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Revision 147179278 of "Supersymmetrische Stringtheorie" on dewiki{{Redirect|Superstring|the converse relation of "substring"|Superstring (formal languages)|the bundle of firecrackers|Superstring (fireworks)}}
{{Refimprove|date=November 2012}}
{{String theory|cTopic=Theory}}
'''Superstring theory''' is an [[theory of everything|attempt to explain all]] of the [[Elementary particle|particles]] and [[fundamental force]]s of nature in one theory by modelling them as vibrations of tiny [[supersymmetry|supersymmetric]] [[String (physics)|strings]].
'Superstring theory' is a shorthand for '''supersymmetric string theory''' because unlike [[bosonic string theory]], it is the version of [[string theory]] that incorporates [[fermions]] and supersymmetry.
Since the [[second superstring revolution]] the five superstring theories are regarded as different limits of a single theory tentatively called [[M-theory]], or simply [[string theory]].
==Background==
The deepest problem in [[theoretical physics]] is harmonizing the theory of [[general relativity]], which describes gravitation and applies to large-scale structures ([[star]]s, [[galaxies]], [[super cluster]]s), with [[quantum mechanics]], which describes the other three [[fundamental forces]] acting on the atomic scale.
The development of a [[quantum field theory]] of a force invariably results in infinite possibilities. Physicists have developed mathematical techniques ([[renormalization]]) to eliminate these infinities which work for three of the four fundamental forces—[[Electromagnetic force|electromagnetic]], [[Strong interaction|strong nuclear]] and [[Weak interaction|weak nuclear]] forces—but not for [[gravity]]. The development of a [[quantum theory of gravity]] must therefore come about by different means than those used for the other forces.<ref>Polchinski, Joseph. ''String Theory: Volume I''. Cambridge University Press, p. 4.</ref>
According to the theory, the fundamental constituents of reality are strings of the [[Planck units|Planck length]] (about 10<sup>−33</sup> cm) which vibrate at [[resonance|resonant]] frequencies. Every string, in theory, has a unique resonance, or harmonic. Different harmonics determine different fundamental particles. The tension in a string is on the order of the [[Planck force]] (10<sup>44</sup> [[Newton (unit)|newtons]]). The [[graviton]] (the proposed [[messenger particle]] of the gravitational force), for example, is predicted by the theory to be a string with wave amplitude zero.
=== Lack of experimental evidence ===
Superstring theory is based on [[supersymmetry]]. No supersymmetric particles have been discovered and recent research at [[LHC]] and [[Tevatron]] has excluded some of the ranges.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.math.columbia.edu/~woit/wordpress/?p=3479 |title=Implications of Initial LHC Searches for Supersymmetry |first=Peter |last=Woit |date=February 22, 2011}}{{self-published inline|date=July 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |arxiv=1101.4664 |bibcode=2011JHEP...05..120C |doi=10.1007/JHEP05(2011)120 |title=Fine-tuning implications for complementary dark matter and LHC SUSY searches |date=2011 |last1=Cassel |first1=S. |last2=Ghilencea |first2=D. M. |last3=Kraml |first3=S. |last4=Lessa |first4=A. |last5=Ross |first5=G. G. |journal=Journal of High Energy Physics |volume=2011 |issue=5|page=120 }}</ref><ref name="C4Wauto-5690134">{{cite web |url=http://resonaances.blogspot.com/2011/02/what-lhc-tells-about-susy.html |title=What LHC tells about SUSY |work=resonaances.blogspot.com |date=February 16, 2011 |accessdate=March 22, 2014 |first=Adam (Jester) |last=Falkowski |archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20140322211508/http://resonaances.blogspot.com/2011/02/what-lhc-tells-about-susy.html |archivedate=March 22, 2014 |deadurl=no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hep.ph.ic.ac.uk/susytalks/iop-susytapper.pdf |title=Early SUSY searches at the LHC |first=Alex |last=Tapper |date=24 March 2010 |publisher=[[Imperial College London]]}}</ref> For instance, the mass constraint of the [[Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model]] [[Squark#Squarks|squarks]] has been up to 1.1 TeV, and [[gluinos]] up to 500 GeV.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.107.221804 |pmid=22182023 |title=Search for Supersymmetry at the LHC in Events with Jets and Missing Transverse Energy |date=2011 |author=CMS Collaboration|journal=Physical Review Letters |volume=107 |issue=22|page=221804 |arxiv = 1109.2352 |bibcode = 2011PhRvL.107v1804C }}</ref> No report on suggesting [[large extra dimensions]] has been delivered from LHC. There have been no principles so far to limit the number of vacua in the concept of a landscape of vacua.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1142/S0217732312300431 |title=Frontiers Beyond the Standard Model: Reflections and Impressionistic Portrait of the Conference |date=2012 |last1=Shifman |first1=M. |journal=Modern Physics Letters A |volume=27 |issue=40 |page=1230043|bibcode = 2012MPLA...2730043S }}</ref>
Some particle physicists became disappointed<ref name="Guardian-hit buffers">{{cite news |url=http://www.theguardian.com/science/2013/aug/06/higgs-boson-physics-hits-buffers-discovery |title=One year on from the Higgs boson find, has physics hit the buffers? |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=August 6, 2013 |publisher=[[Guardian Media Group|GMG]] |location=[[London, England|London]] |issn=0261-3077 |oclc=60623878 |accessdate=March 22, 2014 |others=photograph: Harold Cunningham/Getty Images |first=Alok |last=Jha |archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20140322225727/http://www.theguardian.com/science/2013/aug/06/higgs-boson-physics-hits-buffers-discovery |archivedate=March 22, 2014 |deadurl=no}}</ref> by the lack of experimental verification of supersymmetry, and some have already discarded it; Jon Butterworth at the University College London said that we had no sign of supersymmetry, even in higher energy region, excluding the superpartners of the top quark up to a few TeV. Ben Allanach at the University of Cambridge states that if we do not discover any new particles in the next trial at the LHC, then we can say it is unlikely to discover supersymmetry at CERN in the foreseeable future.<ref name="Guardian-hit buffers"/>
==Extra dimensions==
:''See also: Why does consistency require [[Why 10 dimensions|10 dimensions]]?''
Our [[physical space]] is observed to have only three large [[dimension]]s and—taken together with duration as the fourth dimension—a physical theory must take this into account. However, nothing prevents a theory from including more than 4 dimensions. In the case of [[string theory]], [[consistency]] requires [[spacetime]] to have 10 (3+1+6) dimensions. The fact that we see only 3 dimensions of space can be explained by one of two mechanisms: either the extra dimensions are [[Compactification (physics)|compactified]] on a very small scale, or else our world may live on a 3-dimensional [[submanifold]] corresponding to a [[brane]], on which all known particles besides gravity would be restricted.
If the extra dimensions are compactified, then the extra six dimensions must be in the form of a [[Calabi–Yau manifold]]. Within the more complete framework of [[M-theory]], they would have to take form of a [[G2 manifold]]. [[Calabi–Yau manifold|Calabi-Yaus]] are interesting mathematical spaces in their own right. A particular exact symmetry of string/M-theory called [[T-duality]] (which exchanges momentum modes for [[winding number]] and sends compact dimensions of radius R to radius 1/R),<ref>Polchinski, Joseph. ''String Theory: Volume I''. Cambridge University Press, p. 247.</ref> has led to the discovery of equivalences between different [[Calabi–Yau manifold|Calabi-Yaus]] called [[Mirror symmetry (string theory)|Mirror Symmetry]].
Superstring theory is not the first theory to propose extra spatial dimensions. It can be seen as building upon the [[Kaluza–Klein theory]] which proposed a 4+1-dimensional theory of gravity. When compactified on a circle, the gravity in the extra dimension precisely describes [[electromagnetism]] from the perspective of the 3 remaining large space dimensions. Thus the original Kaluza–Klein theory is a prototype for the unification of gauge and gravity interactions, at least at the classical level, however it is known to be insufficient to describe nature for a variety of reasons (missing weak and strong forces, lack of parity violation, etc.) A more complex compact geometry is needed to reproduce the known gauge forces. This is not all: In order to obtain a consistent, fundamental, quantum theory the upgrade to string theory is also necessary, not just the extra dimensions.
==Number of superstring theories==
Theoretical physicists were troubled by the existence of five separate string theories. A possible solution for this dilemma was suggested at the beginning of what is called the [[second superstring revolution]] in the 1990s, which suggests that the five string theories might be different limits of a single underlying theory, called [[M-theory]]. This remains a [[conjecture]].<ref>Polchinski, Joseph. ''String Theory: Volume II''. Cambridge University Press, p. 198.</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|- style="background:#fff;"
! colspan="8" class="dark" | String theories
|-
! class="dark" | Type
! class="dark" | [[n-dimensional space|Spacetime dimensions]]
! class="dark" | SUSY generators
! class="dark" | chiral
! class="dark" | open strings
! class="dark" | heterotic compactification
! class="dark" | gauge group
! class="dark" | tachyon
|-
! style="background:#fcc;" class="dark"| Bosonic (closed)
| style="text-align:CENTER;" class="dark"| 26
| style="text-align:CENTER;" class="dark"| N = 0
| style="text-align:CENTER;" class="dark"| no
| style="text-align:CENTER;" class="dark"| no
| style="text-align:CENTER;" class="dark"| no
| style="text-align:CENTER;" class="dark"| none
| style="background:#ffc;" class="dark"| yes
|-
! style="background:#fcc;" class="dark"| Bosonic (open)
| style="text-align:CENTER;" class="dark"| 26
| style="text-align:CENTER;" class="dark"| N = 0
| style="text-align:CENTER;" class="dark"| no
| style="text-align:CENTER;" class="dark"| yes
| style="text-align:CENTER;" class="dark"| no
| style="text-align:CENTER;" class="dark"| U(1)
| style="background:#ffc;" class="dark"| yes
|-
! style="background:#fcc;" class="dark"| I
| style="text-align:CENTER;" class="dark"| 10
| style="text-align:CENTER;" class="dark"| N = (1,0)
| style="text-align:CENTER;" class="dark"| yes
| style="text-align:CENTER;" class="dark"| yes
| style="text-align:CENTER;" class="dark"| no
| style="text-align:CENTER;" class="dark"| SO(32)
| style="background:#ffc;" class="dark"| no
|-
! style="background:#fcc;" class="dark"| IIA
| style="text-align:CENTER;" class="dark"| 10
| style="text-align:CENTER;" class="dark"| N = (1,1)
| style="text-align:CENTER;" class="dark"| no
| style="text-align:CENTER;" class="dark"| no
| style="text-align:CENTER;" class="dark"| no
| style="text-align:CENTER;" class="dark"| U(1)
| style="background:#ffc;" class="dark"| no
|-
! style="background:#fcc;" class="dark"| IIB
| style="text-align:CENTER;" class="dark"| 10
| style="text-align:CENTER;" class="dark"| N = (2,0)
| style="text-align:CENTER;" class="dark"| yes
| style="text-align:CENTER;" class="dark"| no
| style="text-align:CENTER;" class="dark"| no
| style="text-align:CENTER;" class="dark"| none
| style="background:#ffc;" class="dark"| no
|-
! style="background:#fcc;" class="dark"| HO
| style="text-align:CENTER;" class="dark"| 10
| style="text-align:CENTER;" class="dark"| N = (1,0)
| style="text-align:CENTER;" class="dark"| yes
| style="text-align:CENTER;" class="dark"| no
| style="text-align:CENTER;" class="dark"| yes
| style="text-align:CENTER;" class="dark"| SO(32)
| style="background:#ffc;" class="dark"| no
|-
! style="background:#fcc;" class="dark"| HE
| style="text-align:CENTER;" class="dark"| 10
| style="text-align:CENTER;" class="dark"| N = (1,0)
| style="text-align:CENTER;" class="dark"| yes
| style="text-align:CENTER;" class="dark"| no
| style="text-align:CENTER;" class="dark"| yes
| style="text-align:CENTER;" class="dark"| E<sub>8</sub> × E<sub>8</sub>
| style="background:#ffc;" class="dark"| no
|-
! style="background:#fcc;" class="dark"| M-theory
| style="text-align:CENTER;" class="dark"| 11
| style="text-align:CENTER;" class="dark"| N = 1
| style="text-align:CENTER;" class="dark"| no
| style="text-align:CENTER;" class="dark"| no
| style="text-align:CENTER;" class="dark"| no
| style="text-align:CENTER;" class="dark"| none
| style="background:#ffc;" class="dark"| no
|}
The five consistent superstring theories are:
* The [[type I string]] has one supersymmetry in the ten-dimensional sense (16 supercharges). This theory is special in the sense that it is based on unoriented [[closed string|open]] and [[closed string]]s, while the rest are based on oriented closed strings.
* The [[type II string]] theories have two supersymmetries in the ten-dimensional sense (32 supercharges). There are actually two kinds of type II strings called type IIA and type IIB. They differ mainly in the fact that the IIA theory is non-[[chirality (physics)|chiral]] (parity conserving) while the IIB theory is chiral (parity violating).
* The [[heterotic string]] theories are based on a peculiar hybrid of a type I superstring and a bosonic string. There are two kinds of heterotic strings differing in their ten-dimensional [[gauge group]]s: the heterotic [[E8 (mathematics)|''E''<sub>8</sub>×''E''<sub>8</sub>]] string and the heterotic [[special orthogonal group|SO(32)]] string. (The name heterotic SO(32) is slightly inaccurate since among the SO(32) [[Lie group]]s, string theory singles out a quotient Spin(32)/Z<sub>2</sub> that is not equivalent to SO(32).)
Chiral [[gauge theory|gauge theories]] can be inconsistent due to [[anomaly (physics)|anomalies]]. This happens when certain one-loop [[Feynman diagram]]s cause a quantum mechanical breakdown of the gauge symmetry. The anomalies were canceled out via the [[Green–Schwarz mechanism]].
Even though there are only five superstring theories, in order to make detailed predictions for real experiments, information is needed about exactly what physical configuration the theory is in. This considerably complicates efforts to test string theory because there is an astronomically high number – 10<sup>500</sup> or more – of configurations that meet some of the basic requirements to be consistent with our world. Along with the extreme remoteness of the Planck scale, this is the other major reason it is hard to test superstring theory.
Another approach to the number of superstring theories refers to the [[mathematical structure]] called [[composition algebra]]. In the findings of [[abstract algebra]] there are just seven composition algebras over the [[field (mathematics)|field]] of [[real number]]s. In 1990 physicists R. Foot and G.C. Joshi in Australia stated that "the seven classical superstring theories are in one-to-one correspondence to the seven composition algebras."<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/BF00402262 |title=Nonstandard signature of spacetime, superstrings, and the split composition algebras |date=1990 |last1=Foot |first1=R. |last2=Joshi |first2=G. C. |journal=Letters in Mathematical Physics |volume=19 |pages=65–71 |bibcode=1990LMaPh..19...65F}}</ref>
==Integrating general relativity and quantum mechanics==
[[General relativity]] typically deals with situations involving large mass objects in fairly large regions of [[spacetime]] whereas [[quantum mechanics]] is generally reserved for scenarios at the atomic scale (small spacetime regions). The two are very rarely used together, and the most common case in which they are combined is in the study of [[black hole]]s. Having "peak density", or the maximum amount of matter possible in a space, and very small area, the two must be used in synchrony in order to predict conditions in such places; yet, when used together, the equations fall apart, spitting out impossible answers, such as imaginary distances and less than one dimension.
The major problem with their congruence is that, at [[Planck scale]] (a fundamental small unit of length) lengths, general relativity predicts a smooth, flowing surface, while quantum mechanics predicts a random, warped surface, neither of which are anywhere near compatible. Superstring theory resolves this issue, replacing the classical idea of point particles with loops. These loops have an average diameter of the [[Planck length]], with extremely small variances, which completely ignores the quantum mechanical predictions of Planck-scale length dimensional warping.
[[Gravitational singularity|Singularities]] are avoided because the observed consequences of "[[Big Crunch]]es" never reach zero size. In fact, should the universe begin a "big crunch" sort of process, string theory dictates that the universe could never be smaller than the size of a string, at which point it would actually begin expanding.
==Mathematics==
===D-branes===
D-branes are membrane-like objects in 10D string theory. They can be thought of as occurring as a result of a [[Kaluza–Klein]] compactification of 11D M-theory which contains membranes. Because compactification of a geometric theory produces extra [[vector fields]] the D-branes can be included in the action by adding an extra U(1) vector field to the string action.
: <math>\partial_z \rightarrow \partial_z +iA_z(z,\overline{z})</math>
In '''type I''' open string theory, the ends of open strings are always attached to D-brane surfaces. A string theory with more gauge fields such as SU(2) gauge fields would then correspond to the compactification of some higher-dimensional theory above 11 dimensions which is not thought to be possible to date. Furthemore, the tachyons attached to the D-branes, show, the instability of those d-branes with respect to the annihilation.We will consider that tachyon total energy is (or reflects) the total energy of the D-branes.
===Why five superstring theories?===
For a 10 dimensional supersymmetric theory we are allowed a 32-component Majorana spinor. This can be decomposed into a pair of 16-component Majorana-Weyl (chiral) [[spinors]]. There are then various ways to construct an invariant depending on whether these two spinors have the same or opposite chiralities:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Superstring model !! Invariant
|-
| Heterotic || <math>\partial_zX^\mu-i\overline{\theta_L}\Gamma^\mu\partial_z\theta_L</math>
|-
| IIA || <math>\partial_zX^\mu-i\overline{\theta_L}\Gamma^\mu\partial_z\theta_L - i \overline{\theta_R} \Gamma^\mu\partial_z\theta_R</math>
|-
| IIB || <math>\partial_z X^\mu-i\overline{\theta^1_L}\Gamma^\mu\partial_z\theta^1_L - i \overline{\theta^2_L}\Gamma^\mu\partial_z\theta^2_L</math>
|}
The heterotic superstrings come in two types SO(32) and E<sub>8</sub>×E<sub>8</sub> as indicated above and the type I superstrings include open strings.
==Beyond superstring theory==
It is conceivable that the five superstring theories are approximated to a theory in higher dimensions possibly involving membranes. Because the action for this involves quartic terms and higher so is not [[Gaussian]], the functional integrals are very difficult to solve and so this has confounded the top theoretical physicists. [[Edward Witten]] has popularised the concept of a theory in 11 dimensions M-theory involving membranes interpolating from the known symmetries of superstring theory. It may turn out that there exist membrane models or other non-membrane models in higher dimensions which may become acceptable when new unknown symmetries of nature are found, such as noncommutative geometry for example. It is thought, however, that 16 is probably the maximum since O(16) is a maximal subgroup of E8 the largest exceptional lie group and also is more than large enough to contain the [[Standard Model]].
Quartic integrals of the non-functional kind are easier to solve so there is hope for the future. This is the series solution which is always convergent when a is non-zero and negative:
: <math> \int_{-\infty}^\infty \exp({a x^4+b x^3+c x^2+d x+f}) \, dx
= e^f \sum_{n,m,p=0}^\infty \frac{ b^{4n}}{(4n)!} \frac{c^{2m}}{(2m)!} \frac{d^{4p}}{(4p)!} \frac{ \Gamma(3n+m+p+\frac14) }{a^{3n+m+p+\frac14} } </math>
In the case of membranes the series would correspond to sums of various membrane interactions that are not seen in string theory.
===Compactification===
Investigating theories of higher dimensions often involves looking at the 10 dimensional superstring theory and interpreting some of the more obscure results in terms of compactified dimensions. For example, [[D-branes]] are seen as compactified membranes from 11D M-theory. Theories of higher dimensions such as 12D F-theory and beyond will produce other effects such as gauge terms higher than ''U''(1). The components of the extra vector fields (A) in the D-brane actions can be thought of as extra coordinates (X) in disguise. However, the ''known'' symmetries including [[supersymmetry]] currently restrict the [[spinors]] to have 32-components which limits the number of dimensions to 11 (or 12 if you include two time dimensions.) Some commentators (e.g. [[John Baez]] et al.) have speculated that the exceptional [[lie groups]] E<sub>6</sub>, E<sub>7</sub> and E<sub>8</sub> having maximum orthogonal subgroups O(10), O(12) and O(16) may be related to theories in 10, 12 and 16 dimensions; 10 dimensions corresponding to string theory and the 12 and 16 dimensional theories being yet undiscovered but would be theories based on 3-branes and 7-branes respectively. However this is a minority view within the string community. Since E<sub>7</sub> is in some sense F<sub>4</sub> quaternified and E<sub>8</sub> is F<sub>4</sub> octonified, then the 12 and 16 dimensional theories, if they did exist, may involve the [[noncommutative geometry]] based on the [[quaternions]] and [[octonions]] respectively. From the above discussion, it can be seen that physicists have many ideas for extending superstring theory beyond the current 10 dimensional theory, but so far none have been successful.
===Kac–Moody algebras===
Since strings can have an infinite number of modes, the symmetry used to describe string theory is based on infinite dimensional Lie algebras. Some [[Kac–Moody algebra]]s that have been considered as symmetries for [[M-theory]] have been E<sub>10</sub> and E<sub>11</sub> and their supersymmetric extensions.
==See also==
* [[AdS/CFT]]
* [[dS/CFT correspondence]]
* [[Grand unification theory]]
* [[Large Hadron Collider]]
* [[List of string theory topics]]
* [[Quantum gravity]]
* [[String field theory]]
==Notes==
{{Reflist|30em}}
==References==
{{Refbegin|30em}}
*{{cite book|last=Kaku|first=Michio|title=Introduction to Superstring and M-Theory|edition=2nd|publisher=Springer-Verlag|location=New York, USA|date=1999}}
*{{cite book|last=Shen|first=Sinyan|title=Introduction to Superfluidity|edition=2nd|publisher=Science Press|location=Beijing, China|date=1982}}
*{{cite book|last=Greene|first=Brian|title=[[The Elegant Universe]]: Superstrings, Hidden Dimensions, and the Quest for the Ultimate Theory|publisher=Random House Inc.|date=2000}}
{{refend}}
==External links==
* [http://www.wellcomecollection.org/whats-on/events/exchanges-at-the-frontier-7/brian-greene.aspx Wellcome Collection video on superstring theory]
*The Official Superstring theory website: http://superstringtheory.com/index.html
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Superstring Theory}}
[[Category:String theory]]
[[Category:Supersymmetry]]
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