the form of an enduring border tussle until the beginning of the [[Crusades]]. As result the Byzantines, also called the [[Eastern Roman Empire|Romans]] ("[[Rûm]]" in [[Muslim]] historical chronicles, the Byzantine Empire was formerly the Eastern half of the [[Roman Empire]]), saw an extensive loss of territory.

The initial conflict lasted from 
[[634]]-[[-717]], ending with the [[Siege of Constantinople (718)|Second Arab Siege of Constantinople]] that halted the rapid expansion of the Arab Empire into [[Asia Minor]]. Conflicts however continued between the [[800s]] and [[1169]]. The [[History of Islam in southern Italy|occupation of southern Italian territories]] by the [[Abbassid]] forces occurred in the [[9th century|9th]] and [[10th century|and 10th centuries]]. However, under the [[Macedonian dynasty]], the Byzantines recaptured territory in the [[Levant]] with the Byzantines armies' advance even threatening [[Jerusalem]] to the south. The [[Emirate]] of [[Aleppo]] and its neighbours became vassals of the Byzantines in the east, where the greatest threat was the Egyptian [[Fatimid]] kingdom, until the rise of the [[Seljuk dynasty]] reversed all gains and pushed [[Abbassid]] territorial gains deep into [[Anatolia]]. This resulted in the [[Byzantine emperor]](contracted; show full)

The [[Rashidun]] [[Caliphs]] had just reconsolidated the [[Arabian Peninsula]] during the [[Ridda wars]] in the wake of the death of the [[Islam]]ic [[prophet]] [[Muhammed]] in 
[[632]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://history-world.org/islam11.htm |title= Islam From The Beginning To 1300 |accessdate=2007-09-02 |format= |work=history-world.org }}</ref> The engagements started as conflicts with the Arab client states of the Byzantine and [[Sassanid]] empires; the [[Ghassanids]] and the [[Lakhmids]] of [[Al-Hirah]]. These conflicts soon turned into a full blown concurrent war with both empires resulting in the conquest of the [[Levant]] and [[Persia]] under the two Rashidun generals; [[Khalid ibn al-Walid]] and [[Amr ibn al-A'as]]. 

===Arab conquest of Roman Syria: 634-638===
{{main|Muslim conquest of Syria}} {{see|Khalid ibn al-Walid}}

In the Levant, the [[Rashidun army]] were engaged by a [[Byzantine army]] composed of Imperial troops as well as local levies.<ref name="Levies"/> The Roman Emperor [[Heraclius]] had fallen ill and was unable to lead his armies to resist the Arab conquests of [[Syria]] and [[Palestine]] in [[634]]. [[Rashidun Caliphate]] forces [[Conquest of Damascus|conquered Damascus]] in [[634]] A.D under the command of [[Khalid ibn Walid]].<ref name="Britannica Syria"> "Syria." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2006. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 20 Oct. 2006 [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-29909]</ref> [[Monophysites]] and [[Jew]]s throughout [[Syria]] welcomed the Arab conquerors, as they were discontented with Byzantine persecution and taxation, and receptive to the lower taxes offered under the new regime.<ref name="Read"/> The Arabian tribes als(contracted; show full)
<!--The source cited contained four spelling errors, which have been corrected. Tyrannv=tyranny ; Saving=saying ; b=by ; citv=city.  See the changes at: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Byzantine-Arab_Wars&diff=98392463&oldid=98286597 -->}}

Following the Byzantine defeat in 
[[636]] at the [[Battle of Yarmouk]], Heraclius, while departing [[Antioch]] for [[Constantinople]], is recorded by [[Baladhuri]] as saying as he passed ad-D'arb: "Peace unto thee, O Syria, and what an excellent country this is for the enemy!"<ref>[[Internet History Sourcebooks Project|Medieval Sourcebook]]: [[Al-Baladhuri]]: [[Battle of Yarmouk|The Battle Of The Yarmuk]] ([[636]]) and After [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/yarmuk.html]</ref> In [[Constantinople]], the Emperor began to array his remaining forces for a defence of Egypt. In [[638]], the Arabs conquered [[Jerusalem]]. The local population of [[Jerusalem]] welcomed the conquerors into the city, which was surrendered by [[Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem|Patriarch]] [[Sophronius]] in the same year. As [[Steven Runciman]] describes the event:

(contracted; show full)

===Arab conquests of North Africa: 639-717===
{{main|Muslim conquest of Egypt|Umayyad conquest of North Africa}}{{see|Amr ibn al-A'as|Uqba ibn Nafi}}
[[Antioch]] was temporarily remained under Byzantine control but by the time Heraclius died, much of the [[Aegyptus (Roman province)|Roman province of Egypt]] had been lost as well. With 4,000 [[Arabs]] under his command, Amr ibn al-As crossed into Egypt from [[Palestine]] in December 
[[639]]. The Byzantine navy briefly won back [[Alexandria]] in 645, but recapitulated it in [[646]] shortly after the [[Battle of Nikiou]]. The local Christian [[Copts]] welcomed the Arabs just as the Monophysites did in Jerusalem.<ref name="Read"/> The loss of this lucrative province deprived the Byzantines of their valuable [[wheat]] supply, thereby causing [[bread]] shortages throughout the Byzantine Empire and its soldiers rations in the following decades.<ref>{{cite book |last=Tathakopoulos |first=Dionysios |authorlink= |coauthors= |editor= |others= |title=Famine and Pestilence(contracted; show full)

The Arabs took [[Cyprus]] in 643 and the following year Caliph [[Uthman]] succeeded Caliph Umar after his death.<ref name="Europe245"/><ref name="Europe252">''Europe: A History'', p 252. Oxford: Oxford University Press 1996. ISBN 0-19-820171-0</ref> In 647, an [[Medina]]n army led by [[Abdallah ibn al-Sa’ad]] moved into the Byzantine [[Exarchate of Africa]]. [[Tripolitania]] was taken, followed by [[Sufetula]], 
{{convert|150  |miles|km}} south of [[Carthage]]. Abdallah's booty-laden force returned to Egypt in 648.

[[Image:ByzantineDromon.jpg|thumb|250px|right|A [[Byzantine art|Byzantine fresco]] showing a [[dromon]]. Byzantium was the dominant sea-power of the [[7th century]].]]
Following a [[First Fitna|civil war]] in the Arab Empire the [[Umayyad Dynasty|Umayyads]] came to power under [[Muawiyah I]]. Under the Umayyads the [[Umayyad conquest of North Africa#First invasion|conquest of the remaining Byzantine territories in North Africa]] was completed and the Arabs were able to move across large parts of [[Maghreb]], entering into [[Hispania#Visigothic Hispania|Visigothic Spain]] through the [[Strait of Gibraltar]] under the command of the [[Berber people|Berber]] general [[Ta(contracted; show full)

Muawiyah began consolidating the Arab territory from the [[Aral Sea]] to the western border of Egypt. He put a governor in place in Egypt at [[Cairo|al-Fustat]], and launched raids into [[Sicily]] in 
[[652]] and [[Anatolia]] in [[663]]. Then from 665 to 689 a new North African campaign was carried out to protect Egypt "from flank attack by Byzantine [[Cyrene]]". An Arab army of 40,000 took [[Barca]], defeating 30,000 Byzantine.<ref name="Durant">[[Will Durant]], ''The History of Civilization: Part IV—The Age of Faith''. 1950. New York: Simon and Schuster. ISBN 0671012002</ref>

(contracted; show full)from the shores of the Atlantic." His forces were directed at putting down rebellions, and in one such battle he was surrounded by insurgents and killed. Then, the third governor of Africa, Zuheir, was overthrown by a powerful army, sent from Constantinople by [[Constantine IV]] for the relief of [[Carthage]].<ref name="Gibbon"/> Meanwhile, a [[Second Fitna|second Arab civil war]] was raging in [[Arabia]] and Syria resulting in a series of four caliphs between the death of Muawiyah in 
[[680]] and the ascension of [[Abd al-Malik]] in [[685]], and was ongoing until [[692]] with the death of the rebel leader.<ref>Karen Armstrong: ''Islam: A Short History''. New York, NY, USA: The Modern Library, 2002, 2004  ISBN 0-8129-6618-X</ref>

[[Image:Solidus-Justinian II-Christ b-sb1413.jpg|thumb|250px|Although Justinian II had a turbulent reign, his coinage still bore the traditional "<small>[[Pax Romana|PAX]]</small>", ''peace''.]]
The Saracen Wars of [[Justinian II]], last Emperor of the [[Heraclian Dynasty]], "reflected the general chaos of the age".<ref name="Europe245"/> After a successful campaign he made a truce with the Arabs, agreeing on joint possession of [[Armenia]], [[Caucasian Iberia|Iberia]] and [[Cyprus]]; however, by removing 12,000 [[Christian]] [[Maronite]]s from their native [[Lebanon]], he gave the Arabs a command over [[Asia Minor]] which they used in [[692]] to conquer all Armenia.<ref name="Justinian">[[1911 Encyclopedia Britannica]] [http://7.1911encyclopedia.org/Justinian_II_Rhinotmetus]</ref> Deposed in [[695]], with [[Carthage]] lost in [[698]], Justinian returned to power from [[705]]-[[-711]].<ref name="Europe245"/> His second reign was marked by Arab victories in Asia Minor and civil unrest.<ref name="Justinian"/> Reportedy, he ordered his guards to execute the only unit that had not deserted him after one battle, to prevent their desertion in the next.<ref name="Europe245"/>

===Arab sieges of Constantinople===
{{main articles|First Arab siege of Constantinople|Second Arab siege of Constantinople}}
[[Image:Byzantijnse stadsmuren.JPG|thumb|300px|left|The [[Theodosian Walls]] of [[Constantinople]].]]
In 674 the Umayyad Caliph Muawiyah I besieged [[Constantinople]] under [[Constantine IV]]. In this battle, the Umayyads were unable to breach the [[Theodosian Walls]] and blockaded the city along the River [[Bosporus]]. The approach of winter however forced the besiegers to withraw to an island {{convert|80  |miles|km}} away.<ref name="Walls">''[http://www.ospreypublishing.com/title_detail.php/title=S759X~ser=FOR The Walls of Constantinople, AD 324–1453]'', [[Osprey Publishing]], ISBN 1-84176-759-X.</ref>

However, prior to the siege a [[Syriacs|Syrian]] [[Christianity|Christian]] [[refugee]] named Kallinikos (Callinicus) of [[Baalbek|Heliopolis]] had recently invented for the Byzantine Empire a devastating new weapon that came to be known as "[[Greek fire]]".<ref name="Theophanes"/><ref name="Walls"/> At the [[Battle of Syllaeum]] in 677, the [[Byzantine navy]] used the weapon to decisively defeat the Umayyad navy in the [[Sea of Marmara]] and lift the siege in [[678]]. Among those killed in the siege was Eyup, the standard bearer of Muhammed and the last of his companions; to Muslims today, his tomb is considered one of the holiest sites in Istanbul.<ref name="Walls"/> The Byzantine victory halted the Umayyad expansion into [[Europe]] for almost thirty years.

The initial conflict came to a close during the reigns of the Byzantine Emperor [[Leo III the Isaurian]] and the Umayyad Caliph [[Umar II|Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz]], after the [[Second Arab siege of Constantinople]] in ([[717]]-[[-718]]), where the Arab ground forces, led by [[Maslama]],<ref name="Walls"/> were defeated by Constantinople's walls and the timely arrival of allied [[Bulgars|Bulgar]] forces even as the Umayyad naval fleet was defeated by Greek fire:

(contracted; show full)
<!-- The source cited contained one spelling error, which has been corrected. Urnar=Umar. See the change at: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Byzantine-Arab_Wars&diff=98393050&oldid=98392801 -->}}

== Later conflicts ==
{{main|Byzantine-Arab Wars (780 - 1180)|History of Islam in southern Italy|Macedonian dynasty}}
{{see also|Iconoclasm}}
The primary conflict ended with the siege of Constantinople in 
[[718]], and although later conflicts continued into the [[11th century]], the conquests of the Arabs began to retard. Arab attempts at taking [[Anatolia]] failed until the arrival of the [[Seljuk]]s.

=== Iconoclast controversy ===
Among the effects of the Byzantine-Arab Wars was the religious and civil unrest it stirred in the heart of [[Byzantium]].  The ''Iconomachia'', or "Wars of the [[Icon]]s", began when a [[726]] edict of Leo the Isaurian decreed the [[crucifix]] be replaced by a plain [[Cross]], sparking off the controversy of [[Iconoclasm]].<ref name="Europe245"/> Writings suggest that at least part of the reason for the removal may have been military reversals against the [[Muslims]] and the eruption of the volcanic island of [[Thera]],<ref name="thera">[http://www.decadevolcano.net/santorini/santorini_volcanism.htm Volcanism on Santorini / eruptive history]</ref> which Leo (contracted; show full)

Meanwhile between 750 and 770, Constantine launched a series of campaigns against the Arabs and Bulgars in an attempt to reverse so many losses.<ref>Haldon, John.  Byzantium at War 600 - 1453. New York: Osprey, 2000. </ref> 

[[Image:Byzantine Empire Themata-950.png|300px|thumb|right|The ''[[Theme (Byzantine administrative unit)|themata]]'', ''circa'' AD 
[[950]]. Syria would be added by the end of the century, bringing the Empire to its greatest height since the war began.]]
Civil war occurred in the Byzantine Empire, often with Arab support.  With the support of Caliph [[Al-Ma'mun]], Arabs under the leadership of [[Thomas the Slav]] invaded, so that within a matter of months, only two ''[[Theme (Byzantine administrative unit)|themata]]'' in Asia Minor remained loyal to Emperor [[Michael II]].<ref name="Thomas">{{cite book | author=John Julius Norwich| title=A Short History of Byzantium | publisher=Penguin | year=1998 | id=ISBN 0-14-025960-0}}</ref> When Thomas captured [[Thessalonica]], the Empire's second largest city, it was quickly re-captured by the Byzantines.<ref name="Thomas"/> Thomas's 821 siege of Constantinople did not get past the [[Walls of Constantinople|city walls]], and he was forced to retreat.<ref name="Thomas"/>

=== Asia Minor, Crete and Sicily ===

The Arabs did not relinquish their designs on Asia Minor and in 838 began another invasion, sacking the city of [[Amorion]].<ref>Haldon, John. Byzantium at War 600 - 1453. New York: Osprey, 2000.</ref> With internal Byzantine unity weakened, along with their ties to the West, Crete fell to the [[Saracens]] in 824, and Sicily was slowly lost over a 75-year period.  Using [[Tunisia]] as their launching pad, the Arabs started by conquering Palermo in 831, [[Messina]] in [[842]], [[Enna]] in 859.

=== Byzantine resurgence ===
[[Image:Italy 1000 AD.svg|thumb|right|160px|Italy around 1000]]

However, religious peace came with the emergence of the [[Macedonian dynasty]] in [[867]], as well as a strong and unified Byzantine leadership;<ref name="Europe"/> while the [[Abassids]] empire had splintered into many factions.  [[Basil I]] revived the Byzantine Empire into a regional power, during a period of territorial expansion, making the Empire the strongest power in [[Europe]], with an ecclesiastical policy marked by good relations with [[Papacy|Rome]]. Basil allied with the [[Holy Roman Emperor]] [[Louis II, Holy Roman Emperor|Louis II]] against the Arabs, and his fleet cleared the [[Adriatic Sea]] from their raids.  With Byzantine help, Louis II captured [[Bari]] from the Arabs in 871.  The city became Byzantine territory in [[876]].  However, the Byzantine position on [[Sicily]] deteriorated, and [[Syracuse, Italy|Syracuse]] fell to the [[Emirate of Sicily]] in [[878]].  Catania would be lost in 900, and finally the fortress of [[Taormina]] in [[902]].  Sicily would remain under Arab control until the Norman invasion in [[1071]].

Although most of Sicily was lost, the general Nicephorus Phocas the Elder succeeded in taking [[Taranto]] and much of [[Calabria]] in 880. Crete was retaken by the Byantines in 960, and would be held until [[1204]], when it fell to the [[Venice]] during the [[Fourth Crusade]]. The successes in the [[Italian Peninsula]] opened a new period of Byzantine domination there. Above all, the Byzantines were beginning to establish a strong presence in the [[Mediterranean Sea]], and especially the [[Adriatic Sea|Adriatic]].

[[Image:The seizure of Edessa in Syria by the Byzantine army and the Arabic counterattack from the Chronicle of John Skylitzes.jpg|thumb|left|320px|The Byzantine seizure of Edessa.  The Byzantines were able to campaign far into Syria and subject some rulers as vassals, a clear sign of Byzantine resurgence.]]
After putting an end to the internal strife, [[Basil II]] launched a campaign against the Arabs in [[995]]. The Byzantine civil wars had weakened the Empire's position in the east, and the gains of [[Nikephoros II Phokas]] and [[John I Tzimiskes]] came close to being lost, with [[Aleppo]] besieged and Antioch under threat. Basil won several battles in [[Syria]], relieving Aleppo, taking over the [[Orontes]] valley, and raiding further south. Although he did not have the force to drive into Palestine and reclaim [[Jerusalem]], his victories did restore much of [[Syria]] to the empire &mdash; including the larger city which was the seat of the [[Patriarch of Antioch]].<ref name="Read"/> No emperor since [[Heraclius]] had been able to hold these lands for any length of time, and the Empire would retain them for the next 75 years. [[Piers Paul Read]] writes that by [[1025]], Byzantine land "stretched from the [[Straits of Messina]] and the northern Adriatic in the west to the [[River Danube]] and [[Crimea]] in the north, and to the cities of Melitine and [[Edessa, Mesopotamia|Edessa]] beyond the [[Euphrates]] in the east."<ref name="Read"/>

(contracted; show full)
The wars drew near to a closure when the [[Turkic peoples|Turks]] and various [[Mongols|Mongol invaders]] replaced the threat of either power. From the 11th and 12th centuries onwards, the Byzantine conflicts shifted into the [[Byzantine-Seljuk wars]] with the [[Seljuk Turks]]. After the defeat at the [[Battle of Manzikert]] by the Turks in 
[[1071]], the Byzantine Empire, with the help of Western [[Crusade]]rs, re-established its position in the [[Middle East]] as a superpower. Meanwhile, the major Arab conflicts were in the Crusades, and later against [[Mongolian Empire|Mongolian invasions]], especially that of the [[Golden Horde]] and [[Timur]].

During the [[Second Crusade]], [[Baldwin III of Jerusalem|Baldwin III]] [[Siege of Ascalon|seized Ascalon]] in [[1153]], and the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]] was able to advance into Egypt and briefly occupy [[Cairo]] in the 1160s. The Emperor Manuel married [[Maria of Antioch]], cousin of the [[Crusade]]r King [[Amalric I of Jerusalem]], while Amalric married Manuel's grand-niece [[Maria Komnene, Queen consort of Jerusalem|Maria Komnene]]. In 1168 a formal alliance was negotiated by future Archbishop [[William of Tyre]], and in [[1169]] Manuel launched a joint expedition with Amalric to Egypt. Manuel's ambitious campaign was a dramatic demonstration of how powerful the Empire had become, involving a fleet of over 200 ships equipped with [[siege engine|siege weapons]] and Greek fire; William of Tyre was particularly impressed by the large transport ships used to transport the [[cataphract|cavalry forces]] of the [[Komnenian army]].<ref name=William>[[William of Tyre]], ''A History of Deeds Done Beyond the Sea'(contracted; show full)subsequently placed his whole kingdom under the protection of Manuel, effectively extending the agreement on Antioch by making the entire Kingdom of Jerusalem at least nominally part of the Empire. However, this was a personal arrangement, in the [[feudal]] tradition of [[Western Europe]], and as such only applied for as long as Manuel and Amalric were the rulers of their respective states.

[[Image:Byzantium1173.JPG|thumb|320px|right|The Byzantine Empire at the end of the wars, ''c.'' 
[[1180]].]]
The invasion could even have expected support from the native [[Coptic Christian]]s, who had lived under Islamic rule for over five hundred years. However, the failure of co-operation between the Crusaders and the Byzantines jeopardised the chances to take the province. The Byzantine fleet sailed only with provisions for three months: by the time the crusaders were ready, supplies were already running out, and eventually the fleet retired after an ineffectual attempt to capture [[Damietta]]. Each side sought to blame the other for failure, but both also knew that they depended on each other: the alliance was maintained, and further plans were made, which ultimately were to come to naught.<ref name=William />

Seljuk Sultan [[Kilij Arslan II]] used this time to eliminate his rivals and build up his power in [[Asia Minor]]. The balance of power in the eastern Mediterranean was changing, and the effects of Manuel's failure in Egypt would still be felt long after his death. The rise of [[Saladin]] was only made possible when, in [[1171]], he was proclaimed [[Sultan of Egypt]]; his uniting of Egypt and Syria would ultimately lead to the [[Third Crusade]]. Meanwhile, the Byzantine alliance ended with the death of Manuel I in [[1180]]; Manuel would be the last Emperor truly sympathetic to the Crusades.<ref name="Castle">''[http://www.ospreypublishing.com/title_detail.php/title=S8278 Crusader Castles in the Holy Land 1192–1302]'', [[Osprey Publishing]], ISBN 1841768278.</ref>

==Effects==
<!-- Alternative image: [[Image:Charlemagne and Pope Adrian I.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Byzantine-Arab Wars provided the conditions that developed [[feudalism]] in [[Middle Ages|Medieval Europe]].]]-->
(contracted; show full)[[Category:History of North Africa]]
[[Category:History of Caucasus]]
[[Category:Islamic conquests]]
[[Category:Wars involving the Byzantine Empire]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Umayyad Caliphate]]

[[fr:Guerres entre Arabes et empire byzantin]]
[[nl:Byzantijns-Arabische oorlogen]]