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{{Original research|date=March 2008}}

'''Anti-Turkism''', '''Turkophobia''', '''Turcophobia''' or '''anti-Turkish sentiment''' is the hostility towards [[Turkish people]], [[Culture of Turkey|Turkish culture]], the [[Ottoman Empire]] (Turkish Empire) and the [[Republic of Turkey]]. In late 19th century, [[William Ewart Gladstone]] firmly established Turcophobia as a shift in the British policy directed against [[Ottoman Empire]].<ref>M. B. Cooper. "British Policy in the Balkans, 1908-9", ''The Historical Journal, Vol. 7, No. 2. '' (1964), p. 258</ref>

Anti-Turkism does not always refer to just the Turks of Turkey but it can refer to various [[Turkic peoples]] and Balkan Muslims. This includes the Turkic peoples living in the [[Russia|Russian Federation]], the Turkic states of the [[Post-Soviet states|former Soviet Union]], the autonomous [[Xinjiang|Xinjiang Uyghur]] region of the [[People's Republic of China]], the  not recognized "[[Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]]", and even also non-Turkic Balkan Muslims, particularly [[Bosniak]]s and [[Macedonians (ethnic group)|ethnic Macedonians]].{{Fact|date=March 2008}}

== Early History ==
{{Discrimination2}}
Turkophobia has its origins dating back to the [[Crusades]]. The desperate situation of the [[Byzantine Empire]] following the Seljuk Turkish invasion of Anatolia led [[Pope Urban II]] at the [[Council of Clermont]] in 1095 to call upon all Christians to join a war against the Turks.

By the middle of the [[1400]]s special [[Mass (liturgy)|masses]] called ''missa contra turcas'' (translated as "mass against Turks") were celebrated in various places in Europe,<ref name="sieps">[http://www.sieps.se/publ/rapporter/bilagor/2006_turkiet.pdf "Turkey, Sweden and the EU Experiences and Expectations", Report by the Swedish Institute for European Policy Studies, April 2006, p. 6]</ref>
the message of these masses was that victory over the Turks was only possible with the help of [[God]] and that a Christian community was therefore necessary to withstand the cruelty of the Turks. 

[[Johann Faber|Bishop Fabri of Vienna (1536–41)]] claimed that:
:''"There are no crueller and more audacious villains under the heavens than the Turks who spare no age or sex and mercilessly cut down young and old alike and pluck unripe fruit from the wombs of mothers".''<ref name="sieps" />

In the 16th century about 2,500 publications about the Turks were spread around Europe (over a thousand of which were in [[German language|German]]), in these publications the image of the 'bloodthirsty Turk' was imprinted on reader.  In fact in the period of [[1480]] to [[1610]], twice as many books were published about the Turkish threat to Europe than about the discovery of the continents of [[Americas|America]].<ref name="sieps" /> 

During this time the Ottoman Empire had conquered the Balkans and had been [[Siege of Vienna|besieging Vienna]]. There was much fear in Europe about the Ottoman spread.

[[Philipp Melanchthon]] claimed that the Turks were the [[Red Jews]] - Jews because they [[circumcised]] their sons and had other Jewish manners and [[Jewish customs]] and Red because they were bloodhounds that [[murdered]] and warred.<ref name="sieps" />

[[Martin Luther]] had the view that the Turks invasion of Europe was Gods punishment of Christianity because it had allowed the corruption of both the [[Holy See]] and the [[Church]]. In [[1518]] when he defended his [[95 theses]], Luther claimed that God had sent the Turks to punish the Christians in the same way as he had sent war, plagues and [[earthquakes]]. The reply of [[Pope Leo X]] was the famous [[Exsurge Domine|papal bull]] in which he threatened Luther with [[excommunication]] and attempted to portray Luther as a troublemaker who advocated [[capitulation]] to the Turks.<ref name="sieps" />

According to some [[theologians]] the word Turk came from ''"torquere"'' ("torture"), and according to another popular theory the Turks were identical with the [[Scythians]] who were considered a particularly cruel race.<ref name="sieps" />

Stories of the dog-Turk also gave Europe this negative image of the Turks. The dog-Turk was claimed to be a man-eating being, half animal half human with a dog’s head and tail. [[Military power]] and [[cruelty]] were the recurring attributes in all these claims about the origins of the Turks.<ref name="sieps" />

In [[Sweden]], the Turks were designated the [[arch-enemy]] of Christianity. This is evident in a book entitled ''Luna Turcica eller Turkeske måne, anwissjandes lika som uti en spegel det mahometiske vanskelige regementet, fördelter uti fyra qvarter eller böcker'' ("Turkish moon showing as in a mirror the dangerous Mohammedan rule, divided into four quarters or books") which was published in 1694 and was written by the parish priest [[Erland Dryselius]] of [[Jönköping]]. In sermons the country's clergy preached about the Turks' general cruelty and bloodthirstiness and of how they systematically burned and plundered the areas they conquered. In a Swedish school book published in 1795 Islam was described as ''"the false religion that had been fabricated by the great deceiver [[Muhammad]], to which the Turks to this day universally confess".''<ref name="sieps" />

<!-- too big quotation, needs to be rephrased
According to the book Organised Crime In Europe: Concepts, Patterns and Control Policies in the European Union and Beyond By Cyrille Fijnaut, Letizia Paoli(Published 2004, Springer, pg 206):{{cquote|The third structural problem had to do with the ethnic hierarchy that prevailed throughout the empire (Ottoman empire). In the Seljuq periods, the authorities viewed Georgians. Iranians and Slavs as the top ranking peoples, and Turks and Turkmens as the lowest.  Turkish was a language only to be spoken by people of humble descent, and it is not difficult to find offensive and racist comments in the writings of Seljuq authors: 'Bloodthirsty Turks [...] If they get the chance, they plunder, but as soon as they see the enemy coming, off they run'.' Matters were not much different in the Ottoman period, even though the empire was governed by a small elite at the court, which was Turkish itself. According to Cetin Yetkin, one of the major Turkish authors on the Seljuq and Ottoman periods. 'In the Ottoman Empire, though Turks were a "minority", they did not have the same rights as the other minorities' (Yerkin, 1974: 175). In fact the term 'Turk' was a pejorative. Ottoman historian Naima, who also wrote a book about the Anatolian rebels, uses the following terms for the Turks: Tiirk-i bed-lika (Turk with an ugly face), nadan Turk (ignorant Turk) and etrak-i bi-idrak (Turk who knows nothing).”}}
-->

===Sayings===

Many [[vices]] in the world were associated with the Turks. Some sayings:
* In [[Italian language|Italian]] phrases such as ''"bestemmia come un Turco"'' ("he swears like a Turk") and ''"puzza come un Turco"'' ("he stinks like a Turk") were used often.<ref name="sieps" /> One of the most infamous Italian phrase (and one much used by headline writers) was ''"Mamma li Turchi!"'' ("Oh my, the Turks are coming!") this is used to suggest an imminent danger.<ref>[http://www.threemonkeysonline.com/blogs/view_from_bologna/archives/2004/12/mama_the_turks.php The View from Bologna: Mama, the Turks! European integration and the burden of history<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> In addition, Italians regularly use the expression ''"Fumare come un Turco"'' ("To smoke like a Turk"). In German<ref name="sieps" /> and in Serbian,{{Fact|date=April 2008}} there are phrases that mean "he smokes like a Turk".<ref>German: "er qualmt wie ein Türke", Serbian: "On puši k'o Turčin"</ref>
* In [[French language|French]], the word ''Turc'' was once used in [[proverb]]ial expressions such as ''C'est un vrai Turc'' ("He's a real Turk"), used to indicate that a person was harsh and pitiless.<ref>http://portail.atilf.fr/cgi-bin/getobject_?a.15:74./var/artfla/dicos/ACAD_1694/IMAGE/</ref>
* When the [[Spain|Spanish]] wanted to make disparaging remarks about a person, he/she was called ''"turco"''.<ref name="sieps" />
<!-- OR
* In [[Maltese language|Maltese]], a ''Tork'' is someone feared and unwanted due to his nature. In fact, when a Maltese person is left out or forgotten from a share between a group, this person would quickly say: ''"Mela jien xi Tork, jew?"'' ("Am I a Turk, or what?"). Also, when a rare event occurs, a common saying is: ''"Tgħammed Tork!"'' ("A Turk was baptised!") because a Turk turning to Christianity from Islam is seen as a rare event.
-->*In [[Austria]]n rural areas you can sometimes still hear today how children are called in from play: ''"Es ist schon dunkel. Türken kommen. Türken kommen"'' ("It’s already dark, The Turks are coming. The Turks are coming").<ref name="sieps" />
* In [[Persian language|Persian]], "''Tork-e khar''" ("Turkish ass/donkey") is a derogatory joke usually directed against Turkic-speaking [[Iranian Azeris]].<ref>Fereydoun Safizadeh. "Is There Anyone in Iranian Azerbaijan Who Wants to Get a Passport to Go to Mashad, Qum, Isfahan or Shiraz? - The Dynamics of Ethnicity in Iran", ''Payvand's Iran News'', February 2007</ref><ref>Brenda Shaffer. "The Formation of Azerbaijani collective identity in Iran", ''Nationalities Papers'', 28:3 (2000), p. 463</ref>
* In [[German language|German]] there is a saying ''Liegt ein Turke tot in Keller, waren die deutschen wieder schneller'' (There is a dead Turk lying in the basement, the Germans were faster than Turks again)
* In [[Greek language|Greek]] ''"Εγινε Τούρκος από το θυμό του"'' "He became a Turk by his anger " is used in order to express and describe extreme anger towards someone or because of something. 
-->

== Dictionaries presenting an Anti-Turkish bias ==

Below are definitions given in [[dictionary|dictionaries]] that can clearly demonstrate Anti-Turkism.  It should be noted that since dictionaries are by definition descriptive and not [[linguistic prescription|prescriptive]], this does not necessarily reflect an anti-Turkish bias of the editors, but rather anti-Turkish usage.

*[[Websters#The Collegiate Dictionary|Websters New Collegiate Dictionary]]: One who is cruel or tyrannical. (noted as archaic)<ref name="sieps" /><ref>[http://web.archive.org/web/20051106020820/http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/turk Webster (Internet Archive)]</ref>
*[[Concise Oxford Dictionary]]: Ferocious, wild or unmanageable person.<ref name="sieps" /><ref>[http://www.aen.org.nz/journal/1/1/fernando.html AENJ 1.1: Stigma, racism and power<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
*[[Random House Dictionary]]: A cruel, brutal or domineering man.<ref name="sieps" />

==Within the Ottoman Empire==
Within the Ottoman Empire, the name "Turk" was insulting to some and used to denote backwoodsmen, bumpkins, or the illiterate peasants in Anatolia. "''Etrak-i bi-idrak''", for example, was an Ottoman play on words, meaning "the stupid Turk".<ref>Alfred J. Rieber, Alexei Miller. Imperial Rule, Central European University Press, 2005. pg 33</ref>

Özay Mehmet in his book ''Islamic Identity and Development: Studies of the Islamic Periphery mentions''<ref>Ozay Mehmet, Islamic Identity and Development: Studies of the Islamic Periphery, Routledge, 1990. pg 115</ref>:

{{cquote|The ordinary Turks did not have a sense of belonging to a ruling ethnic group. In particular, they had a confused sense of self-image. Who were they: Turks, Muslims or Ottomans? Their literature was sometimes Persian, sometimes Arabic, but always courtly and elitist. There was always a huge social and cultural distance between the Imperial centre and the Anatolian periphery. As Bernard Lewis expressed it: "''in the Imperial society of the Ottomans the ethnic term Turk was little used, and then chiefly in a rather derogatory sense, to designate the Turcoman nomads or, later, the ignorant and uncouth Turkish-speaking peasants of the Anatolian villages.''" (Lewis 1968: 1)
 
In the words of a British observer of the Ottoman values and institutions at the start of the twentieth century: "''The surest way to insult an Ottoman gentleman is to call him a 'Turk'. His face will straightway wear the expression a Lon­doner's assumes, when he hears himself frankly styled a Cockney. He is no Turk, no savage, he will assure you, but an Ottoman subject of the Sultan, by no means to be confounded with certain barbarians styled Turcomans, and from whom indeed, on the male side, he may possibly be descended.''"(Davey 1907: 209)}}

Handan Nezir Akmeşe, who describes the attempts of the Young Turk movement to ingrain nationalism among the Turkish speakers of the Ottoman empire prior to WWI<ref> Handan Nezir Akmeshe, The Birth Of Modern Turkey: The Ottoman Military And The March To World War I, I.B.Tauris, 2005. pg 50</ref>:

{{cquote|One consequence was to reinforce these officers sense of their Turkish nationality, and a sense of national grievance arising out of the contrast between the non-Muslim communities, with their prosperous, European-educated elites, and "the poor Turks [who] inherited from the Ottoman Empire nothing but a broken sword and an old-fashioned plough."  Unlike the non-Muslim and non-Turkish communities, they noted with some bitterness, the Turks did not even have a proper sense of their own national identity, and used to make fun of each other, calling themselves "donkey Turk"}}

== Anti-Turkish examples in film and theatre==
[[Shakespeare]]'s famous play ''[[Othello]]'', Othello says the following before stabbing himself

:''Set you down this;''
:''And say besides, that in Aleppo once,''
:''Where a [[malignant]] and a [[Turban|turban’d]] Turk''
:''Beat a Venetian and traduc’d the state,''
:''I took by the throat the circumcised dog,''
:''And smote him thus.''

[[T. E. Lawrence|Lawrence of Arabia]] who helped the [[Arabs]] during [[Arab Revolt]] against the [[Ottoman Empire]] during the [[First World War]] made claims that he was raped by a Turkish soldier, but this was proved to be incorrect. Some people view Lawrence's accusations as [[slanderous]] against Turkish people.<ref>http://www.wnd.com/news/article.asp</ref><ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2006/05/14/nlawr14.xml News - Telegraph<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
What caused the most controversy was the film called ''[[Lawrence of Arabia (film)|Lawrence of Arabia]]''. The film caused a storm of protest and indignation in Turkey.{{Fact|date=November 2007}}

Another example was the Oscar winning film ''[[Midnight Express (film)|Midnight Express]]'' written by Oliver Stone, based on the book of the same title. The film is about a young [[United States|American]] called [[Billy Hayes (smuggler)|Billy Hayes]] who has been given a long prison sentence after being arrested for possession of [[hash]]. All the Turks in the film are portrayed as bloodthirsty and sadistic torturers with [[homosexual]] inclinations, unshaven and swarthy with unkempt [[moustaches]]. In fact, none of the actors were Turkish and many of the most obnoxious roles were played by [[Greeks|Greek]] and [[Armenians|Armenian]] actors. [[Istanbul]] is also changed beyond recognition. All the buildings are dilapidated, washing hangs over dark and ominous alleys full of people of menacing appearance and on the pavements idle men with dull eyes sit smoking their [[hookah]]s. Istanbul was changed into a third world city characterised by violence, disorder and chaos. All through the film, the imprisoned Billy Hayes and his family talk of the Turks as "pigs". The film had scenes where Billy Hayes was raped by fellow Turkish prisoners, though the [[Midnight Express (book)|book]] written by Hayes doesn't mention getting raped, but does admit consensual sex. Oliver Stone has apologized for any offence, saying "many hearts were broken in Turkey" because of the movie.<ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/turkey/story/0,12700,1374591,00.html Stone sorry for Midnight Express | Special reports | Guardian Unlimited<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>

In the 1962 movie [[Lolita (1962 film)|Lolita]] by [[Stanley Kubrick]], Mrs. Charlotte Humbert says to her husband: 
:''I wouldn't care if your maternal grandfather turned out to be a Turk... But if I ever found out that you didn't believe in God, I think I would commit suicide.''

In 1988 movie "[[Mississippi Burning]]" by [[Alan Parker]], the head of the Ku Klux Klan tells reporters: "…we do not accept Jews because they reject God…and Turks, Mongols, Orientals, nor Negros because we’re here to protect the Anglo-saxon Christian democracy and the American way…".
 
In an episode of the [[Simpsons]] entitled [[Mobile Homer]], [[Homer Simpson|Homer]] says to a Turk: 
:''Bring back our children, you [[Cyprus]]-splitting jerks!''
Many Turks and especially [[Turkish Cypriots]] took offence to this considering the sensitivity of the [[Cyprus dispute]].{{Fact|date=February 2007}}

== Anti-Turkish quotes==

[[Voltaire]] characterised the Turks as:
:''"tyrants of the women and enemies of arts". ''

He also spoke of the need:
:''"to chase away from Europe these barbaric usurpers"''

He accused the Turks of having destroyed Europes ancient heritage from :''"the Orient’s Christian realm"'' and wrote:

:''"I wish fervently that the Turkish barbarians be chased away immediately out of the country of Xenophon, Socrates, Plato, Sophocles and Euripides. If we wanted, it could be done soon but seven crusades of superstition have been undertaken and a crusade of honour will never take place. We know almost no city built by them; they let decay the most beautiful establishments of Antiquity, they reign over ruins."''

[[Cardinal Newman]] described the Turks as:
:the ''"great [[anti-Christ]] among the races of men."''<ref name=horton2>Chapter 2 in [[George Horton]]'s book [[The Blight of Asia]]</ref>

He also said:
:''“The [[barbarian]] power, which has been for centuries seated in the very heart of the [[Old World]], which has in its brute clutch the most famous coun­tries of classical and religious antiquity and many of the most fruitful and beautiful regions of the earth; and, which, having no history itself, is heir to the historical names of [[Constantinople]] and [[İznik|Nicaea]], [[Nicomedia]] and [[Caesarea]], [[Jerusalem]] and [[Damascus]], [[Nineveh|Nineva]] and [[Babylon]], [[Mecca]] and [[Bagdad]], [[Antioch]] and [[Alexandria]], ignorantly holding in its possession one half of the history of the whole world.”''<ref name=horton2/>

[[William Ewart Gladstone]], a 19th century [[British Prime Minister]] was quoted in the same book as saying:
:''“Let me endeavor, very briefly to sketch, in the rudest outline what the Turkish race was and what it is. It is not a question of [[Mohammedanism]] sim­ply, but of Mohammedanism compounded with the peculiar character of a race. They are not the mild Mohammedans of [[India]], nor the chivalrous [[Saladin]]s of [[Syria]], nor the cultured [[Moors]] of [[Spain]]. They were, upon the whole, from the black day when they first entered Europe, the one great anti-human specimen of [[human race|humanity]]. Wherever they went a broad line of blood marked the track behind them, and, as far as their dominion reached, [[civilization]] disap­peared from view. They represented everywhere government by force as opposed to government by law.—Yet a government by force can not be main­tained without the aid of an intellectual element.— Hence there grew up, what has been rare in the his­tory of the world, a kind of tolerance in the midst of cruelty, tyranny and rapine. Much of [[Christian]] life was contemptuously left alone and a race of Greeks was attracted to Constantinople which has all along made up, in some degree, the deficiencies of Turkish Islam in the element of mind!”''<ref name=horton2/>

[[David Lloyd George]] former [[British Prime Minister]] said in 1914 that:
:''The Turks are a human [[cancer]], a creeping agony in the flesh of the lands which they misgovern, rotting every fibre of life ... I am glad that the Turk is to be called to a final account for his long record of infamy against humanity.''<ref>Quoted from a speech by the British Prime Minister, D. Lloyd George, 10 November 1914, cited in H.W.V. Temperley (ed.), A History of the Peace Conference of Paris, Oxford 1969, VI, 24.</ref>
The [[New York Tribune]] told its readers in the year 1919:
:''the Turks have always been a parasite and a stench in the nostrils of civilization''<ref>Nicole and Hugh Pope, Turkey unveiled : a history of modern Turkey, Woodstock, N.Y. : Overlook Press, 2004, p. 60 ISBN 1585675814</ref>
A former American ambassador to Berlin suggested that: ''the Turks could be dealt with by adopting the US system of parklike reservations such as were used for the American Indians.''<ref>Nicole and Hugh Pope, Turkey unveiled : a history of modern Turkey, Woodstock, N.Y. : Overlook Press, 2004, p. 60 ISBN 1585675814</ref>

[[Ziya Gökalp]], prominent Turkish ideologue of [[Pan-Turkism]], in his writings heavily criticizes officials of the Ottoman Empire for always using the term "donkey Turk" regarding its Turkish subjects. <ref>[http://www.gencturkhaber.com/v1/haber.php?id=110106 Gençtürk Haber<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>

{{Discriminationfooter}}

==See also==
*[[Midnight Express (film)]]
*[[Harold Nicolson]]
*[[Bosnian Genocide]]
*[[Bulgarization#Turks|Bulgarization of Turks in Bulgaria]]
*[[Volen Siderov]]
*[[Chrysi Avyi]]

==Notes and References==
{{Reflist|1}}
* [http://www.sieps.se/publ/rapporter/bilagor/2006_turkiet.pdf "Turkey, Sweden and the EU Experiences and Expectations", Report by the Swedish Institute for European Policy Studies, April 2006, p. 6]

==External links==
*[http://www.hum.au.dk/cek/kontur/pdf/kontur_10/sinan.yasar.pdf Turkey in the Eye of the Beholder:Tracking Perceptions on Turkey through Political Cartoons by Sinan Erensü and Yaşar Adanalı]
*[http://www.hetq.am/eng/society/h-0203-vharutiunyan.html Patriotism versus Patria by Vartan Harutiunyan]
*[http://www.brown.edu/Students/Turkish/Gelenler/Turkishness_in_Hollywood.pdf Representation of Turkish People in Hollywood by Aslihan Tokgoz]
*[http://tatar.yuldash.com/eng_098.html TURKOPHOBIA:Its Social and Historical Roots By Sabirzyan BADRETDIN]
* {{tr icon}} [http://www.haberturk.com/haber.asp?id=61182&cat=180&dt=2008/03/14 Marco Türklere ders vermek istemiş!]

[[Category:Anti-Turkism| ]]
[[Category:Turkic peoples]]
[[Category:Anti-national sentiment|Turkism, Anti-]]

[[cs:Antiturkismus]]
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