Difference between revisions 166199796 and 166199797 on dewiki

{{for|the lunar range|Smoky Mountains (Moon)}}
{{Infobox mountain range
| name = Great Smoky Mountains
| photo = Clifftops4-7-07.jpg
| photo_size = 300
| photo_caption = The Smoky Mountains, viewed from atop [[Mount Le Conte (Tennessee)|Mount Le Conte]].
| country = United States
| state = Tennessee 
| state1 = North Carolina
| parent = [[Blue Ridge Mountains]]
| border = [[Bald Mountains]], [[Unicoi Mountains]], [[Plott Balsams]]
| highest = Clingmans Dome
| elevation_ft = 6643
| coordinates = {{coord|35|33|46|N|83|29|55|W|type:mountain_scale:100000|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
| geology = 
| orogeny = Alleghenian
| map = Appalachian map.svg
| map_size = 200
| map_caption = Appalachian Mountain system}}

The '''Great Smoky Mountains''' are a [[mountain range]] rising along the [[Tennessee]]–[[North Carolina]] border in the southeastern United States.  They are a subrange of the [[Appalachian Mountains]], and form part of the [[Blue Ridge Mountains|Blue Ridge Physiographic Province]].  The range is sometimes called the '''Smoky Mountains''' and the name is commonly shortened to the '''Smokies'''.  The Great Smokies are best known as the home of the [[Great Smoky Mountains National Park]], which protects most of the range.  The park was established in 1934, and, with over 9 million visits per year, it is the most-visited national park in the United States.<ref name=nps>{{cite web|url=http://www.nps.gov/grsm/index.htm |title=National Park Service |publisher=Nps.gov |date=2012-11-06 |accessdate=2013-01-02}}</ref>

The Great Smokies are part of an [[International Biosphere Reserve]].  The range is home to an estimated {{convert|187000|acre|ha}} of [[old growth]] forest, constituting the largest such stand east of the [[Mississippi River]].<ref>Rose Houk, ''Great Smoky Mountains National Park: A Natural History Guide'' (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1993),  198.</ref><ref name = "OldGrowthEastNC" />  The [[cove (Appalachian Mountains)|cove]] hardwood forests in the range's lower elevations are among the most diverse ecosystems in North America, and the [[Southern Appalachian spruce-fir forest]] that coats the range's upper elevations is the largest of its kind.<ref>Houk, 50.</ref>  The Great Smokies are also home to the densest [[American black bear|black bear]] population in the Eastern United States and the most diverse [[salamander]] population outside of the tropics.<ref>Houk, 112, 119.</ref>

Along with the Biosphere reserve, the Great Smokies have been designated a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]].  The U.S. [[National Park Service]] preserves and maintains [[List of historical structures maintained by the Great Smoky Mountains National Park|78 structures within the national park]] that were once part of the numerous small [[Appalachia]]n communities scattered throughout the range's river valleys and coves.  The park contains five historic districts and nine individual listings on the [[National Register of Historic Places]].

The name "Smoky" comes from the natural fog that often hangs over the range and presents as large smoke plumes from a distance.  This fog is caused by the vegetation exhaling [[volatile organic compounds]], chemicals that have a high vapor pressure and easily form vapors at normal temperature and pressure.<ref>Laura Naranjo, "[http://earthdata.nasa.gov/featured-stories/featured-research/volatile-trees Volatile Trees]," NASA.gov, 20 November 2011. Retrieved: 24 June 2013.</ref>

As a result of the [[2016 Great Smoky Mountains wildfires]], the Great Smoky Mountains have received international media coverage.

==Geography==
[[Image:Gsm100 1547.jpg|thumb|300px|The Great Smoky Mountains near [[Gatlinburg, Tennessee]].]]

The Great Smoky Mountains stretch from the [[Pigeon River (Tennessee - North Carolina)|Pigeon River]] in the northeast to the [[Little Tennessee River]] to the southwest.  The northwestern half of the range gives way to a series of elongate ridges known as the "Foothills," the outermost of which include [[Chilhowee Mountain]] and [[English Mountain]].  The range is roughly bounded on the south by the [[Tuckasegee River]] and to the southeast by Soco Creek and Jonathan Creek.  The Great Smokies comprise parts of [[Blount County, Tennessee|Blount County]], [[Sevier County, Tennessee|Sevier County]], and [[Cocke County, Tennessee|Cocke County]] in Tennessee and [[Swain County, North Carolina|Swain County]] and [[Haywood County, North Carolina|Haywood County]] in North Carolina.

The sources of several rivers are located in the Smokies, including the [[Little Pigeon River (Tennessee)|Little Pigeon River]], the [[Oconaluftee River]], and [[Little River (Tennessee)|Little River]].  Streams in the Smokies are part of the [[Tennessee River]] watershed and are thus entirely west of the [[Eastern Continental Divide]].  The largest stream wholly within the park is [[Abrams Creek (Tennessee)|Abrams Creek]], which rises in Cades Cove and empties into the Chilhowee Lake impoundment of the Little Tennessee River near [[Chilhowee Dam]].  

Other major streams include Hazel Creek and Eagle Creek in the southwest, Raven Fork near [[Oconaluftee (Great Smoky Mountains)|Oconaluftee]], Cosby Creek near [[Cosby, Tennessee|Cosby]], and [[Roaring Fork (Great Smoky Mountains)|Roaring Fork]] near [[Gatlinburg, Tennessee|Gatlinburg]].  The Little Tennessee River passes through five impoundments along the range's southwestern boundary, namely [[Tellico Lake]], [[Chilhowee Dam|Chilhowee Lake]], [[Calderwood Dam|Calderwood Lake]], [[Cheoah Dam|Cheoah Lake]], and [[Fontana Lake]].

===Notable peaks===

The highest point in the Smokies is [[Clingmans Dome]], which rises to an elevation of {{convert|6643|ft|m}}.  The mountain is the highest in Tennessee and the third highest in the Appalachian range.  Clingmans Dome also has the range's highest [[topographical prominence]] at {{convert|4503|ft|m}}.  [[Mount Le Conte (Tennessee)|Mount Le Conte]] is the ''tallest'' (i.e., from immediate base to summit) mountain in the range, rising {{convert|5301|ft|m}} from its base in Gatlinburg to its {{convert|6593|ft|m|sing=on}} summit.

{| class="wikitable" 
|-
! Mountain 
! Elevation 
! Prominence 
! General location 
! Named after
|- 
| [[Clingmans Dome]]
| 6,643&nbsp;ft/2,025 m
| 4,503&nbsp;ft/1,373 m
| Central Smokies
| [[Thomas Lanier Clingman]] (1812–1897), surveyor
|- 
| [[Mount Guyot (Great Smoky Mountains)|Mount Guyot]]
| 6,621&nbsp;ft/ 2,018m
| 1,581&nbsp;ft/482 m
| Eastern Smokies
| [[Arnold Guyot]] (1807–1884), surveyor
|- 
| [[Mount Le Conte (Tennessee)|Mount Le Conte]]
| 6,593&nbsp;ft/2,010 m
| 1,360&nbsp;ft/415 m
| Central Smokies
| [[Joseph Le Conte]] or [[John Le Conte]], scientists
|- 
| [[Mount Chapman]]
| 6,431&nbsp;ft/1,960 m
| 577&nbsp;ft/176 m
| Eastern Smokies
| [[David C. Chapman|David Chapman]] (1876–1944), park promoter
|-
| [[Old Black (Great Smoky Mountains)|Old Black]]
| 6,360&nbsp;ft/1,939 m
| 170&nbsp;ft/52 m
| Eastern Smokies
| Spruce-fir stand at summit
|-  
| Luftee Knob
| 6,215&nbsp;ft/1,894 m
| 314&nbsp;ft/96 m
| Eastern Smokies
| Oconaluftee River
|-
| [[Mount Kephart]]
| 6,218&nbsp;ft/1,895 m
| 657&nbsp;ft/200 m
| Central Smokies
| [[Horace Kephart]] (1862–1931), author
|-  
| [[Mount Collins]]
| 6,197&nbsp;ft/1,888 m
| 465&nbsp;ft/142 m
| Central Smokies
| Robert Collins, mountain guide
|-
| [[Marks Knob]]
| 6,162&nbsp;ft/1,878 m
| appx. 249&nbsp;ft/76 m
| Eastern Smokies
| 
|-
| [[Tricorner Knob]]
| 6,145&nbsp;ft/1,873 m
| 160&nbsp;ft/48 m
| Eastern Smokies
| Intersection of Balsam crest and Great Smokies crest
|-
| [[Mount Hardison]]
| 6,145&nbsp;ft/1,873 m
| 134&nbsp;ft/41 m
| Eastern Smokies
| [[James Archibald Hardison]] (1867&ndash;1930)
|-
| [[Andrews Bald]]
| 5,909&nbsp;ft/1,801 m
| 160&nbsp;ft/48 m
| Central Smokies
| possibly Andres Thompson, early settler
|- 
| [[Mount Sterling (Great Smoky Mountains)|Mount Sterling]]
| 5,842&nbsp;ft/1,781 m
| 663&nbsp;ft/202 m
| Eastern Smokies
| possibly [[lead]] at mountain's base mistaken for silver
|- 
| [[Silers Bald]]
| 5,597&nbsp;ft/1,706 m
| 337&nbsp;ft/102 m
| Western Smokies
| Jesse Siler, who used the mountain for grazing
|- 
| [[Thunderhead Mountain]]
| 5,528&nbsp;ft/1,684 m
| 1087&nbsp;ft/332 m
| Western Smokies
| constant cloud cover
|-  
| [[Gregory Bald]]
| 4,949&nbsp;ft/1,508 m
| 1,107&nbsp;ft/337 m
| Western Smokies
| Russell Gregory (1805–1863), [[Cades Cove]] resident
|-
| [[Mount Cammerer]]
| 4,928&nbsp;ft/1,502 m
| 8&nbsp;ft/2 m
| Eastern Smokies
| [[Arno B. Cammerer]] (1883–1941), [[National Park Service|NPS]] director
|- 
| [[Chimney Tops]]
| 4,725&nbsp;ft/1,440m
| appx. 200&nbsp;ft/61 m
| Central Smokies
| resemblance to cabin chimneys
|-
| Blanket Mountain
| 4,607&nbsp;ft/1,404 m
| appx. 500&nbsp;ft/152 m
| Western Smokies
| blanket left atop mountain by surveyor [[Return J. Meigs, Sr.|Return Meigs]] for a reference point
|- 
| [[Shuckstack]]
| 4,020&nbsp;ft/1,225 m
| 300&nbsp;ft/91 m
| Western Smokies
| 
|}

===Climate===
The Smokies rise prominently above the surrounding low terrain. For example, [[Mount Le Conte (Tennessee)|Mount Le&nbsp;Conte]] (6,593&nbsp;feet or 2,010&nbsp;m) rises more than a mile (1.6&nbsp;km) above its base. Because of their prominence, the Smokies receive heavy annual amounts of precipitation. Annual precipitation amounts range from 50 to 80&nbsp;inches (130–200&nbsp;cm),<ref name=noaa>{{cite web|url=http://www.srh.noaa.gov/mrx/research/climo/sappfig3.php |title=Southern Appalachian Precipitation Study |publisher=Srh.noaa.gov |date=2009-11-04 |accessdate=2013-01-02}}</ref> and snowfall in the winter can be heavy, especially on the higher slopes. For comparison, the surrounding terrain has annual precipitation of around 40 to 50&nbsp;inches (100–130&nbsp;cm).

Flooding often occurs after heavy rain.  In 2004, the remnants of [[Hurricane Frances]] caused major flooding, [[landslide]]s, and high winds, which was soon followed by [[Hurricane Ivan]], making the situation worse.  Other post-hurricanes, including [[Hurricane Hugo]] in 1989, have caused similar damage in the Smokies.

[[Image:Smoky Mtn View.jpg|thumb|center|700px|<center>180 degree [[panorama|panoramic]] view of the Smokies</center>]]

==Geology==
[[Image:Alum-cave-bluffs-tn1.jpg|thumb|300px|The [[Alum Cave Trail|Alum Cave Bluffs]].]]

Most of the rocks in the Great Smoky Mountains consist of Late [[Precambrian]] rocks that are part of a formation known as the '''Ocoee Supergroup'''.  The Ocoee Supergroup consists primarily of slightly metamorphosed sandstones, phyllites, schists, and slate.  Early Precambrian rocks, which include the oldest rocks in the Smokies, comprise the dominant rock type in the Raven Fork Valley (near [[Oconaluftee (Great Smoky Mountains)|Oconaluftee]]) and upper Tuckasegee River between [[Cherokee, North Carolina|Cherokee]] and [[Bryson City, North Carolina|Bryson City]].  They consist primarily of metamorphic [[gneiss]], [[granite]], and [[schist]].  Cambrian sedimentary rocks are found among the outer reaches of the Foothills to the northwest and in limestone coves such as [[Cades Cove]].<ref>Harry Moore, ''A Roadside Guide to the Geology of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park'' (Knoxville, Tenn.: University of Tennessee Press, 1988), 32.</ref>

The Precambrian gneiss and schists—the oldest rocks in the Smokies—formed over a billion years ago from the accumulation of marine sediments and igneous rock in a primordial ocean.  In the Late Precambrian period, this ocean expanded, and the more recent Ocoee Supergroup rocks formed from accumulations of the eroding land mass onto the ocean's continental shelf.<ref name="houk_10-17">Houk, 10–17.</ref>

By the end of the [[Paleozoic]] era, the ancient ocean had deposited a thick layer of marine sediments which left behind sedimentary rocks such as limestone.  During the Ordovician period, the North American and African plates collided, destroying the ancient ocean and initiating the [[Alleghenian orogeny]]—the mountain-building epoch that created the Appalachian range.  The Mesozoic era saw the rapid erosion of the softer sedimentary rocks from the new mountains, re-exposing the older Ocoee Supergroup formations.<ref name="houk_10-17" />

Around 20,000 years ago, subarctic glaciers advanced southward across North America, and although they never reached the Smokies, the advancing glaciers led to colder mean annual temperatures and an increase in precipitation throughout the range.  Trees were unable to survive at the higher elevations, and were replaced by [[tundra]] vegetation.  Spruce-fir forests occupied the valleys and slopes below approximately {{convert|4950|ft|m}}.  The persistent freezing and thawing during this period created the large blockfields that are often found at the base of large mountain slopes.<ref name="moore_40-44">Moore, 40-44.</ref> 

Between 16,500 and 12,500 years ago, the glaciers to the north retreated and mean annual temperatures rose.  The tundra vegetation disappeared, and the spruce-fir forests retreated to the highest elevations.  Hardwood trees moved into the region from the coastal plains, replacing the spruce-fir forests in the lower elevations.  The temperatures continued warming until around 6,000 years ago, when they began to gradually grow cooler.<ref name="moore_40-44" />

==Flora==
{{see also|Appalachian temperate rainforest}}
Heavy logging in the late 19th century and early 20th century devastated much of the forests of the Smokies, but the National Park Service estimates {{convert|187000|acre|km2}} of old growth forest remains,<ref name="OldGrowthEastNC">{{cite web
 |url=http://www.primalnature.org/ogeast/nc.pdf 
 |title=Old Growth in the East: A Survey. North Carolina 
 |author=Mary Byrd Davis 
 |date=23 January 2008 
 |deadurl=yes 
 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120217115050/http://www.primalnature.org/ogeast/nc.pdf 
 |archivedate=17 February 2012 
 |df= 
}}</ref> comprising the largest old growth stand in the Eastern United States. Most of the forest is a mature second-growth hardwood forest.  The range's 1,600 species of flowering plants include over 100 species of native trees and 100 species of native shrubs.  The Great Smokies are also home to over 450 species of [[non-vascular plants]], and 2,000 species of fungi.<ref name=npsgsmns>{{cite web|url=http://www.nps.gov/grsm/naturescience/index.htm |title=Great Smoky Mountains - Nature & Science |publisher=Nps.gov |date=2012-10-04 |accessdate=2013-01-02}}</ref><ref>Houk, 41.</ref>

The forests of the Smokies are typically divided into three zones:
# the cove hardwood forests in the stream valleys, coves, and lower mountain slopes.
# the northern hardwood forests on the higher mountain slopes.
# the spruce-fir or boreal forest at the very highest elevations.

[[Appalachian balds]]—patches of land where trees are unexpectedly absent or sparse—are interspersed through the mid-to-upper elevations in the range.  Balds include grassy balds, which are highland meadows covered primarily by thick grasses, and heath balds, which are dense thickets of rhododendron and mountain laurel typically occurring on narrow ridges.  Mixed oak-pine forests are found on dry ridges, especially on the south-facing North Carolina side of the range.<ref>Houk, 21-23.</ref>  Stands dominated by the  [[Tsuga canadensis|Eastern hemlock]] (''Tsuga canadensis'') are occasionally found along streams and broad slopes above {{convert|3500|ft|m}}.<ref>C. Kenneth Dodd, Jr., ''The Amphibians of Great Smoky Mountains National Park'' (Knoxville, Tenn.: University of Tennessee Press, 2004), 46-47.</ref>

===Cove hardwood forest===
[[Image:Cosby-creek-cove-hardwood-tn1.jpg|thumb|Cove hardwood forest along Cosby Creek]]

Cove hardwood forests, which are native to Southern Appalachia, are among the most diverse forest types in North America.  The cove hardwood forests of the Smokies are mostly second-growth, although some {{convert|72000|acre|km2}} are still old-growth.<ref name = "OldGrowthEastNC"/>  The Albright Grove along the [[Maddron Bald Trail]] (between Gatlinburg and Cosby) is an accessible [[old-growth forest]] with some of the oldest and tallest trees in the entire range.<ref>Marti Davis, "[https://web.archive.org/web/20070303193809/http://trails.gosmokies.com/results.cfm?id=81  Serene virgin forest gives respite from July heat]."  Knoxnews.com, 9 July 2006.  Retrieved: 19 May 2008.</ref>

Over 130 species of trees are found among the canopies of the cove hardwood forests in the Smokies.  The dominant species include [[Betula alleghaniensis|yellow birch]] (''Betula alleghaniensis''), [[Tilia americana|basswood]] (''Tilia americana''), [[Aesculus flava|yellow buckeye]] (''Aesculus flava''), [[Liriodendron tulipifera|tulip tree]] (''Liriodendron tulipifera''; commonly called "tulip poplar"), [[Halesia carolina|silverbells]] (''Halesia carolina''), [[Acer saccharum|sugar maple]] (''Acer saccharum''), [[Magnolia acuminata|cucumber magnolia]] (''Magnolia acuminata''), [[Carya ovata|shagbark hickory]] (''Carya ovata''), [[Tsuga caroliniana|Carolina hemlock]] (''Tsuga caroliniana'') and [[Tsuga canadensis|eastern hemlock]] (''Tsuga canadensis'').<ref>Houk, 24-25.</ref>  The [[American chestnut]] (''Castanea dentata''), which was arguably the most beloved tree of the range's pre-park inhabitants, was killed off by the introduced [[Chestnut blight]] in the 1920s.

The understories of the cove hardwood forest contain dozens of species of shrubs and vines.  Dominant species in the Smokies include the [[Cercis canadensis|Eastern redbud]] (''Cercis canadensis''), [[Cornus florida|flowering dogwood]] (''Cornus florida''), [[Rhododendron catawbiense|Catawba rhododendron]] (''Rhododendron catawbiense''), [[Kalmia latifolia|mountain laurel]] (''Kalmia latifolia''), and [[Hydrangea arborescens|smooth hydrangea]] (''Hydrangea arborescens'').<ref>Houk, 25-26.</ref>

===Northern hardwood forest===
[[Image:Leaf-Colors-at-Newfound-Gap-NPS1.jpg|thumb|The [[autumn colors]] of the northern hardwood canopy near Newfound Gap give way to the dark-green spruce-fir canopy as altitude increases]]

The mean annual temperatures in the higher elevations in the Smokies are cool enough to support forest types more commonly found in the northern United States.  The northern hardwood forests of the Smokies constitute the highest [[broad-leaved tree|broad-leaved]] forest in the eastern United States.<ref>Houk, 28.</ref>  About {{convert|28600|acre|km2}} of the northern hardwood forest are old-growth.<ref name = "OldGrowthEastNC"/>

In the Smokies, the northern hardwood canopies are dominated by [[Betula alleghaniensis|yellow birch]] (''Betula alleghaniensis'') and [[Fagus grandifolia|American beech]] (''Fagus grandifolia'').  [[Tilia heterophylla|White basswood]] (''Tilia heterophylla''), [[Acer spicatum|mountain maple]] (''Acer spicatum'') and [[Acer pensylvanicum|striped maple]] (''Acer pensylvanicum''), and [[Aesculus flava|yellow buckeye]] (''Aesculus flava'') are also present.  The northern hardwood understory is home to diverse species such as coneflower, skunk goldenrod, [[Rugelia nudicaulis|Rugels ragwort]], [[bloodroot]], hydrangea, and several species of grasses and ferns.<ref>28-29.</ref>

One unique community in the northern hardwoods of the Smokies is the beech gap, or beech orchard.  Beech gaps consist of high mountain gaps that have been monopolized by beech trees.  The beech trees are often twisted and contorted by the high winds that occur in these gaps.  Why other tree types such as the red spruce fail to encroach into the beech gaps is unknown.<ref>Houk, 30.</ref>

===Spruce-fir forest===
[[Image:Clingmans Dome-27527-1.jpg|thumb|[[Spruce fir]] stand near the summit of Clingmans Dome]]

The spruce-fir forest—also called the "boreal" or "Canadian" forest—is a relict of the [[Ice Ages]], when mean annual temperatures in the Smokies were too cold to support a hardwood forest.  While the rise in temperatures between 12,500 and 6,000 years ago allowed the hardwoods to return, the spruce-fir forest has managed to survive on the harsh mountain tops, typically above {{convert|5500|ft|m}}.  About {{convert|10600|acre|km2}} of the spruce-fir forest are old-growth.<ref name = "OldGrowthEastNC"/>

The spruce-fir forest consists primarily of two [[conifer]] species—[[Picea rubens|red spruce]] (''Picea rubens'') and [[Abies fraseri|Fraser fir]] (''Abies fraseri'').   The Fraser Firs, which are native to Southern Appalachia, once dominated  elevations above {{convert|6200|ft|m}} in the Great Smokies.  Most of these firs were killed, however, by an infestation of the [[balsam wooly adelgid]], which arrived in the Smokies in the early 1960s.  Thus, red spruce is now the dominant species in the range's spruce-fir forest.  Large stands of dead Fraser Firs remain atop Clingmans Dome and on the northwestern slopes of Old Black.  While much of the red spruce stands in the Smokies were logged during [[World War I]], the tree is still common throughout the range above {{convert|5500|ft|m}}.  Some of the red spruce trees in the Smokies are believed to be 300 years old, and the tallest rise to over {{convert|100|ft|m}}.<ref>Houk, 50-53.</ref>

The main difference between the spruce-fir forests of Southern Appalachia and the spruce-fir forests in northern latitudes is the dense broad-leaved understory of the former.  The spruce-fir understories of the Smokies are home to [[Rhododendron catawbiense|catawba rhododendron]], [[Sorbus americana|mountain ash]], [[Prunus pensylvanica|pin cherry]], thornless blackberry, and [[Viburnum lantanoides|hobblebush]].  The herbaceous and litter layers of the spruce-fir forests are poorly lit year-round, and are thus dominated by shade-tolerant plants such as ferns, namely [[Dryopteris campyloptera|mountain wood fern]] and [[Athyrium filix-femina|northern lady fern]], and over 280 species of mosses.<ref>Houk, 50, 54-55.</ref>

===Wildflowers===
[[Image:Ben-parton-mtn-laurel-tn1.jpg|thumb|[[Rhododendron]] atop the Ben Parton Lookout]]

{{see also|Wildflowers of the Great Smoky Mountains}}

Many [[wildflower]]s grow in mountains and valleys of the Great Smokies, including [[bee balm]], [[Polygonatum|Solomon's seal]], [[Dutchman's breeches]], various [[trillium]]s, the Dragon's Advocate and even hardy [[orchid]]s.  There are two native species of rhododendron in the area.  The [[Catawba rhododendron]] has purple flowers in May and June, while the [[rhododendron|rosebay rhododendron]] has longer leaves and blooms white or a light pink in June and July.  

The orange- to sometimes red-flowered and deciduous [[Rhododendron calendulaceum|flame azalea]] closely follows along with the Catawbas.  The closely related [[Kalmia latifolia|mountain laurel]] blooms in between the two, and all of the blooms progress from lower to higher elevations.  The reverse is true in [[autumn]], when nearly bare mountaintops covered in [[Rime (frost)|rime ice]] (frozen fog) can be separated from green [[valley]]s by very bright and varied leaf colors.  The rhododendrons are [[broadleaf]]s, whose leaves droop in order to shed wet and heavy [[snow]]s that come through the region during winter.

==Fauna==
[[Image:Bear-great-smoky-mtns-nps1.jpg|thumb|A [[Ursus americanus|Black bear]] in the Great Smokies]]

The Great Smoky Mountains are home to 66 species of mammals, over 240 species of birds, 43 species of amphibians, 60 species of fish, and 40 species of reptiles.  The range has the densest black bear population east of the Mississippi River.  The black bear has come to symbolize wildlife in the Smokies, and the animal frequently appears on the covers of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park's literature.  Most of the range's adult eastern black bears weigh between {{convert|100|lb|kg}} and {{convert|300|lb|kg}}, although some grow to more than {{convert|500|lb|kg}}.<ref>Donald Linzey, ''Mammals of Great Smoky Mountains National Park'' (Blackburg, Va.: McDonald & Woodward Publishing Co., 1995), 1.</ref>

[[Image:NCElk-27527-2.jpg|thumb|These [[elk]] are part of a herd which was transplanted to Cataloochee in 2001, in an attempt to reintroduce the species to the Appalachians in North Carolina]]

Other mammals in the Great Smokies include the [[white-tailed deer]], the population of which drastically expanded with the creation of the national park.  The [[bobcat]] is the range's only remaining wild cat species, although sightings of mountain lions—which once thrived in the area—are still occasionally reported.<ref>Linzey, 88-89.</ref>  The [[coyote]] is not believed to be native to the range, but has moved into the area in recent years and is treated as a native species.  Two species of fox—the [[red fox]] and the [[gray fox]]—are found in the Smokies, with red foxes being documented at all elevations.<ref>Linzey, 65-66.</ref> 

European [[wild boar|Boar]], introduced as game animals in the early 20th century, thrive in Southern Appalachia but are considered a nuisance due to their tendency to root up and destroy plants.<ref>Linzey, 93-94.</ref>  The boars are seen as taking food resources away from bears as well, and the park service has sponsored a program that pays individuals to hunt and kill boars and leave their bodies in locations frequented by bears.<ref>{{cite web|author=All Things Considered |url=http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1035796 |title=Wild Hogs In The Smokies '&#39;All Things Considered, National Public Radio, 4-7-1998'&#39; |publisher=Npr.org |date=1998-04-07 |accessdate=2013-01-02}}</ref> 

The Smokies are home to over two dozen species of rodents, including the endangered [[northern flying squirrel]], and 10 species of bats, including the endangered [[Indiana bat]].<ref>Linzey, 1, 21, 40.</ref>  The National Park Service has successfully reintroduced [[North American river otter|river otter]]s and [[elk]] into the Great Smokies.  An attempt to reintroduce the [[red wolf]] in the early 1990s ultimately failed. These wolves were removed from the park and relocated to the [[Alligator River National Wildlife Refuge]] in North Carolina.<ref>[http://www.nps.gov/grsm/naturescience/mammals.htm Great Smoky Mountains National Park—Mammals].  24 July 2006.  Retrieved: 3 November 2008.</ref> 

The Smokies are home to a diverse bird population due to the presence of multiple forest types.  Species that thrive in southern hardwood forests, such as the [[red-eyed vireo]], [[wood thrush]], [[wild turkey]], [[northern parula]], [[ruby-throated hummingbird]], and [[tufted titmouse]], are found throughout the range's lower elevations and cove hardwood forests.  Species more typical of cooler climates, such as the [[common raven|raven]], [[winter wren]], [[black-capped chickadee]], [[yellow-bellied sapsucker]], [[dark-eyed junco]], and [[Blackburnian warbler|Blackburnian]], [[Chestnut-sided warbler|chestnut-sided]], and [[Canada warbler]]s, are found in the range's spruce-fir and northern hardwood zones.<ref>Arthur Stupka, ''Notes on the Birds of the great smoky Mountains National Park'' (Knoxville, Tenn.: University of Tennessee Press, 1963), 12.</ref>  

[[Ovenbirds]], [[whip-poor-will]]s, and [[downy woodpecker]]s live in the drier pine-oak forests and heath balds.<ref>Stupka, 13-14.</ref>  [[Bald eagle]]s and [[golden eagle]]s have been spotted at all elevations in the park.<ref>Stupka, 37-40.</ref>  [[Peregrine falcon]] sightings are also not uncommon, and a peregrine falcon eyrie is known to have existed near Alum Cave Bluffs throughout the 1930s.<ref>Stupka, 42.</ref>  [[Red-tailed hawk]]s, the most common hawk species, have been sighted at all elevations in the range. Owl species residing in the Smokies include the [[barred owl]], [[eastern screech-owl]], and [[Aegolius acadicus|northern saw-whet owl]].<ref>Stupka, 12, 67-72.</ref>

[[File:Blackratsnaketenn.jpg|thumb|A [[Black rat snake]], on a trail near the Greenbriar area.]]
[[Crotalus horridus|Timber rattlesnakes]]s—one of two venomous snake species in the Smokies—are found at all elevations in the range.  The other venomous snake, the [[Agkistrodon contortrix|copperhead]], is typically found at lower elevations.  Other reptiles include the [[Terrapene carolina carolina|eastern box turtle]], the [[Sceloporus undulatus|fence lizard]], the [[Elaphe obsoleta|black rat snake]], and the [[northern water snake]].<ref>Houk, 131.</ref>

[[Image:Baxter-creek-salamander-gsmnp1.jpg|thumb|A [[Red-cheeked salamander|Jordan's salamander]].]]
The Great Smokies are home to one of the world's most diverse salamander populations. Five of the world's nine [[family (biology)|families]] of salamanders are found in the range, consisting of up to thirty-one species.<ref>C. Kenneth Dodd, Jr., ''The Amphibians of Great Smoky Mountains National Park'' (Knoxville, Tenn.: University of Tennessee Press, 2004), 7, 13.</ref>  A type of [[Woodland salamander|Jordan's salamander]] known as the redcheek salamander is found only in the Smokies.<ref>Dodd, 185-186.</ref>  The [[Desmognathus imitator|imitator salamander]] is found only in the Smokies and the nearby [[Plott Balsams]] and [[Great Balsam Mountains]].<ref>Dodd, 123.</ref>  

Two other species—the [[Plethodon metcalfi|southern gray-cheeked salamander]] and the [[Plethodon teyahalee|Southern Appalachian salamander]]—occur only in the general region.<ref>Dodd, 189-194.</ref>  Other species include the [[Desmognathus marmoratus|shovelnose]], [[blackbelly salamander]], [[Eastern newt|eastern red-spotted newt]], and [[Desmognathus|spotted dusky salamander]].<ref>Dodd, 13, 120-129, 178.</ref>  The legendary [[Cryptobranchus alleganiensis|hellbender]] inhabits the range's swifter streams.<ref>Dodd, 26.</ref>  Other amphibians include the [[American toad]] and the [[American bullfrog]], [[wood frog]], [[Pseudacris feriarum|upland chorus frog]], [[Rana clamitans melanota|northern green frog]], and [[spring peeper]].<ref>Dodd, 86-87, 230-231, 243.</ref>

Fish inhabiting the streams of the Smokies include [[trout]], [[lamprey]], [[darter]], [[shiner (fish)|shiner]], [[Bass (fish)|bass]], and [[Catostomidae|sucker]].  The [[brook trout]] is the only trout species native to the range, although northwestern [[rainbow trout]] and European [[brown trout]] were introduced in the first half of the 20th century. The larger rainbow and brown trout outcompete the native brook trout for food and habitat at lower elevations. As such, most of the brook trout found in the park today are in streams above 3,000 feet in elevation. Trout in the Smokies are generally smaller than other members of their species in different locales. Protected fish species in the range include the smoky and yellowfin [[madtom]], the spotfin chub, and the duskytail darter.<ref>[http://www.nps.gov/grsm/naturescience/fish.htm Great Smoky Mountains National Park—Fish].  8 March 2007.  Retrieved: 3 November 2008.</ref>

The lightning-bug firefly ''[[Photinus carolinus]]'', whose synchronized flashing light displays occur in mid-June, is native to the Smoky Mountains with a population epicenter near [[Elkmont, Tennessee]].<ref name=unison>{{cite web|last=Millus|first=Susan|title=U.S. fireflies flashing in unison|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1200/is_11_155/ai_54296721/|publisher=Science News|accessdate=17 June 2011}}</ref>

==Ecosystem threats==
[[Image:Old-black-fraser-firs-tn1.jpg|thumb|Dead [[Fraser fir]]s on the slopes of Old Black]]

[[Air pollution]] is contributing to increased [[Picea rubens|Red Spruce]] tree mortality at higher elevations and oak decline at lower elevations, while [[invasive species|invasive]] [[hemlock woolly adelgid]]s attack Hemlocks and [[balsam woolly adelgid]]s attack [[Abies fraseri|Fraser Firs]]. ''[[Pseudoscymnus tsugae]]'', a type of beetle in the ladybug family, [[Coccinellidae]], has been [[Biological pest control|introduced]] in an attempt to control the pests.<ref name=cornell>{{cite web |url=http://www.nysaes.cornell.edu/ent/biocontrol/predators/pseudoscymnus_tsugae.html |first1=Mark S. |last1=McClure |first2=Carole A. S. - J. | last2 = Cheah |title=Pseudoscymnus tsugae (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) |work=Biological Control: A Guide to Natural Enemies in North America |publisher=[[Cornell University]] |accessdate=2008-11-25 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20080531152625/http://www.nysaes.cornell.edu/ent/biocontrol/predators/pseudoscymnus_tsugae.html |archivedate = 2008-05-31}}</ref>

[[Visibility]] now is dramatically reduced by [[smog]] from both the [[Southeastern United States]] and the [[Midwestern United States|Midwest]], and smog forecasts are prepared daily by the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|Environmental Protection Agency]] for both nearby [[Knoxville, Tennessee]] and [[Asheville, North Carolina]].

Environmental threats are the concern of many non-profit environmental stewardship groups, especially [[The Friends of the Smokies]]. Formed in 1993, the friends group assists the National Park Service in its mission to preserve and protect the Great Smoky Mountains National Park by raising funds and public awareness, and providing volunteers for needed projects.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.friendsofthesmokies.org/aboutus.html |title=About Us |publisher=Friends of the Smokies |date=1995-06-30 |accessdate=2013-01-02}}</ref>

==History==
{{see also|List of historical structures maintained by the Great Smoky Mountains National Park}}

===Prehistory===
[[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] have likely been hunting in the Great Smoky Mountains for 14,000 years.  Numerous [[Archaic period in the Americas|Archaic period]] (c. 8000–1000 B.C.) artifacts have been found within the national park's boundaries, including projectile points uncovered along likely animal migration paths.<ref>Lisa Byerley Gary, "[http://eerc.ra.utk.edu/sightline/V2N1/HumanV2N1.html Park Archaeologists Provide Clues to the Past and Future of the Human Race]."  2001.  Retrieved: 16 August 2008.</ref>  [[Woodland period]] (c. 1000 B.C. - 1000 A.D.) sites found within the park contained 2000+-year-old ceramics and evidence of primitive agriculture.<ref>National Park Service, "[http://parkplanning.nps.gov/document.cfm?parkID=382&projectID=23304&documentID=25277 Cades Cove Opportunities Plan]" (October 2004), 5-6.  Retrieved: 28 August 2008.</ref>

The increasing reliance upon agriculture during the [[Mississippian culture|Mississippian period]] (c. 900–1600 A.D.) lured Native Americans away from the game-rich forests of the Smokies and into the fertile river valleys on the outer fringe of the range.  Substantial Mississippian-period villages were uncovered at [[Citico (Tellico archaeological site)|Citico]] and [[Toqua (Tennessee)|Toqua]] (named after the Cherokee villages that later thrived at these sites) along the Little Tennessee River in the 1960s.<ref>Richard Polhemus, ''The Toqua Site—40MR6'', Vol. I (Norris, Tenn.: Tennessee Valley Authority, 1987), 1240–1246.</ref>  Fortified Mississippian-period villages have been excavated at the McMahan Indian Mounds in [[Sevierville, Tennessee|Sevierville]] and more recently in [[Townsend, Tennessee|Townsend]].<ref>Tennessee Historical Commission Marker IC-69, "The McMahan Indian Mound," in Sevierville, Tennessee. Information accessed 3 September 2007.</ref><ref>Iva Butler, "Archaeologists Pack Up Townsend Dig." The Maryville-Alcoa ''Daily Times'', 17 February 2001.</ref>  

Most of these villages were part of a minor chiefdom centered on a large village known as [[Chiaha]], which was located on an island now submerged by [[Douglas Lake]].  The 1540 expedition of [[Hernando de Soto (explorer)|Hernando de Soto]] and the 1567 expedition of [[Juan Pardo (explorer)|Juan Pardo]] passed through the [[French Broad River]] valley north of the Smokies, both spending a considerable amount of time at Chiaha.  The Pardo expedition followed a trail across the flanks of [[Chilhowee Mountain]] to the Mississippian-period villages at Chilhowee and Citico (Pardo's notary called them by their [[Muskogean]] names, "Chalahume" and "Satapo").<ref>Charles Hudson, ''The Juan Pardo Expeditions: Explorations of the Carolinas and Tennessee, 1566-1568'' (Tuscaloosa, Ala.: University of Alabama Press, 2005), 36-40, 105.</ref>

===The Cherokee===

By the time the first English explorers arrived in Southern Appalachia in the late 17th century, the Cherokee controlled much of the region, and the Great Smoky Mountains lay at the center of their territory.  One Cherokee legend tells of a magical lake hidden deep within the range, but inaccessible to humans.<ref>James Mooney, Myths of the Cherokee and Sacred Formulas of the Cherokee (Nashville: Charles Elder, 1972).</ref>  Another tells of a captured [[Shawnee]] medicine man named Aganunitsi who, in exchange for his freedom, travels to the remote sections of the range in search of the [[Uktena]].<ref>Mooney, 299.</ref>  The Cherokee called Gregory Bald ''Tsitsuyi'', or "rabbit place," and believed the mountain to be the domain of the Great Rabbit.<ref>Mooney, 407.</ref>  Other Cherokee place names in the Smokies included ''Duniskwalgunyi'', or "forked antlers", which referred to the Chimney Tops, and ''kuwahi'', or "mulberry place", which referred to Clingmans Dome.<ref>Mooney, 516.</ref>

Most Cherokee settlements were located in the river valleys on the outer fringe of the Great Smokies range.  The Smokies, along with the Unicois, provided the main bulwark dividing the [[Overhill Cherokee]] villages in modern Tennessee from the Cherokee Middle towns in modern North Carolina.  The Overhill town of [[Chilhowee (Cherokee town)|Chilhowee]] was situated at the confluence of Abrams Creek and the Little Tennessee, and the Overhill town of [[Tallassee (Cherokee town)|Tallassee]] was located just a few miles upstream near modern [[Calderwood, Tennessee|Calderwood]] (both village sites are now under Chilhowee Lake).  A string of Overhill villages, including [[Chota (Cherokee town)|Chota]] and [[Tanasi]], dotted the Little Tennessee valley north of Chilhowee.<ref>Gerald Schroedl, "[http://tennesseeencyclopedia.net/entry.php?rec=1026 Overhill Cherokees]."  ''The Tennessee Encyclopedia of History and Culture'', 2002.  Retrieved: 5 November 2008.</ref>  

The Cherokee Middle towns included the village of [[Keetoowah|Kittowa]] (which the Cherokee believed to be their oldest village) along the Tuckasegee River near Bryson City.  The village of Oconaluftee, which was situated along the Oconaluftee River near the modern Oconaluftee Visitor Center, was the only known permanent Cherokee village located within the national park's boundaries.  Sporadic or seasonal settlements were located in Cades Cove and the Hazel Creek valley.<ref>Duane Oliver, ''Hazel Creek From Then Till Now'' (Maryville, Tenn.: Stinnett Printing, 1989), 2-3.</ref>

===European settlement===
[[Image:Great-smoky-mountains-places-tn1.gif|thumb|350px|Communities past and present of the Great Smoky Mountains. The green areas denote the modern national park.]]

European explorers and settlers began arriving in Western North Carolina and East Tennessee in the mid-18th century.  The influx of settlers at the end of the [[French and Indian War]] brought conflict with the Cherokee, who still held legal title to much of the land.  When the Cherokee aligned themselves with the British at the outbreak of the [[American Revolutionary War|American Revolution]] in 1776, American forces launched an invasion of Cherokee territory.<ref name="vicki_rozema">Vicki Rozema, ''Footsteps of the Cherokees'' (Winston-Salem: John F. Blair Publisher, 1995), 58–60.</ref>

The Middle towns, including Kittuwa, were burned by General Griffith Rutherford, and several of the Overhill towns were burned by [[John Sevier]].  By 1805, the Cherokee had ceded control of the Great Smokies to the U.S. government.  Although much of the tribe was forced west along the [[Trail of Tears]] in 1838, a few—largely through the efforts of [[William Holland Thomas]]—managed to retain their land on the [[Qualla Boundary]] and today comprise the [[Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians]].<ref name="vicki_rozema" />

In the 1780s, several frontier outposts had been established along the outskirts of the Smokies, namely Whitson's Fort in what is now [[Cosby, Tennessee|Cosby]] and Wear's Fort in what is now Pigeon Forge.  Permanent settlers began arriving in these areas in the 1790s.  In 1801, the Whaley brothers, William and John, moved from North Carolina to become the first settlers in what is now the [[Greenbrier (Great Smoky Mountains)|Greenbrier]] section of the park.<ref>Carson Brewer, ''Great Smoky Mountains National Park'' (Portland, Ore.: Graphic Arts Center Publishing, 1993), 18.</ref>  

In 1802, [[Edgefield, South Carolina]] resident William Ogle (1751–1803) arrived in White Oak Flats where he cut and prepared logs for cabin construction.  Although Ogle died shortly after returning to Edgefield, his wife, Martha Jane Huskey, eventually returned with her family and several other families to White Oak Flats, becoming the first permanent settlers in what would eventually become Gatlinburg.  Their children and grandchildren spread out southward into the [[Sugarlands]] and [[Roaring Fork (Great Smoky Mountains)|Roaring Fork]] areas.<ref>Brewer, 18.</ref>  

Cades Cove was settled largely by families who had purchased lots from land speculator William "Fighting Billy" Tipton.  The first of these settlers, John and Lucretia Oliver, arrived in 1818.<ref>Durwood Dunn, ''Cades Cove: The Life and Death of An Appalachian Community'' (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1988), 1-9.</ref>  Two Cades Cove settlers, Moses and Patience Proctor, crossed over to the North Carolina side of the Smokies in 1836 to become the first Euro-American settlers in the [[Hazel Creek (Great Smoky Mountains)|Hazel Creek]] area.<ref>Oliver, 8-9.</ref>  The [[Cataloochee (Great Smoky Mountains)|Cataloochee]] area was first settled by the Caldwell family, who migrated to the valley in 1834.<ref>Hattie Caldwell Davis, ''Cataloochee Valley: Vanished Settlements of the Great Smoky Mountains'' (Alexander, N.C.: Worldcomm, 1997), 17-32.</ref> 
    
Like most of Southern Appalachia, the early 19th-century economy of the Smokies relied on [[subsistence agriculture]].  The average farm consisted of roughly {{convert|50|acre|km2}}, part of which was cultivated and part of which was woodland.  Early settlers lived in {{convert|16|ft|m}} x {{convert|20|ft|m}} log cabins, although these were replaced by more elaborate log houses and eventually, as lumber became available, by modern frame houses.  Most farms included at least one barn, a [[springhouse]] (used for refrigeration), a [[smokehouse]] (used for curing meat), a chicken coop (protected chickens from predators), and a corn crib (kept corn dry and protected it from rodents).  Some of the more industrious farmers operated [[gristmill]]s, general stores, and sorghum presses.<ref>Jerry Wear, ''Sugarlands: A Lost Community of Sevier County'' (Sevierville, Tennessee: Sevierville Heritage Committee, 1986), 5–6.</ref>  Religion was a central theme in the lives of the early residents of the Smokies, and community life was typically centered on churches.  Christian Protestantism—especially [[Primitive Baptists]], [[Missionary Baptists]], [[Methodists]], and [[Presbyterians]]; dominated the religious culture of the region.

===American Civil War===

While both Tennessee and North Carolina joined the [[Confederate States of America|Confederacy]] at the outbreak of the [[American Civil War]] in 1861, [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]] sentiment in the Great Smoky Mountains was much stronger relative to other regions in these two states.  Generally, the communities on the Tennessee side of the Smokies supported the Union, while communities on the North Carolina side supported the Confederates.  On the Tennessee side, 74% of Cocke Countians, 80% of Blount Countians, and 96% of Sevier Countians voted against secession.<ref>Eric Lacy, ''Vanquished Volunteers: East Tennessee Sectionalism from Statehood to Secession'' (Johnson City, Tenn.: East Tennessee State University Press, 1965), pp. 217-233.</ref>  In the North Carolina Smokies—Cherokee, Haywood, Jackson, and Macon counties—about 46% of the population favored secession.<ref>[http://www.nps.gov/grsm/learn/historyculture/civil-war-1.htm Civil War Journal: Divided Loyalties], Great Smoky Mountains National Park website. Retrieved: 23 June 2015.</ref>

While no major engagements took place in the Smokies, minor skirmishes were fairly common.  Cherokee chief William Holland Thomas formed a Confederate legion made up mostly of Cherokee soldiers.  Thomas' Legion crossed the Smokies in 1862 and occupied Gatlinburg for several months to protect [[salt peter]] mines atop Mount Le Conte.  Residents of predominantly Union Cades Cove and predominantly Confederate Hazel Creek routinely crossed the mountains to steal one another's livestock.<ref>Oliver, 44-45.</ref>  Residents of Cosby and Cataloochee did likewise.  One notable Civil War incident in the Smokies was the murder of long-time Cades Cove resident Russell Gregory (for whom Gregory Bald is named), which was carried out by [[bushwhacker]]s in 1864 shortly after Gregory had led an ambush that routed a band of Confederates seeking to wreak havoc in the cove.<ref>Dunn, 135-136.</ref>  Another incident was George Kirk's raid on Cataloochee, in which Kirk killed or wounded 15 Union soldiers recovering at a makeshift hospital.<ref>Davis, ''Cataloochee Valley'', 72.</ref>

===Logging===
[[Image:Champion-fibre-plant-canton-nc1.jpg|thumb|400px|The Champion Fibre Company plant in [[Canton, North Carolina]], 1910.]]

While selective logging occurred in the Great Smoky Mountains throughout the 19th century, the general inaccessibility of the range's forests prevented major logging operations, and lumber firms relied on the lowland forests in the northeastern United States and the [[Mississippi Delta]] in the southeast.  As timber resources in these regions became exhausted, and as the demand for lumber skyrocketed after the Civil War, entrepreneurs began looking for ways to reach the virgin forests of Southern Appalachia.  The first logging operations in the Smokies, which began in the 1880s, used [[splash dam]]s or [[log boom|boom]]s to float logs down rivers to lumber mills in nearby cities.  Notable splash dam and boom operations included the English Lumber Company on Little River, the Taylor and Crate operations along Hazel Creek, and the ambitious operations of [[Alexander Arthur]] on the Pigeon River.  All three of these operations failed within their first few years, however, after their dams and boom systems were destroyed by floods.<ref>Wilma Dykeman, The French Broad (New York: Rinehart, 1955), 167-174.</ref><ref>Vic Weals, ''The Last Train to Elkmont'' (Knoxville: Olden Press, 1993), 1-3.</ref><ref>Oliver, 55-56.</ref>

Innovations in logging railroads and band saw technology in the late 19th century made large-scale logging possible in the mountainous areas of Southern Appalachia.  The largest logging operation in the Smokies was the Little River Lumber Company, which logged the Little River watershed between 1901 and 1939.  The company also established company towns at Townsend (named for the company's chief owner and manager, Wilson B. Townsend), [[Elkmont, Tennessee|Elkmont]], and [[Tremont, Tennessee|Tremont]].<ref>Weals, 24-28.</ref>  

The second-largest operation was the Ritter Lumber Company, which logged the Hazel Creek watershed between 1907 and 1928.  Ruins of Ritter's lumbering operations are still visible along the Hazel Creek Trail.<ref>Oliver, 58-64.</ref>  Other lumbering operations included Three M Lumber and Champion Fibre, both of which logged the Oconaluftee watershed.<ref>Michal Strutin, ''History Hikes of the Smokies'' (Gatlinburg: Great Smoky Mountains Association, 2003), 125, 325.</ref>  By the time all operations ceased in the 1930s, logging firms had removed two-thirds of the virgin forests of the Smokies.

===The National Park===
{{main|Great Smoky Mountains National Park}}
Wilson B. Townsend, the head of Little River Lumber, began advertising Elkmont as a tourist destination in 1909.  Within a few years, the [[Wonderland Hotel]] and the Appalachian Club had been established to cater to elite Knoxvillians seeking summer mountain getaways.<ref>Weals, 27.</ref>  In the early 1920s, several Appalachian Club members, among them Knoxville businessman Colonel [[David C. Chapman|David Chapman]], began seriously considering a movement to establish a national park in the Great Smokies.  As head of the Great Smoky Mountains Park Commission, Chapman was largely responsible for raising funds for land purchases and coordinating park efforts between local, state, and federal entities.<ref>Campbell, 13-18, 32.</ref>

The creation of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park proved much more complex than the creation of its predecessors, such as [[Yellowstone National Park|Yellowstone]] and [[Yosemite National Park|Yosemite]], which were already federally owned.  Along with convincing logging firms to sell lucrative lumber rights, the Park Commission had to negotiate the purchase of thousands of small farms and remove entire communities.  The commission also had to deal with the Tennessee and North Carolina legislatures, which at times were opposed to spending taxpayer money on park efforts.<ref>Daniel Pierce, ''The Great Smokies: From Natural Habitat to National Park'' (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2000), 111-120.</ref>  In spite of these difficulties, the Park Commission had completed most major land purchases by 1932.  The national park officially opened in 1934, with President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] presiding over the opening ceremony at Newfound Gap.

==Culture and tourism==
[[Image:SmokyMountainFallLeaves.jpg|thumb|325px|The Great Smoky Mountains National Park provides a breath-taking view in the fall.]]

The [[culture]] of the area is that of [[Appalachia|Southern Appalachia]], and previously the [[Cherokee]] people.  [[Tourism]] is key to the area's economy, particularly in cities like [[Pigeon Forge]] and [[Gatlinburg, Tennessee|Gatlinburg]] in Tennessee,  and [[Cherokee, North Carolina]].  In 2006, the [[Great Smoky Mountains Heritage Center]] opened in Townsend, Tennessee, with the mission of preserving various aspects of the region's culture.

[[Rafting]], either leisurely [[Tubing (recreation)|river tubing]] or in full [[whitewater rafting|whitewater]], is common all summer. [[Downhill skiing]] is also done in winter, though for a short season, at places like [[Cataloochee Ski Area|Cataloochee]] and [[Ober Gatlinburg]].

[[Country music]] singer [[Dolly Parton]] was born and raised on a small farm in the Smokies. She writes many songs concerning her Tennessee upbringing, and starred in the 1986 film, ''[[A Smoky Mountain Christmas]]''.

On September 17, 2010, the documentary reality television series ''[[Man, Woman, Wild]]'' featured an episode about survival in the Smoky Mountains.

==See also==
{{portalbar|Environment|United States}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Great Smoky Mountains National Park}}
<!--------  DO NOT ADD COMMERCIAL LINKS TO THIS SECTION.  ANY COMMERCIAL LINK ADDED WILL BE PROMPTLY REMOVED --------->
* {{Official website|http://www.nps.gov/grsm/ }}
* [https://science.nature.nps.gov/parks/grsm/species/ Species Mapper]
* [http://www.smokiesinformation.org Great Smoky Mountains Association]—official nonprofit partner of the park, maps, guides, photos, and videos
* [http://www.srh.noaa.gov/mrx/research/climo/pcptxtnwd.php National Weather Service Southern Appalachian Precipitation study]
* [http://www.gsmit.org Great Smoky Mountains Institute at Tremont]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080531152625/http://www.nysaes.cornell.edu/ent/biocontrol/predators/pseudoscymnus_tsugae.html Cornell University study on invasive balsam woolly adelgid control]
* [http://pubs.usgs.gov/sim/2997/ Geologic Map of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park Region, Tennessee and North Carolina] [[United States Geological Survey]]
* [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/gmdhtml/nphtml/gsmhome.html History and maps]
* [http://www.lib.utk.edu/refs/smokies/ The Great Smoky Mountains Regional Project]—a collection of documents and early photographs regarding the Great Smokies and surrounding communities
* [http://www.cas.sc.edu/engl/dictionary/transcripts.html Southern Appalachian English: Transcripts]—sound file samples of interviews of long-time residents of the Great Smokies conducted in 1939

[[Category:Great Smoky Mountains| ]]
[[Category:East Tennessee]]
[[Category:Geography of Appalachia]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of North Carolina]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of Tennessee]]
[[Category:Subranges of the Appalachian Mountains]]
[[Category:Western North Carolina]]
[[Category:Landforms of Blount County, Tennessee]]
[[Category:Landforms of Sevier County, Tennessee]]
[[Category:Landforms of Cocke County, Tennessee]]
[[Category:Landforms of Swain County, North Carolina]]
[[Category:Landforms of Haywood County, North Carolina]]
[[Category:Natural history of the Great Smoky Mountains| 01]]
[[Category:Appalachian culture]]
[[Category:Old growth forests]]
[[Category:Southern Sixers]]