Revision 112480948 of "Benutzer:Wilusa/Verschiedenes/Entwürfe/arab-byzant Krieg" on dewiki

{{Infobox military conflict
|image=[[File:Greekfire-madridskylitzes1.jpg|center|300px]]
|caption=[[Greek fire]], first used by the [[Byzantine Navy]] during the Byzantine-Arab Wars.
|conflict=Byzantine-Arab Wars
|partof=the [[Muslim conquests]]
|date=634–1057
|place= Levant, Syria, Egypt, North Africa, Anatolia, Crete, Sicily, Southern Italy
|result= Overall Arab gains, despite [[Byzantine-Arab Wars (780–1180)|Byzantine resurgence]]
|territory=[[Levant]], [[Mesopotamia]] and [[North Africa]] annexed by [[Arab]]s
|combatant1=[[File:Simple Labarum2.svg|15px]] [[Byzantine Empire]]<ref name="Levies"/><br/>[[First Bulgarian Empire|Bulgarian Empire]]<br/>[[Crusader states]]<br/>[[County of Edessa]]<br/>[[Principality of Antioch]]<br/>[[File:Flag of Kingdom of Jerusalem.svg|14px]] [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]]<br/>[[Principality of Galilee]]<br/>[[County of Jaffa and Ascalon]]<br/>[[Lordship of Oultrejordain]]<br/>[[Lordship of Sidon]]<br/>[[File:Armoiries Tripoli.svg|15px]] [[County of Tripoli]]<br/>[[File:Armoiries Chypre.svg|15px]] [[Kingdom of Cyprus]]<br/>[[Ghassanids]]<ref>"Ghassan." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2006. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18 October 2006[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9036664]</ref><br/>[[File:Coptic flag.svg|24px]] [[Arab Christians]]<br/>[[File:Flag of Italy.svg|24px]] [[Italian city-states]]|combatant2=[[File:Flag of Afghanistan pre-1901.svg|23px]] [[Rashidun Caliphate]],<br/>[[File:Umayyad Flag.svg|24px]] [[Umayyad|Umayyad Dynasty]],<br/>[[File:Abbasid flag.png|24px]] [[Abbasid|Abbasid Empire]],<br/>[[Aghlabid]]s,<br/>[[Emirate of Bari]],<br/>[[Emirate of Crete]],<br/>[[Hamdanid dynasty|Hamdanids]] of [[Aleppo]],<br/>[[File:Fatimid_flag.svg|22px]] [[Fatimid Caliphate]]
|commander1=[[Heraclius]],<br/>Sergius,<br/>[[Theodore Trithyrius]]{{KIA}},<br/>[[Gregory the Patrician]]{{KIA}}, <br/>[[Constans II (Byzantine Empire)|Constans II]],<br/>[[Constantine IV]],<br/>[[Justinian II]],<br/>[[Leontios]],<br/>[[Heraclius (brother of Tiberius III)|Heraclius]],<br/>[[Constantine V]],<br/>[[Leo V the Armenian]],<br/>[[Michael Lachanodrakon]],<br/>[[Tatzates]],<br/>[[Nikephoros I]],<br/>[[Theophilos (emperor)|Theophilos]],<br/>[[Manuel the Armenian]],<br/>[[Niketas Ooryphas]],<br/>[[Himerios (admiral)|Himerios]],<br/>[[John Kourkouas]],<br/>[[Bardas Phokas the Elder]],<br/>[[Nikephoros II Phokas]],<br/>[[Leo Phokas the Younger]],<br/>[[John I Tzimiskes]],<br/>[[Michael Bourtzes]],<br/>[[Basil II]],<br/>[[Nikephoros Ouranos]],<br/>[[George Maniakes]],<br/>[[Andronikos Kontostephanos]]
|commander2=[[Zayd ibn Harithah]]{{KIA}},<br/>[[Khalid ibn al-Walid]],<br/>[[Abu Bakr|Caliph Abu Bakr]],<br/>[[Umar|Caliph Umar]]<br/>[[Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah]],<br/>[['Amr ibn al-'As]],<br/>Shurahbil ibn Hassana,<br/>[[Yazid ibn Abu Sufyan]],<br/>'Iyāḍ ibn Ghanm,<br/>[[Al-Zubayr]],<br/>[[Abdullah ibn Saad]],<br/>[[Yazid I]],<br/>[[Muawiyah I]],<br/>[[Muhammad ibn Marwan]],<br/>[[Maslamah ibn Abd al-Malik]],<br/>[[Mu'awiyah ibn Hisham]],<br/>[[Harun al-Rashid]],<br/>[[Abd al-Malik ibn Salih]],<br/>[[Al-Ma'mun]],<br/>[[Al-Mu'tasim]],<br/>[[Leo of Tripoli]],<br/>[[Umar al-Aqta]]{{KIA}},<br/>[[Sayf al-Dawla]],<br/>[[Manjutakin]]
|strength1=
|strength2=
|casualties1=
|casualties2=
}}
{{Campaignbox Byzantine-Arab Wars}}
[[File:Map of expansion of Caliphate.svg|300px|thumb|right|[[Bilad al-Sham|Sham]] region was just the start of [[Muslim conquests|Arab expansion]]. {{legend|#a1584e|Expansion under [[Muhammad]], 622-632}} {{legend|#ef9070|Expansion during the [[Rashidun Caliphate]], 632-661}} {{legend|#fad07d|Expansion during the [[Umayyad Caliphate]], 661-750}}]]

The '''Byzantine–Arab Wars''' were a series of wars between the mostly [[Arab]] [[Muslims]] and the East Roman or [[Byzantine Empire]] between the 7th and 11th centuries AD. These started during the initial [[Muslim conquests]] under the expansionist [[Rashidun Caliphate|Rashidun]] and [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad]] [[caliph]]s in the 7th century and continued by their successors until the mid-11th century.

The eruption of the Arabs from the [[Arab Peninsula]] in the 630s resulted in the rapid loss of Byzantium's southern provinces ([[Diocese of the East|Syria]] and [[Diocese of Egypt (Late Antiquity)|Egypt]]) to the Muslims. Over the next fifty years, under the aggressive Umayyads caliphs, the Muslims would launch repeated raids into still-Byzantine [[Asia Minor]], twice threaten the Byzantine capital, [[Constantinople]], with conquest, and outright conquer the Byzantine [[Exarchate of Africa]]. The situation did not stabilize until after the failure of the [[Siege of Constantinople (718)|Second Arab Siege of Constantinople]] in 718, when the [[Taurus Mountains]] on the eastern rim of Asia Minor became established as the mutual, heavily fortified and largely depopulated frontier. Under the [[Abbasid Empire]], relations became more normal, with embassies exchanged and even periods of truce, but conflict remained the norm, with almost annual raids and counter-raids, sponsored either by the Abbasid government or by local rulers, well into the 10th century. 

During the first centuries, the Byzantines were usually in the defensive, and avoided open field battles, preferring to retreat to their fortified strongholds. Only after 740 did they begin to launch counterstrikes of their own, but still the [[Abbasid Empire]] was able to retaliate by often massive and destructive invasions of Asia Minor. With the decline and fragmentation of the Abbasid state after 861 and the concurrent strengthening of the Byzantine Empire under the [[Macedonian dynasty]], the tide gradually turned. Over a period of fifty years from ca. 920 to 976, the Byzantines finally broke through the Muslim defences and restored their control over northern Syria and Greater Armenia. The last century of the Byzantine-Arab wars was dominated by frontier conflicts with the [[Fatimids]] in Syria, but the border remained stable until the appearance of a new people, the [[Seljuk Turks]], after 1060.

The Muslims also took to the sea, and from the 650s on, the entire [[Mediterranean Sea]] became a battleground, with raids and counter-raids being launched against islands and the coastal settlements. Muslim raids reached a peak in the 9th and early 10th centuries, after their conquest of [[Crete]] and [[Sicily]], with their fleets reaching the coasts of France, Dalmatia and even the suburbs of Constantinople.

==Background==
{{See also|Roman&ndash;Persian Wars|Byzantine&ndash;Sassanid Wars|Byzantine-Sassanid War of 602–628|Siege of Constantinople (626)}}
The prolonged and escalating Byzantine&ndash;[[Sassanid empire|Sassanid]] wars of the 6th and 7th centuries left both empires exhausted and vulnerable in the face of the sudden emergence and expansion of the Arabs. The last of these wars ended with victory for the Byzantines: Emperor [[Heraclius]] regained all lost territories, and restored the [[True Cross]] to [[Jerusalem]] in 629.<ref>Theophanes, ''Chronicle'', 317&ndash;327</br>* Greatrex&ndash;Lieu (2002), II, 217&ndash;227; Haldon (1997), 46; Baynes (1912), ''passim''; Speck (1984), 178</ref> Nevertheless, neither empire was given any chance to recover, as within a few years they were struck by the onslaught of the [[Arabs]] (newly united by Islam), which, according to Howard-Johnston, "can only be likened to a human tsunami".<ref>Foss (1975), 746&ndash;47; Howard-Johnston (2006), xv</ref> According to George Liska, the "unnecessarily prolonged Byzantine&ndash;Persian conflict opened the way for Islam".<ref>Liska (1998), 170</ref>

In late 620s  [[Muhammad]] had already managed to conquer and unify much of [[Arab peninsula|Arabia]] under Muslim rule, and it was under his leadership that the first Muslim-Byzantine skirmishes took place. Just a few months after Heraclius and the Persian general [[Shahrbaraz]] agreed on terms for the withdrawal of Persian troops from occupied Byzantine eastern provinces in 629, Arab and Byzantine troops confronted each other at the [[Battle of Mu'tah|Mu'tah]].<ref>Kaegi (1995), 66</ref> [[Muhammad]] died in 632 and was succeeded by [[Abu Bakr]], the first [[Rashidun|Caliph]] with undisputed control of the entire Arab peninsula after the successful [[Ridda Wars]], which resulted in the consolidation of a powerful Muslim state throughout the peninsula.<ref>Nicolle (1994), 14</ref>

==The Muslim conquests, 634–718==

According to Muslim biographies, Muhammed, having received intelligence that Byzantine forces were concentrating in northern Arabia with alleged intentions of invading Arabia, led a Muslim army north to [[Tabuk, Saudi Arabia|Tabouk]] in present-day northwestern [[Saudi Arabia]], with the intention of pre-emptively engaging the Byzantine army; the news, however, proved to be false. Though it was not a [[battle of Tabouk|battle]] in the typical sense, nevertheless the event, if it actually occurred, would have represented the first Arab attack on the Byzantines. It did not, however, lead immediately to a military confrontation.<ref>"Muhammad", ''Late Antiquity''; Butler (2007), 145</ref> However, there is no contemporary Byzantine account of the Tabuk expedition, and many of the details come from much later Muslim sources. It has been argued that there is in one Byzantine source a possible reference to the [[Battle of Mu'tah|Battle of Mu´tah]] traditionally dated 629, but this is not certain.<ref name="Kaegi 1995, 67">Kaegi (1995), 67</ref> The first engagements may have started as conflicts with the Arab client states of the Byzantine and Sassanid empires: the [[Ghassanids]] and the [[Lakhmids]] of [[Al-Hirah]]. In any case, Muslim Arabs after 634 certainly pursued a full-blown invasion of both empires, resulting in the conquest of the [[Levant]], [[Roman Egypt|Egypt]] and [[Persia]] for Islam. The most successful generals were [[Khalid ibn al-Walid]] and [['Amr ibn al-'As]].

===Arab conquest of Roman Syria: 634&ndash;638===
{{details|Muslim conquest of Syria}}
{| class="toccolours" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 2em; font-size: 85%;  color:black; width:300px; max-width: 40%;" cellspacing="5"
|[[File:Muslim-Byzantine troop movement (635-636).svg|center|thumb| Muslim and Byzantine troop movements before the [[battle of Yarmouk]].]]
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | "The people of [[Homs]] replied [to the Muslims], "We like your rule and justice far better than the state of oppression and tyranny in which we were. The army of Heraclius we shall indeed, with your 'amil's' help, repulse from the city." The Jews rose and said, "We swear by the [[Torah]], no governor of Heraclius shall enter the city of Homs unless we are first vanquished and exhausted!" [...] The inhabitants of the other cities&mdash;Christian and Jews&mdash;that had capitulated to the Muslims, did the same [...] When by Allah's help the "unbelievers" were defeated and the Muslims won, they opened the gates of their cities, went out with the singers and music players who began to play, and paid the kharaj."
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Al-Baladhuri]]<ref>Al-Baladhuri, [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/yarmuk.html The Battle of the Yarmuk (636) and after]<br/>* Sahas (1972), 23</ref>{{spaced ndash}}According to the Muslim historians of the 9th century, local populations regarded Byzantine rule as oppressive, and preferred Muslim conquest instead.{{cref|a}}
|}

In the Levant, the invading [[Rashidun army]] were engaged by a [[Byzantine army]] composed of imperial troops as well as local levies.<ref name="Levies">The Empire's levies included [[Christian]] [[Armenia]]ns, Arab [[Ghassanids]], [[Mardaites]], [[Slavic peoples|Slavs]], and [[Rus' (people)|Rus']]</ref> According to Islamic historians [[Monophysites]] and [[Jews]] throughout [[Roman Syria|Syria]] welcomed the Arab invaders, as they were discontented with Byzantine rule.{{cref|a}} The Arabian tribes also had significant economic, cultural and familial ties with predominantly Arab citizens of the [[Fertile Crescent]].

The Roman Emperor [[Heraclius]] had fallen ill and was unable to personally lead his armies to resist the Arab conquests of Syria and [[Roman Palestine|Palestine]] in 634. In a [[Battle of Ajnadayn|battle]] fought near [[Ajnadayn]] in the summer of 634, the [[Rashidun Caliphate army]] achieved a decisive victory.<ref>Nicolle (1994), 47&ndash;49</ref> After their victory at the [[Battle of Fahl|Fahl]], Muslim forces [[Siege of Damascus (634)|conquered Damascus]] in 634 under the command of Khalid ibn Walid.<ref name="K112">Kaegi (1995), 112</ref> Byzantine response involved the collection and dispatch of the maximum number of available troops under major commanders, including [[Theodore Trithyrius]] and the Armenian general Vahan, to eject the Muslims from their newly won territories.<ref name="K112" />

At the [[Battle of Yarmouk]] in 636, however, the Muslims, having studied the ground in detail, lured the Byzantines into pitched battle, which the Byzantines usually avoided, and into a series of costly assaults, before turning the deep valleys and cliffs into a catastrophic death-trap.<ref>Nicolle (1994), 45</ref> Heraclius' farewell exclamation (according to the 9th-century historian [[Al-Baladhuri]])<ref>http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/yarmuk.html</ref> while departing [[Antioch]] for [[Constantinople]], is expressive of his disappointment: "Peace unto thee, O Syria, and what an excellent country this is for the enemy!"{{cref|b}} The impact of Syria's loss on the Byzantines is illustrated by [[Joannes Zonaras]]' words: "[...] since then [after the fall of Syria] the race of the Ishmaelites did not cease from invading and plundering the entire territory of the Romans".<ref>Zonaras, ''Annales'', CXXXIV, 1288<br/>* Sahas (1972), 20</ref>

In April 637, the Arabs, after a long siege captured [[Siege of Jerusalem (637)|Jerusalem]], which was surrendered by [[Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem|Patriarch]] [[Sophronius]].{{cref|c}} In the summer of 637, the Muslims conquered [[Gaza]], and, during the same period, the Byzantine authorities in [[Roman Egypt|Egypt]] and [[Mesopotamia]] purchased an expensive truce, which lasted three years for Egypt and one year for Mesopotamia. [[Battle of Iron bridge|Antioch fell]] to the Muslim armies in late 637, and by then the Muslims occupied the whole of northern Syria, except for upper [[Mesopotamia]], which they granted a one-year truce. At the expiration of this truce in 638&ndash;639, the Arabs overran Byzantine Mesopotamia and [[Byzantine Armenia]], and terminated the conquest of Palestine by storming [[Caesarea Maritima]] and effecting their final capture of [[Ashkelon|Ascalon]]. In December 639, the Muslims departed from Palestine to invade Egypt in early 640.<ref name="Kaegi 1995, 67"/>

===Arab conquests of North Africa: 639&ndash;698===
{{details|Umayyad conquest of North Africa}}

====Conquest of Egypt and Cyrenaica====
{{details|Muslim conquest of Egypt}}
By the time Heraclius died, much of Egypt had been lost, and by 637&ndash;638 the whole of Syria was in the hands of the armies of Islam.{{cref|d}} With 3,500&ndash;4,000 troops under his command, 'Amr ibn al-A'as first crossed into Egypt from Palestine at the end of 639 or the beginning of 640. He was progressively joined by further reinforcements, notably 12,000 soldiers by [[Al-Zubayr]]. 'Amr first besieged and conquered [[Babylon (Egypt)|Babylon]], and then attacked [[Alexandria]]. The Byzantines, divided and shocked by the sudden loss of so much territory, agreed to give up the city by September 642.<ref>Kennedy (1998), 62</ref> The fall of Alexandria extinguished Byzantine rule in Egypt, and allowed the Muslims to continue their military expansion into North Africa; between 643&ndash;644 'Amr completed the conquest of [[Cyrenaica]].<ref>Butler (2007), 427&ndash;428</ref> [[Uthman]] succeeded Caliph [[Umar]] after his death.<ref name="Europe245-252">Davies (1996), 245, 252</ref>

During his reign the Byzantine navy briefly won back [[Alexandria]] in 645, but lost it again in 646 shortly after the [[Battle of Nikiou]].<ref>Butler (2007), 465&ndash;483</ref> The Islamic forces raided [[Sicily]] in 652, while [[Cyprus]] and [[Crete]] were captured in 653. According to Arab historians, the local Christian [[Copts]] welcomed the Arabs just as the Monophysites did in Jerusalem.<ref name="Read51">Read (2001), 51</ref> The loss of this lucrative province deprived the Byzantines of their valuable wheat supply, thereby causing food shortages throughout the Byzantine Empire and weakening its armies in the following decades.<ref>Haldon (1999), 167; Tathakopoulos (2004), 318</ref>

====Conquest of the Exarchate of Africa====
In 647, an Arab army led by [[Abdallah ibn al-Sa’ad]] invaded the Byzantine [[Exarchate of Africa]]. [[Tripolitania]] was conquered, followed by [[Sufetula]], {{convert|150|mi|km}} south of [[Carthage]], and the governor and self-proclaimed Emperor of Africa [[Gregory the Patrician|Gregory]] was killed. Abdallah's booty-laden force returned to Egypt in 648 after Gregory's successor, Gennadius, promised them an annual tribute of some 300,000 ''[[nomismata]]''.<ref>Treadgold (1997), 312</ref>

Following a [[First Fitna|civil war]] in the Arab Empire the [[Umayyad Dynasty|Umayyads]] came to power under [[Muawiyah I]]. Under the Umayyads the conquest of the remaining Byzantine territories in North Africa was completed and the Arabs were able to move across large parts of [[Maghreb]], invading [[Hispania#Visigothic Hispania|Visigothic Spain]] through the [[Strait of Gibraltar]],<ref name="Read51"/> under the command of the Berber general [[Tariq ibn-Ziyad]]. But this happened only after they developed a naval power of their own,{{cref|e}} and they conquered and destroyed the Byzantine stronghold of Carthage between 695&ndash;698.<ref>Fage&ndash;Tordoff, 153&ndash;154</ref> The loss of Africa meant that soon, Byzantine control of the Western Mediterranean was challenged by a new and expanding Arab fleet, operating from Tunisia.<ref>Norwich (1990), 334</ref>

Muawiyah began consolidating the Arab territory from the [[Aral Sea]] to the western border of Egypt. He put a governor in place in Egypt at [[Cairo|al-Fustat]], and launched raids into [[Anatolia]] in 663. Then from 665 to 689 a new North African campaign was launched to protect Egypt "from flank attack by Byzantine [[Cyrene, Libya|Cyrene]]". An Arab army of 40,000 took [[Barca]], defeating 30,000 Byzantines.<ref name="Durant">[[Will Durant]], ''The History of Civilization: Part IV—The Age of Faith''. 1950. New York: Simon and Schuster. ISBN 0-671-01200-2</ref>

A vanguard of 10,000 Arabs under [[Uqba ibn Nafi]] followed from [[Damascus]]. In 670, [[Kairouan]] in modern [[Tunisia]] was established as a base for further invasions; Kairouan would become the capital of the Islamic province of [[Ifriqiya]], and one of the main Arabo-Islamic cultural centers in the [[Middle Ages]].<ref>[http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/caliphate/umTerritory.html/ The Islamic World to 1600: Umayyad Territorial Expansion].</ref> Then ibn Nafi "plunged into the heart of the country, traversed the wilderness in which his successors erected the splendid capitals of [[Fes, Morocco|Fes]] and [[Morocco]], and at length penetrated to the verge of the [[Atlantic]] and the [[Sahara|great desert]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=Desmond J. |authorlink= |coauthors=Roland Anthony Oliver, J. D. Fage, A. D. Roberts |editor= |others= |title=The Cambridge History of Africa |origdate= |origyear=1975 |origmonth= |url= |format= |accessdate= |edition= |series= |date= |year= 1978|month= |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location= |language= |isbn=0-521-21592-7 |oclc= |doi= |id=  |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote=|page=637}}</ref> In his conquest of the [[Maghreb]], he took the coastal cities of [[Bugia]] and [[Tangier|Tingi]], overwhelming what had once been the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] province of [[Mauretania Tingitana]] where here he was finally halted.<ref name="Gibbon">Edward Gibbon, ''History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'',  [http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/g/gibbon/edward/g43d/chapter51.html Chapter 51.]</ref> As the historian Luis Garcia de Valdeavellano explains:

{{cquote|In their struggle against the Byzantines and the Berbers, the Arab chieftains had greatly extended their African dominions, and as early as the year 682 Uqba had reached the shores of the Atlantic, but he was unable to occupy Tangier, for he was forced to turn back toward the [[Atlas Mountains]] by a man who became known to history and legend as [[Julian, count of Ceuta|Count Julian]].<ref name="Valdeavellano">Luis Garcia de Valdeavellano, ''Historia de España''. 1968. Madrid: Alianza.
*Quotes translated from the Spanish by Helen R. Lane in ''Count Julian'' by [[Juan Goytisolo]]. 1974. New York: The Viking Press, Inc. ISBN 0-670-24407-4</ref>}}

===Arab attacks on Anatolia and sieges of Constantinople===
As the first tide of the Muslim conquests in the Near East ebbed off, and a semi-permanent border between the two powers was established, a wide zone, unclaimed by either Byzantines or Arabs and virtually deserted (known in Arabic as ''al-Ḍawāḥī'', "the outer lands" and in [[Greek language|Greek]] as {{lang|grc|τὰ ἄκρα}}, ''ta akra'', "the extremities") emerged in [[Cilicia]], along the southern approaches of the [[Taurus Mountains|Taurus]] and [[Anti-Taurus Mountains|Anti-Taurus]] mountain ranges, leaving Syria in Muslim and the [[Anatolian plateau]] in Byzantine hands. Both Emperor [[Heraclius]] and the Caliph '[[Umar]] (r. 634–644) pursued a strategy of destruction within this zone, trying to transform it into an effective barrier between the two realms.<ref>Kaegi (1995), pp. 236–244</ref>

Nevertheless, the Umayyads still considered the complete subjugation of Byzantium as its ultimate objective. Their thinking was dominated by Islamic teaching, which placed the infidel Byzantines firmly in the ''[[Dar al-Harb|Dār al-Ḥarb]]'', the "House of War", which, in the words of Islamic scholar [[Hugh N. Kennedy]], "the Muslims should attack whenever possible; rather than peace interrupted by occasional conflict, the normal pattern was seen to be conflict interrupted by occasional, temporary truce (''hudna''). True peace (''ṣulḥ'') could only come when the enemy accepted Islam or tributary status."<ref name="Kennedy2004-120">Kennedy (2004) p. 120</ref> Both as governor of Syria and later as caliph, [[Muawiyah I]] (r. 661–680) was the driving force of the Muslim effort against Byzantium, especially by his creation of a fleet, which challenged the [[Byzantine navy]] and raided the Byzantine islands and coasts. The shocking defeat of the imperial fleet by the young Muslim navy at the [[Battle of the Masts]] in 655 was of critical importance: it opened up the Mediterranean, hitherto a "Roman lake", to Arab expansion, and began a centuries-long series of naval conflicts over the control of the Mediterranean waterways.<ref>Pryor & Jeffreys (2006), p. 25</ref><ref>Treadgold (1997), pp. 313–314</ref> Trade between the Muslim eastern and southern shores and the Christian northern shores almost ceased during this period, isolating Western Europe from developments in the Muslim world: "In antiquity, and again in the high Middle Ages, the voyage from Italy to Alexandria was a commonplace; in early Islamic times the two countries were so remote that even the most basic information was unknown" (Kennedy).<ref>Kennedy (2004) pp. 120, 122</ref> Muawiyah also initiated the first large-scale raids into Anatolia from 641 on. These expeditions, aiming both at plunder and at weakening and keeping the Byzantines at bay, as well as the corresponding retaliatory Byzantine raids, eventually became established as a fixture of Byzantine–Arab warfare for the next three centuries.<ref>Kaegi (1995), pp. 246–247</ref><ref>El-Cheikh (2004), pp. 83–84</ref>

[[File:Constans II tremissis 81089.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Gold ''[[tremissis]]'' of Constans II]]
The outbreak of the [[First Fitna|Muslim Civil War]] in 656 bought a precious breathing pause for Byzantium, which Emperor [[Constans II (Byzantine Empire)|Constans II]] (r. 641–668) used to shore up his defences, extend and consolidate his control over Armenia and most importantly, initiate a major army reform with lasting effect: the establishment of the ''[[thema]]ta'', the large territorial commands into which Anatolia, the major contiguous territory remaining to the Empire, was divided. The remains of the old field armies were settled in each of them, and soldiers were allocated land there in payment of their service. The ''themata'' would form the backbone of the Byzantine defensive system for centuries to come.<ref>Treadgold (1997), pp. 314–318</ref>

After his victory in the civil war, Muawiyah launched a series of attacks against Byzantine holdings in Africa, Sicily and the East.<ref>Treadgold (1997), pp. 318–324</ref> By 670, the Muslim fleet had penetrated into the [[Sea of Marmara]] and stayed at [[Cyzicus]] during the winter. Four years later, a massive Muslim fleet reappeared in the Marmara and re-established a base at Cyzicus, from there they raided the Byzantine coasts almost at will. Finally in 676, Muawiyah sent an army to invest [[Constantinople]] from land as well, beginning the [[Siege of Constantinople (674–678)|First Arab Siege]] of the city. [[Constantine IV]] (r. 661–685) however used a devastating new weapon that came to be known as "[[Greek fire]]", invented by a Christian [[refugee]] from Syria named Kallinikos of [[Baalbek|Heliopolis]], to decisively defeat the attacking Umayyad navy in the [[Sea of Marmara]], resulting in the lifting of the siege in 678. The returning Muslim fleet suffered further losses due to storms, while the army lost many men to the thematic armies who attacked them on their route back.<ref>Treadgold (1997), pp. 325–327</ref>

Among those killed in the siege was Eyup, the standard bearer of Muhammed and the last of his companions; to Muslims today, his tomb is considered one of the holiest sites in Istanbul.<ref name="Walls">''[http://www.ospreypublishing.com/title_detail.php/title=S759X~ser=FOR The Walls of Constantinople, AD 324–1453]'', [[Osprey Publishing]], ISBN 1-84176-759-X.</ref> The Byzantine victory over the invading Umayyads halted the Islamic expansion into [[Europe]] for almost thirty years.

[[File:Solidus-Justinian II-Christ b-sb1413.jpg|thumb|250px|left|In spite of the turbulent reign of Justinian II, last emperor of the [[Heraclian dynasty]], his coinage still bore the traditional "[[Pax Romana|PAX]]", ''peace''.]]
The setback at Constantinople was followed by further reverses across the huge Muslim empire. As Gibbon writes, "this Mahometan Alexander, who sighed for new worlds, was unable to preserve his recent conquests. By the universal defection of the Greeks and Africans he was recalled from the shores of the Atlantic." His forces were directed at putting down rebellions, and in one such battle he was surrounded by insurgents and killed. Then, the third governor of Africa, Zuheir, was overthrown by a powerful army, sent from Constantinople by [[Constantine IV]] for the relief of [[Carthage]].<ref name="Gibbon"/> Meanwhile, a [[Second Fitna|second Arab civil war]] was raging in [[Arabia]] and Syria resulting in a series of four caliphs between the death of Muawiyah in 680 and the ascension of [[Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan|Abd al-Malik]] in 685, and was ongoing until 692 with the death of the rebel leader.<ref>Karen Armstrong: ''Islam: A Short History''. New York, NY, USA: The Modern Library, 2002, 2004 ISBN 0-8129-6618-X</ref>

The Saracen Wars of [[Justinian II]] (r. 685–695 and 705–711), last emperor of the [[Heraclian Dynasty]], "reflected the general chaos of the age".<ref name="Europe245"/> After a successful campaign he made a truce with the Arabs, agreeing on joint possession of [[Armenia]], [[Caucasian Iberia|Iberia]] and [[Cyprus]]; however, by removing 12,000 [[Christian]] [[Mardaites]] from their native [[Lebanon]], he removed a major obstacle for the Arabs in Syria, and in 692, after the disastrous [[Battle of Sebastopolis]], the Muslims invaded and conquered all of Armenia.<ref name="Justinian">[[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica]] [http://7.1911encyclopedia.org/Justinian_II_Rhinotmetus]</ref> Deposed in 695, with [[Carthage]] lost in 698, Justinian returned to power from 705-711.<ref name="Europe245">Davies (1996), 245</ref> His second reign was marked by Arab victories in Asia Minor and civil unrest.<ref name="Justinian"/> Reportedy, he ordered his guards to execute the only unit that had not deserted him after one battle, to prevent their desertion in the next.<ref name="Europe245"/>

Justinian's first and second depositions were followed by internal disorder, with successive revolts and emperors lacking legitimacy or support. In this climate, the Umayyads consolidated their control of Armenia and Cilicia, and began preparing a renewed offensive against Constantinople. In Byzantium, the general [[Leo the Isaurian]] (r. 717–741) had just seized the throne in March 717, when the massive Muslim army under the famed Umayyad prince and general [[Maslamah ibn Abd al-Malik]] began moving towards the imperial capital.<ref>Treadgold (1997), pp. 337–345</ref> The Caliphate's army and navy, led by Maslamah, numbered some 120,000 men and 1,800 ships according to the sources. Whatever the real number, it was a huge force, far larger than the imperial army. Thankfully for Leo and the Empire, the capital's sea walls had recently been repaired and strengthened. In addition, the emperor concluded an alliance with the Bulgar khan [[Tervel]], who agreed to harass the invaders' rear.<ref>Treadgold (1997), pp. 346–347</ref>

[[File:Byzantijnse stadsmuren.JPG|thumb|right|250px|The [[Theodosian Walls]] of [[Constantinople]]]]
From July 717 to August 718, the city was [[Siege of Constantinople (717–718)|besieged by land and sea]] by the Muslims, who built an extensive double line of [[circumvallation]] and [[contravallation]] on the landward side, isolating the capital. Their attempt to complete the blockade by sea however failed when the [[Byzantine navy]] employed [[Greek fire]] against them; the Arab fleet kept well off the city walls, leaving Constantinople's supply routes open. Forced to extend the siege into winter, the besieging army suffered horrendous casualties from the cold and the lack of provisions.<ref>Treadgold (1997), p. 347</ref> In spring, new reinforcements were sent by the new caliph, [[Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz]] (r. 717–720), by sea from Africa and Egypt and over land through Asia Minor. The crews of the new fleets were composed mostly of Christians, who began defecting in large numbers, while the land forces were ambushed and defeated in [[Bithynia]]. As famine and an epidemic continued to plague the Arab camp, the siege was abandoned on 15 August 718. On its return, the Arab fleet suffered further casualties to storms and an eruption of the volcano of [[Thera]].<ref>Treadgold (1997), pp. 347–349</ref>

== Stabilization of the frontier, 718–863 ==
The first wave of the Muslim conquests ended with the siege of Constantinople in 718, and the border between the two empires became stabilized along the mountains of eastern Anatolia. Raids and counter-raids continued on both sides and became almost ritualized, but the prospect of outright conquest of Byzantium by the Caliphate receded. This led to far more regular, and often friendly, diplomatic contacts, as well as a reciprocal recognition of the two empires. In response to the Muslim threat, which reached its peak in the first half of the 8th century, the [[Isaurian dynasty|Isaurian emperors]] adopted the policy of [[Byzantine Iconoclasm|Iconoclasm]], which was abandoned in 786 only to be readopted in the 820s and finally abandoned in 843. Under the [[Macedonian dynasty]], exploiting the decline and fragmentation of the [[Abbasid Caliphate]], the Byzantines gradually went into the offensive, and recovered much territory in the 10th century, which was lost however after 1071 to the [[Seljuk Turks]].

=== Raids under the last Umayyads and the rise of Iconoclasm ===
[[File:Byzantine-Arab naval struggle.png|thumb|right|250px|Map of the Byzantine-Arab naval antagonism in the Mediterranean, 7th to 11th centuries]]
Following the failure to capture Constantinople in 717–718, the Umayyads for a time diverted their attention elsewhere, allowing the Byzantines to take to the offensive, making some gains in Armenia. From 720/721 however the Arab armies resumed their expeditions against Byzantine Anatolia, although now they were no longer aimed at conquest, but rather large-scale raids, plundering and devastating the countryside and only occasionally attacking forts or major settlements.<ref name="Blankinship" /><ref>Treadgold (1997), pp. 349ff.</ref> Thus, under the late Umayyad and early Abbasid caliphs, the frontier between Byzantium and the Caliphate became stabilized along the line of the Taurus-Antitaurus mountain ranges. On the Arab side, [[Cilicia]] was permanently occupied and its deserted cities, such as [[Adana]], [[Mopsuestia]] (al-Massisa) and, most importantly, [[Tarsus, Mersin|Tarsus]], were refortified and resettled under the early Abbasids. Likewise, in [[Upper Mesopotamia]], places like [[Germanikeia]] (Mar'ash), [[Hadath]] and Melitene (Malatya) became major military centers. These two regions came to form the two halves of a new fortified frontier zone, the ''[[thughur]]''.<ref name="El-Cheick">El-Cheikh (2004), pp. 83–84</ref><ref>Kennedy (2004), pp. 143, 275</ref> 

Both the Umayyads and later the Abbasids continued to regard the annual expeditions against the Caliphate's "traditional enemy" as an integral part of the continuing ''[[jihad]]'', and they quickly became organized in a regular fashion: one to two summer expeditions (pl. ''ṣawā'if'', sing. ''ṣā'ifa'') sometimes accompanied by a naval attack and/or followed by winter expeditions (''shawātī''). The summer expeditions were usually two separate attacks, the "expedition of the left" (''al-ṣā'ifa al-yusrā/al-ṣughrā'') launched from the Cilician ''thughur'' and consisting mostly of Syrian troops, and the usually larger "expedition of the right" (''al-ṣā'ifa al-yumnā/al-kubrā'') launched from [[Malatya]] and composed of [[Al-Jazira, Mesopotamia|Mesopotamian]] troops. The raids were also largely confined to the borderlands and the central Anatolian plateau, and only rarely reached the peripheral coastlands, which the Byzantines fortified heavily.<ref name="Blankinship">Blankinship (1994), pp. 117–119</ref><ref>El-Cheikh (2004), p. 83</ref> 

Nevertheless, under the more aggressive Caliph [[Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik]] (r. 723–743), the Arab expeditions intensified for a time, and were led by some of the Caliphate's most capable generals, including princes of the Umayyad dynasty like Maslamah ibn Abd al-Malik and [[al-Abbas ibn al-Walid]] or Hisham's own sons [[Mu'awiyah ibn Hisham|Mu'awiyah]], [[Maslamah ibn Hisham|Maslamah]] and [[Sulayman ibn Hisham|Sulayman]].<ref>Blankinship (1994), pp. 119–121, 162–163</ref> This was still a time when Byzantium was fighting for survival, and "the frontier provinces, devastated by war, were a land of ruined cities and deserted villages where a scattered population looked to rocky castles or impenetrable mountains rather than the armies of the empire to provide a minimum of security" (Kennedy).<ref name="Kennedy2004-120">Kennedy (2004) p. 120</ref> In response to the renewal of Arab invasions, and to a sequence of natural disasters such as the eruptions of the volcanic island of [[Santorini|Thera]],<ref name="thera">[http://www.decadevolcano.net/santorini/santorini_volcanism.htm Volcanism on Santorini / eruptive history]</ref> the Emperor Leo III the Isaurian concluded that the Empire had lost divine favour. Already in 722 he had tried to force the conversion of the Empire's Jews, but soon he began to turn his attention to the veneration of [[icons]], which some bishops had come to regard as [[idolatry|idolatrous]]. In 726, Leo published an edict condemning their use and showed himself increasingly critical of the [[iconophile]]s, until he [[Byzantine Iconoclasm|formally banned depictions]] of religious figures in a court council in 730. This decision provoked major opposition both from the people and the church, especially the [[Bishop of Rome]], which Leo did not take into account. In the words of Warren Treadgold: "He saw no need to consult the church, and he appears to have been surprised by the depth of the popular opposition he encountered".<ref>Treadgold (1997), pp. 350–353</ref><ref>Whittow (1996), pp. 139–142</ref> The controversy weakened the Byzantine Empire, and was a key factor in the schism between the [[Patriarch of Constantinople]] and the [[Bishop of Rome]].<ref name="Europe273">''Europe: A History'', p273. Oxford: Oxford University Press 1996. ISBN 0-19-820171-0</ref><ref name="Europe246">''Europe: A History'', p246. Oxford: Oxford University Press 1996. ISBN 0-19-820171-0</ref> 

The Umayyad Caliphate however was increasingly distracted by conflicts elsewhere, especially its [[Khazar–Arab Wars|confrontation]] with the [[Khazars]], with whom Leo III had concluded an alliance, marrying his son and heir, [[Constantine V]] (r. 741–775) to the Khazar princess [[Tzitzak]]. Only in the late 730s did the Muslim raids again become a threat, but the great Byzantine victory at [[Battle of Akroinon|Akroinon]] and the turmoil of the [[Abbasid Revolution]] led to a pause in Arab attacks against the Empire. It also opened up the way for a more aggressive stance by [[Constantine V]] (r. 741–775), who in 741 attacked the major Arab base of [[Melitene]], and continued scoring further victories. These successes were also interpreted by Leo III and his son Constantine as evidence of God's renewed favour, and strengthened the position of Iconoclasm within the Empire.<ref>Blankinship (1994), pp. 20, 168–169, 200</ref><ref>Treadgold (1997), pp. 354–355</ref>

=== The early Abbasids ===
Unlike their Umayyad predecessors, the Abbasid caliphs did not pursue active expansion: in general terms, they were content with the territorial limits achieved, and whatever external campaigns they waged were retaliatory or preemptive, meant to preserve their frontier and impress Abbasid might upon their neighbours.<ref>El Hibri (2011), p. 302</ref> At the same time, the campaigns against Byzantium in particular remained important for domestic consumption. The annual raids, which had almost lapsed in the turmoil following the [[Abbasid Revolution]], were undertaken with renewed vigour from ca. 780 on, and were the only expeditions where the Caliph or his sons participated in person. As a symbol of the Caliph's ritual role as the leader of the Muslim community, they were closely paralleled in official propaganda by the leadership by Abbasid family members of the annual pilgrimage (''[[hajj]]'') to [[Mecca]].<ref>El Hibri (2011), pp. 278–279</ref><ref>Kennedy (2001), pp. 105–106</ref> In addition, the constant warfare on the Syrian marches was useful to the Abbasids as it provided employment for the Syrian and Iraqi military elites and the various volunteers (''muṭṭawi‘a'') who flocked to participate in the ''jihad''.<ref>El Hibri (2011), p. 279</ref><ref>Kennedy (2001), p. 106</ref>

{{quote box
| width     = 260px
| align     = right
| bgcolor   = #c6dbf7
| title     = 
| quote     = "The ''thughūr'' are blocked by Hārūn, and through him<br>the ropes of the Muslim state are firmly plaited<br>His banner is forever tied with victory;<br>he has an army before which armies scatter.<br>All the kings of the ''[[Rūm]]'' give him ''[[jizya]]''<br>unwillingly, perforce, out of hand in humiliation."
| source    = Poem in praise of Harun al-Rashid's [[Abbasid invasion of Asia Minor (806)|806 campaign]] against Byzantium<ref>El-Cheikh (2004), p. 90</ref>
}}
Wishing to emphasize his piety and role as the leader of the Muslim community, Caliph [[Harun al-Rashid]] (r. 786–809) in particular was the most energetic of the early Abbasid rulers in his pursuit of warfare against Byzantium: he established his seat at [[Raqqa]] close to the frontier, he complemented the ''thughur'' in 786 by forming a second defensive line along northern Syria, the ''[[al-'Awasim]]'', and was reputed to be spending alternating years leading the ''[[Hajj]]'' and leading a campaign into Anatolia, including the largest expedition assembled under the Abbasids, [[Abbasid invasion of Asia Minor (806)|in 806]].<ref>El-Cheikh (2004), pp. 89–90</ref><ref>Kennedy (2004), pp. 143–144</ref> Nevertheless, and continuing a trend started by his immediate predecessors, his reign also saw the development of far more regular contacts between the Abbasid court and Byzantium, with the exchange of embassies and letters being far more common than under the Umayyad rulers. Despite Harun's hostility, "the existence of embassies is a sign that the Abbasids accepted that the Byzantine empire was a power with which they had to deal on equal terms" (Kennedy).<ref>cf. El-Cheikh (2004), pp. 90ff.</ref><ref>Kennedy (2004), p. 146</ref>

Civil war occurred in the Byzantine Empire, often with Arab support. With the support of Caliph [[Al-Ma'mun]], Arabs under the leadership of [[Thomas the Slav]] invaded, so that within a matter of months, only two ''[[Theme (Byzantine administrative unit)|themata]]'' in Asia Minor remained loyal to Emperor [[Michael II]].<ref name="Thomas">{{cite book |author=John Julius Norwich|title=A Short History of Byzantium |publisher=Penguin |year=1998 |isbn=0-14-025960-0}}</ref> When the Arabs captured [[Thessalonica]], the Empire's second largest city, it was quickly re-captured by the Byzantines.<ref name="Thomas"/> Thomas's 821 siege of Constantinople did not get past the [[Walls of Constantinople|city walls]], and he was forced to retreat.<ref name="Thomas"/>

[[File:Siege of Amorium.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The siege of Amorium, miniature from the ''[[Madrid Skylitzes]]'']]
The Arabs did not relinquish their designs on Asia Minor and in 838 began another invasion, [[sack of Amorion|sacking]] the city of [[Amorion]].

=== Sicily, Italy and Crete ===
{{main|History of Islam in southern Italy}}
While a relative equilibrium reigned in the East, the situation in the western Mediterranean was irretrievably altered when the [[Aghlabids]] began their slow [[Muslim conquest of Sicily|conquest of Sicily]] in the 820s. Using [[Tunisia]] as their launching pad, the Arabs started by conquering [[Palermo]] in 831, [[Messina]] in 842, [[Enna]] in 859, culminating in the capture of [[Syracuse, Sicily|Syracuse]] in 878. This in turn opened up southern Italy and the [[Adriatic Sea]] for raids and settlement. Byzantium further suffered an important setback with the loss of [[Crete]] to a band of [[al-Andalus|Andalusian]] exiles, who established a [[Emirate of Crete|piratical emirate]] on the island and for more than a century ravaged the coasts of the hitherto secure  [[Aegean Sea]].

== Byzantine resurgence, 863–11th century ==

However, religious peace came with the emergence of the [[Macedonian dynasty]] in 867, as well as a strong and unified Byzantine leadership;<ref name="Europe">''Europe: A History''. Oxford: Oxford University Press 1996. ISBN 0-19-820171-0</ref> while the Abassid empire had splintered into many factions afer 861. [[Basil I]] revived the Byzantine Empire into a regional power, during a period of territorial expansion, making the Empire the strongest power in [[Europe]], with an ecclesiastical policy marked by good relations with [[Papacy|Rome]]. Basil allied with the [[Holy Roman Emperor]] [[Louis II, Holy Roman Emperor|Louis II]] against the Arabs, and his fleet cleared the [[Adriatic Sea]] from their raids. With Byzantine help, Louis II captured [[Bari]] from the Arabs in 871. The city became Byzantine territory in 876. However, the Byzantine position on [[Sicily]] deteriorated, and [[Syracuse, Italy|Syracuse]] fell to the [[Emirate of Sicily]] in 878. Catania was lost in 900, and finally the fortress of [[Taormina]] in 902. [[Michael of Zahumlje]] apparently on 10 July 926 sacked [[Siponto]] ({{lang-la|Sipontum}}), which was a Byzantine town in [[Apulia]].<ref name=Racki15>Rački, ''Odlomci iz državnoga práva hrvatskoga za narodne dynastie:'', p. 15</ref> It remains unknown whether Michael did so under [[Tomislav of Croatia|King Tomislav]]'s supreme command, as suggested by some historians. According to Omrčanin, Tomislav sent the Croatian navy under Michael's leadership to drive the [[Saracen]]s from that part of southern [[Italy]] and free the city.<ref>Omrčanin, ''Military history of Croatia:'', p. 24</ref> Sicily would remain under Arab control until the Norman invasion in 1071.

Although Sicily was lost, the general [[Nikephoros Phokas the Elder]] succeeded in taking [[Taranto]] and much of [[Calabria]] in 880, forming the nucleus for the later [[Catepanate of Italy]]. The successes in the [[Italian Peninsula]] opened a new period of Byzantine domination there. Above all, the Byzantines were beginning to establish a strong presence in the [[Mediterranean Sea]], and especially the [[Adriatic Sea|Adriatic]]. Under [[John Kourkouas]], the Byzantines conquered the emirate of [[Melitene]], along with [[Tarsos]] the strongest of the Muslim border emirates, and advanced into Armenia in the 930s; the next three decades were dominated by the struggle of the [[Phokas (Byzantine family)|Phokas]] clan and their dependants against the [[Hamdanid]] emir of [[Aleppo]], [[Sayf al-Dawla]]. Al-Dawla was finally defeated by [[Nikephoros II Phokas]], who conquered [[Cilicia]] and northern Syria and recovered Crete. His nephew and successor, [[John I Tzimiskes]], pushed even further south, almost reaching [[Jerusalem]], but his death in 976 ended Byzantine expansion towards [[Palestine]].

[[File:Histamenon nomisma-Nicephorus II and Basil II-sb1776.jpg|thumb|left||[[Nikephoros II]] and his stepson [[Basil II]] (right). Under the [[Macedonian dynasty]], the Byzantine Empire became the strongest power in Europe, recovering territories lost in the war.]]

After putting an end to the internal strife, [[Basil II]] launched a counter-campaign against the Arabs in 995. The Byzantine civil wars had weakened the Empire's position in the east, and the gains of [[Nikephoros II Phokas]] and [[John I Tzimiskes]] came close to being lost, with [[Aleppo]] besieged and Antioch under threat. Basil won several battles in [[Syria]], relieving Aleppo, taking over the [[Orontes river|Orontes]] valley, and raiding further south. Although he did not have the force to drive into Palestine and reclaim [[Jerusalem]], his victories did restore much of [[Syria]] to the empire — including the larger city of Antioch which was the seat of [[Patriarch of Antioch|its eponymous Patriarch]].<ref name="Read65-66">Read (2001), 65-66</ref> No emperor since [[Heraclius]] had been able to hold these lands for any length of time, and the Empire would retain them for the next 110 years until 1078. [[Piers Paul Read]] writes that by 1025, Byzantine land "stretched from the [[Straits of Messina]] and the northern Adriatic in the west to the [[River Danube]] and [[Crimea]] in the north, and to the cities of Melitine and [[Edessa, Mesopotamia|Edessa]] beyond the [[Euphrates]] in the east."<ref name="Read65-66"/>

Under Basil II, the Byzantines established a swath of new [[Theme (Byzantine administrative unit)|''themata'']], stretching northeast from Aleppo (a Byzantine protectorate) to Manzikert. Under the Theme system of military and administrative government, the Byzantines could raise a force at least 200,000 strong, though in practice these were strategically placed throughout the Empire. With Basil's rule, the Byzantine Empire reached its greatest height in nearly five centuries, and indeed for the next four centuries.<ref name="Europe1237">See map depicting Byzantine territories from the 11th century on; ''Europe: A History'', p 1237. Oxford: Oxford University Press 1996. ISBN 0-19-820171-0</ref>

==Conclusion==
{{main|Second Crusade|Manuel I Komnenos}}
[[File:Manuel I Comnenus.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Komnenos]] launched an invasion of Egypt.]]
The wars drew near to a closure when the [[Turkic peoples|Turks]] and various [[Mongols|Mongol invaders]] replaced the threat of either power. From the 11th and 12th centuries onwards, the Byzantine conflicts shifted into the [[Byzantine-Seljuk wars]] with the continuing Islamic invasion of Anatolia being taken over by the [[Seljuk Turks]]. After the defeat at the [[Battle of Manzikert]] by the Turks in 1071, the Byzantine Empire, with the help of Western [[Crusade]]rs, re-established its position in the [[Middle East]] as a major power. Meanwhile, the major Arab conflicts were in the Crusades, and later against [[Mongolian Empire|Mongolian invasions]], especially that of the [[Golden Horde]] and [[Timur]].

During the [[Second Crusade]], [[Baldwin III of Jerusalem|Baldwin III]] [[Siege of Ascalon|seized Ascalon]] in 1153, and the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]] was able to advance into Egypt and briefly occupy [[Cairo]] in the 1160s. The Emperor Manuel married [[Maria of Antioch]], cousin of the [[Crusade]]r King [[Amalric I of Jerusalem]], while Amalric married Manuel's grandniece [[Maria Komnene, Queen consort of Jerusalem|Maria Komnene]]. In 1168 a formal alliance was negotiated by future Archbishop [[William of Tyre]], and in 1169 Manuel launched a joint expedition with Amalric to Egypt. Manuel's ambitious campaign was a dramatic demonstration of how powerful the Empire had become, involving a fleet of over 200 ships equipped with [[siege engine|siege weapons]] and Greek fire; William of Tyre was particularly impressed by the large transport ships used to transport the [[cataphract|cavalry forces]] of the [[Komnenian army]].<ref name=William>[[William of Tyre]], ''A History of Deeds Done Beyond the Sea''</ref> Manuel's wider strategy was to use the Latin Crusaders as a shield for the Empire, and his intervention in Egypt was because he believed control of Egypt would be the deciding factor of the [[Second Crusade]].<ref name=Angold>{{cite book |author=[[Michael Angold]]|title=The Byzantine Empire, 1025-1204 |publisher=Longman |year=1997 |isbn=0-582-29468-1}}</ref> A successful conquest would have consolidated Crusader control in the [[Holy Land]], and restored the grain supply of the rich province to the Empire.

Furthermore, it would bind the Crusaders more closely to the Empire, a goal which Manuel would pursue with determination throughout his reign and which would be evident when King Amalric subsequently placed his whole kingdom under the protection of Manuel, effectively extending the agreement on Antioch by making the entire Kingdom of Jerusalem at least nominally part of the Empire. However, this was a personal arrangement, in the [[feudal]] tradition of [[Western Europe]], and as such only applied for as long as Manuel and Amalric were the rulers of their respective states.

[[File:The Byzantine Empire, c.1180.PNG|thumb|right|The Byzantine Empire in purple, c.1180, at the end of the [[Komnenian restoration|Komnenian period]] and the Byzantine-Arab Wars.]]
The invasion could even have expected support from the native [[Coptic Christian]]s, who had lived as second class citizens under Islamic rule for over five hundred years. However, the failure of co-operation between the Crusaders and the Byzantines jeopardised the chances to take the province. The Byzantine fleet sailed only with provisions for three months: by the time the crusaders were ready, supplies were already running out, and eventually the fleet retired after an ineffectual attempt to capture [[Damietta]]. Each side sought to blame the other for failure, but both also knew that they depended on each other: the alliance was maintained, and further plans were made, which ultimately were to come to naught.<ref name=William />

Seljuk Sultan [[Kilij Arslan II]] used this time to eliminate his rivals and build up his power in [[Asia Minor]]. The balance of power in the eastern Mediterranean was changing, and the effects of Manuel's failure in Egypt would still be felt long after his death. The rise of [[Saladin]] was only made possible when, in 1171, he was proclaimed [[Sultan of Egypt]]; his uniting of Egypt and Syria would ultimately lead to the [[Third Crusade]]. Meanwhile, the Byzantine alliance ended with the death of Manuel I in 1180; Manuel would be the last Emperor truly sympathetic to the Crusades.<ref name="Castle">''[http://www.ospreypublishing.com/title_detail.php/title=S8278 Crusader Castles in the Holy Land 1192–1302]'', [[Osprey Publishing]], ISBN 1-84176-827-8.</ref>

==Effects==
<!-- Alternative image: [[File:Charlemagne and Pope Adrian I.jpg|thumb|right|The Byzantine-Arab Wars provided the conditions that developed [[feudalism]] in [[Middle Ages|Medieval Europe]].]]-->
[[File:Karl den store krons av leo III.jpg|thumb|left|The Byzantine-Arab Wars provided the conditions that developed [[feudalism]] in [[Middle Ages|Medieval Europe]].]]

{{see|Byzantine Papacy|East–West Schism}}
As with any war of such length, the drawn-out Byzantine–Arab Wars had long lasting effects for both the Byzantine Empire and the Arab states. The Byzantines experienced extensive territorial loss, while the invading Arabs gained strong control in the Middle East and Africa. The focus of the Byzantine Empire shifted from the western reconquests of Justinian to a primarily defensive position, against the Islamic armies on its eastern borders. Without Byzantine interference in the emerging Christian states of western Europe, the situation gave a huge stimulus to [[feudalism]] and [[Medieval technology|economic self-sufficiency]].<ref name="Europe257">''Europe: A History'', p 257. Oxford: Oxford University Press 1996. ISBN 0-19-820171-0</ref>

Moreover, the view of modern historians is that one of the most important effects was the strain it put on the relationship between Rome and Byzantium. While fighting for survival against the Islamic armies, the Empire was no longer able to provide the protection it had once offered to the Papacy; worse still, according to [[Thomas Woods]], the Emperors "routinely intervened in the life of the Church in areas lying clearly beyond the state's competence".<ref name="Woods">[[Thomas Woods]], ''How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization'', (Washington, DC: Regenery, 2005), ISBN 0-89526-038-7</ref> The Iconoclast controversy of the 8th and 9th centuries can be taken as a key factor "which drove the [[Roman Catholic Church|Latin Church]] into the arms of the [[Franks]]."<ref name="Europe246"/> Thus it has been argued that [[Charlemagne]] was an indirect product of [[Muhammad]]:
:"The [[Frankish Empire]] would probably never have existed without Islam, and Charlemagne without Mahomet would be inconceivable."<ref name="Pirenne">[[Henri Pirenne|Pirenne, Henri]]
*''Mediaeval Cities: Their Origins and the Rivival of Trade'' (Princeton, NJ, 1925). ISBN 0-691-00760-8
*See also ''Mohammed and Charlemagne'' (London 1939) Dover Publications (2001). ISBN 0-486-42011-6.</ref>

The [[Holy Roman Empire]] of Charlemagne's successors would later come to the aid of the Byzantines under Louis II and during the Crusades, but relations between the two empires would be strained; based on the ''[[Chronicon Salernitanum|Salerno Chronicle]]'', we know the Emperor Basil had sent an angry letter to his western counterpart, reprimanding him for usurping the title of emperor.<ref>[[Franz Joseph Dölger|Dolger F.]], ''Regesten der Kaiserurkunden des ostromischen Reiches''. I, p 59, №487. Berlin, 1924.</ref> He argued that the [[Francia|Frankish]] rulers were simple ''[[reges]]'', and that each nation has its own title for the ruler, whereas the imperial title suited only the ruler of the Eastern Romans, Basil himself.

==Historiography and other sources==
[[File:BaldwinIV.jpg|thumb|right|The 12th century [[William of Tyre]] (right), an important commentator on the Crusades and the final stage of the Byzantine-Arab Wars]]
Walter Emil Kaegi states that extant Arabic sources have been given much scholarly attention for issues of obscurities and contradictions. However, he points out that Byzantine sources are also problematic, such as the chronicles of [[Theophanes the Confessor|Theophanes]] and [[Nikephoros I of Constantinople|Nicephorus]] and those written in Syriac, which are short and terse while the important question of their sources and their use of sources remains unresolved. Kaegi concludes that scholars must also subject the Byzantine tradition to critical scrutiny, as it "contains bias and cannot serve as an objective standard against which all Muslim sources may be confidently checked".<ref>Kaegi (1995), 2&ndash;3</ref>

Among the few Latin sources of interest are the 7th century history of [[Fredegarius]], and two 8th century Spanish chronicles, all of which draw on some Byzantine and oriental historical traditions.<ref>Kaegi (1995), 2</ref> As far as Byzantine military action against the initial Muslim invasions, Kaegi asserts that "Byzantine traditions ... attempt to deflect criticism of the Byzantine debacle from Heraclius to other persons, groups, and things".<ref>Kaegi (1995), 4&ndash;5</ref>

The range of non-historical Byzantine sources is vast: they range from papyri to sermons (most notable those of [[Sophronius of Jerusalem|Sophronius]] and [[Anastasius Sinaita]]), poetry (especially that of Sophronius and [[George of Pisidia]]), correspondence often of a patristic provenance, apologetical treatises, apocalypses, hagiography, military manuals (in particular the ''Strategikon'' of Maurice from the beginning of the 7th century), and other non-literary sources, such as epigraphy, archeology, and numismatics. None of these sources contains a coherent account of any of the campaigns and conquests of the Muslim armies, but some do contain invaluable details that survive nowhere else.<ref>Kaegi (1995), 5&ndash;6</ref>

==See also==
*[[Muslim conquests]]
*[[Aegyptus (Roman province)]]
*[[Battle of Tours]]
*[[Spread of Islam]]

==Notes==
{{refbegin|colwidth=60em}}
{{Cnote|a|Politico-religious events (such as the outbreak of [[Monothelitism]], which disappointed both the [[Monophysitism|Monophysites]] and the [[Chalcedonian]]s) had sharpened the differences between the Byzantines and the Syrians. Also the high taxes, the power of the landowners over the peasants and the participation in the long and exhaustive wars with the Persians were some of the reasons why the Syrians welcomed the change.<ref>Read (2001), 50-51; Sahas (1972), 23</ref>}}
{{Cnote|b|As recorded by [[Al-Baladhuri]]. [[Michael the Syrian]] records only the phrase "Peace unto thee, O Syria".<ref>Al-Baladhuri, [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/yarmuk.html The Battle of the Yarmuk (636) and after]; Michael the Syrian, ''Chronicle'', II, 424<br/>* Sahas (1972), 19&ndash;20</ref> [[George Ostrogorsky]] describes the impact that the loss of Syria had on Heraclius with the following words: "His life's work collapsed before his eyes. The heroic struggle against Persia seemed to be utterly wasted, for his victories here had only prepared the way for the Arab conquest [...] This cruel turn of fortune broke the aged Emperor both in spirit and in body.<ref>Quoted by Sahas (1972), 20 (note 1)</ref>}}
{{Cnote|c|As [[Steven Runciman]] describes the event: "On a February day in the year AD 638, the Caliph Omar [Umar] entered Jerusalem along with a white camel which was ride by his slave. He was dressed in worn, filthy robes, and the army that followed him was rough and unkempt; but its discipline was perfect. At his side rode the Patriarch Sophronius as chief magistrate of the surrendered city. Omar rode straight to the site of the [[Temple of Solomon]], whence his friend Mahomet [Muhammed] had ascended into Heaven. Watching him stand there, the Patriarch remembered the words of Christ and murmured through his tears: 'Behold the abomination of desolation, spoken of by [[Daniel]] the prophet.'"<ref>Runciman (1953), i, 3</ref>}}
{{Cnote|d|[[Hugh N. Kennedy]] notes that "the Muslim conquest of Syria does not seem to have been actively opposed by the towns, but it is striking that Antioch put up so little resistance.<ref>Kennedy (1970), 611; Kennedy (2006), 87</ref>}}
{{Cnote|e|The Arab leadership realized early that to extend their conquests they would need a fleet. The [[Byzantine navy]] was first decisively defeated by the Arabs at a [[Battle of the Masts|battle]] in 655 off the [[Lycia]]n coast, when it was still the most powerful in the Mediterranean. [[Theophanes the Confessor]] reported the loss of [[Rhodes]] while recounting the sale of the centuries-old remains of the [[Colossus of Rhodes|Colossus]] for scrap in 655.<ref name="Theophanes645-646">Theophanes, ''Chronicle'', 645&ndash;646<br/>* Haldon (1990), 55</ref>}}
{{refend}}

==Citations==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==References==
===Primary sources===
{{refbegin}}
*[[Ahmad ibn Yahya al-Baladhuri]]. ''[[Futuh al-Buldan]]''. See a translated excerpt ("The Battle of Yarmouk and after") in [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/yarmuk.html Medieval Sources].
*{{cite book |title=Chronique de Michel le Syrien Patriarche Jacobite d'Antioche (translated by J.&ndash;B. Chabot)|author=Michael the Syrian|authorlink=Michael the Syrian|year=1899|location=Paris|language=French [volumes I, II, III], in Syriac [Volume IV]}}
*[[Theophanes the Confessor]]. ''Chronicle''. See original text in [http://www.documentacatholicaomnia.eu/03d/0700-0800,_Theophanes_Abbas_Confessor,_Chronographia_(CSHB_Classeni_Recensio),_GR.pdf Documenta Catholica Omnia] (PDF).
*[[Joannes Zonaras|Zonaras, Joannes]], ''Annales''. See the original text in [http://www.documentacatholicaomnia.eu/04z/z_1050-1150__Ioannes_Zonaras__Annales_(Libri_01_15)_(MPG_0134_0039_1414)__GM.pdf.html Patrologia Graeca].
{{refend}}

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{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book
 |author=Kennedy, Hugh N.
 |year=2006
 |title=The Byzantine And Early Islamic Near East
 |publisher=Ashgate Publishing
 |isbn=0-7546-5909-7
}}
{{refend}}

{{good article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2011}}

[[Category:Byzantine–Arab Wars| ]]

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