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Difference between revisions 303 and 28305 on enwiki{{US state | Name = Alabama | Fullname = State of Alabama | Flag = Alabama state flag.png | Seal = Alabama state seal.png | Map = Map_of_USA_highlighting_Alabama.png | Nickname = Camellia State, The Heart of Dixie[[#Notes|¹]], Yellowhammer State | Capital = [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]] | OfficialLang = [[English language|English]] | LargestCity = [[Birmingham, Alabama|Birmingham]] | Governor = [[Bob Riley (Alabama)|Robert Riley]] | PostalAbbreviation = AL | AreaRank = 30<sup>th</sup> | TotalArea = 135,765 | LandArea = 131,426 | WaterArea = 4,338 | PCWater = 3.20 | PopRank = 23<sup>rd</sup> | 2000Pop = 4,447,100 | DensityRank = 26<sup>th</sup> | 2000Density = 33.84 | AdmittanceOrder = 22<sup>nd</sup> | AdmittanceDate = [[December 14]], [[1819]] | TimeZone = [[Central Standard Time Zone|Central]]: [[UTC]]-6/[[Daylight saving time|DST]]-5 | Latitude = 30°13'N to 35°N | Longitude = 84°51'W to 88°28'W | Width = 306 | Length = 531 | HighestElev = 734 | MeanElev = 152 | LowestElev = 0 | ISOCode = US-AL | Website = alabama.gov }} {| cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="float:right; clear:right; width:300px; margin:0 0 1em 1em;" class="toccolours" |'''[[List of U.S. state mottos|State motto]]'''||''We Dare Defend Our Rights'' |- |'''[[List of U.S. state birds|State bird]]'''||[[Northern Flicker|Yellowhammer]] |- |'''[[List of U.S. state flowers|State flower]]'''||[[Camellia]] |- |'''[[List of U.S. state songs|State song]]'''||"[[Alabama (song)|Alabama]]" |- |'''[[List of U.S. state trees|State tree]]'''||[[Southern Pine]] |- |'''[[List of U.S. state spirits|State spirit]]'''||[[Conecuh Ridge Fine Alabama Whiskey]] |} '''Alabama''' is a [[U.S. state|state]] located in the [[U.S. Southern States|southern]] [[United States]]; the population of Alabama is 4,447,100 as of [[2000]]. The [[USS Alabama|USS ''Alabama'']] and [[CSS Alabama|CSS ''Alabama'']] were named in honor of this state. == History == ''Main article: [[History of Alabama]]'' Among [[Native American]] people once living in present Alabama were [[Alabama (people)|Alabama]] (Alibamu), [[Cherokee]], [[Chickasaw]], [[Choctaw]], [[Creek (people)|Creek]], [[Koasati]], and [[Mobile (people)|Mobile]]. Alabama was once a region claimed by the [[Spain|Spaniards]] as part of Florida. The English also claimed it as part of the province of Carolina. Nevertheless, when the French took over [[Louisiana]] they also took over the territory including Alabama. Later when the United States acquired the [[Louisiana Purchase]] and the Mississippi Territory, there was much controversy as to whether or not Alabama was included. Nevertheless, Alabama became the 22nd state in [[1819]]. The state of Alabama seceded from the Union and became a [[Confederate States of America|Confederate state]] on [[January 11]], [[1861]]. While not many battles were fought in the state, it contributed about 120,000 soldiers to the [[United States Civil War|Civil War]]. After the war a provisional government was set up in [[1865]] and Alabama was readmitted to the Union in June [[1868]]. == Law and government == ''Main article: [[Law and Government of Alabama]]'' The current governor of the state is [[Bob Riley (Alabama)|Bob Riley]] and the two U.S. senators are [[Jeff Sessions|Jefferson B. Sessions III]] and [[Dick Shelby|Richard C. Shelby]] (all three from the [[United States Republican Party|Republican Party]]). The current [[Alabama Constitution]] was adopted in [[1901]]. == Geography == ''Main article: [[Geography of Alabama]]'' [[Image:National-atlas-alabama.PNG|right|thumb|Map of Alabama]] Alabama is the 30<sup>th</sup> largest state in the United States with 135,765 km<sup>2</sup> (52,419 mi<sup>2</sup>) of total area. 3.2% of that is water, making Alabama 23<sup>rd</sup> in the amount of surface water. About three-fifths of the land area is a gentle [[plain]] with a general incline towards the [[Mississippi River]] and the [[Gulf of Mexico]]. Alabama generally ranges in [[elevation]] from [[sea level]] at [[Mobile Bay]], to a little more than 1800 [[foot (unit)|feet]] or 550 [[metre|meters]] near the [[State of Georgia|Georgia]] state line. The highest point is [[Mount Cheaha]]. == Economy == The 1999 total gross state product was $115 billion placing Alabama 25<sup>th</sup> in the nation. The Per Capita Income for the state was $23,471 in 2000. Alabama's agricultural outputs are poultry and eggs, cattle, nursery stock, peanuts, cotton, vegetables, milk, and soybeans. Its industrial outputs are paper, lumber and wood products, mining, rubber and plastic products, transportation equipment and apparel. == Demographics == As of 2003, Alabama had a total population of 4,500,752. 48.3% is male, and 51.7% is female. *70.1% are [[Whites|White]] *26% are [[African American|Black]] *1.7% are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] *0.7% are [[Asian American|Asian]] *0.5% are [[American Indian]] *1% are [[mixed race]] The five largest ancestry groups according to the 2000 census are: [[African American]] (26%), [[United States|American]] (17%), [[England|English]] (7.8%), [[Ireland|Irish]] (7.7%), [[German-American|German]] (5.7%). Religiously, Alabama is overwhelmingly [[Protestant]]. The religious affiliations of the people of Alabama are as follows: *88% - Protestant *5% - Roman Catholic *1% - Other Christian *0% - Other Religions *4% - Non-Religious The three largest Protestant denominations in Alabama are: [[Baptist]] (51% of the total state population), [[Methodist]] (10%), [[Churches of Christ]] (3%). == Important cities and towns == ''Main article: [[List of cities in Alabama]]'' {| |- | valign="top" | * '''[[Birmingham, Alabama|Birmingham]]''' ** [[Hoover, Alabama|Hoover]] ** [[Bessemer, Alabama|Bessemer]] ** [[Homewood, Alabama|Homewood]] ** [[Vestavia Hills, Alabama|Vestavia Hills]] ** [[Center Point, Alabama|Center Point]] ** [[Alabaster, Alabama|Alabaster]] ** [[Mountain Brook, Alabama|Mountain Brook]] ** [[Hueytown, Alabama|Hueytown]] ** [[Pelham, Alabama|Pelham]] ** [[Trussville, Alabama|Trussville]] ** [[Fairfield, Alabama|Fairfield]] ** [[Gardendale, Alabama|Gardendale]] ** [[Forestdale, Alabama|Forestdale]] ** [[Helena, Alabama|Helena]] ** [[Montevallo, Alabama|Montevallo]] * '''[[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]]''' ** [[Prichard, Alabama|Prichard]] ** [[Tillmans Corner, Alabama|Tillmans Corner]] ** [[Saraland, Alabama|Saraland]] * '''[[Huntsville, Alabama|Huntsville]]''' ** [[Madison, Alabama|Madison]] * '''[[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]]''' * '''[[Tuscaloosa, Alabama|Tuscaloosa]]''' ** [[Northport, Alabama|Northport]] * '''[[Columbus, Georgia]]''' ** [[Phenix City, Alabama|Phenix City]] ** [[Smiths Station, Alabama|Smiths Station]] | valign="top" | * [[Anniston, Alabama|Anniston]] ** [[Jacksonville, Alabama|Jacksonville]] ** [[Oxford, Alabama|Oxford]] ** [[Saks, Alabama|Saks]] * [[Florence, Alabama|Florence]] ** [[Muscle Shoals, Alabama|Muscle Shoals]] * [[Gadsden, Alabama|Gadsden]] * [[Dothan, Alabama|Dothan]] * [[Auburn, Alabama|Auburn]] ** [[Opelika, Alabama|Opelika]] * [[Decatur, Alabama|Decatur]] * [[Enterprise, Alabama|Enterprise]] ** [[Ozark, Alabama|Ozark]] * [[Daphne, Alabama|Daphne]] ** [[Fairhope, Alabama|Fairhope]] * [[Prattville, Alabama|Prattville]] ** [[Millbrook, Alabama|Millbrook]] * [[Albertville, Alabama|Albertville]] * [[Selma, Alabama|Selma]] * [[Valley, Alabama|Valley]] ** [[Lanett, Alabama|Lanett]] * [[Athens, Alabama|Athens]] * [[Cullman, Alabama|Cullman]] * [[Talladega, Alabama|Talladega]] * [[Sylacauga, Alabama|Sylacauga]] * [[Jasper, Alabama|Jasper]] * [[Tuskegee, Alabama|Tuskegee]] * [[Troy, Alabama|Troy]] * [[Leeds, Alabama|Leeds]] * [[Hartselle, Alabama|Hartselle]] * [[Scottsboro, Alabama|Scottsboro]] * [[Alexander City, Alabama|Alexander City]] * [[Eufaula, Alabama|Eufaula]] * [[Fort Payne, Alabama|Fort Payne]] |} == Colleges and Universities (incomplete) == {| |- | valign="top" | *[[Air University]] *[[Alabama A&M University]] *[[Alabama State University]] *[[Athens State University]] *[[Auburn University]] *[[Auburn University at Montgomery]] *[[Birmingham-Southern College]] *[[Concordia College-Selma]] *[[Faulkner University]] *[[Huntingdon College]] *[[Jacksonville State University]] *[[Judson College]] *[[Miles College]] *[[Oakwood College]] *[[Samford University]] *[[Southeastern Bible College]] | valign="top" | *[[Southern Christian University]] *[[Spring Hill College]] *[[Stillman College]] *[[Talladega College]] *[[Troy University]] ''called Troy State University pre-2005'' *[[Tuskegee University]] *[[United States Sports Academy]] *[[University of Alabama System]] **[[University of Alabama|University of Alabama at Tuscaloosa (main campus)]] **[[University of Alabama at Birmingham|Birmingham]] **[[University of Alabama at Huntsville|Huntsville]] *[[University of Mobile]] *[[University of Montevallo]] *[[University of North Alabama]] *[[University of South Alabama]] *[[University of West Alabama]] |} == Culture and interests == <small> *[[Famous Alabamians]] *[[Music of Alabama]] *[[Alabama Public Television]], state wide public TV network *[[List of television stations in Alabama]] *[[Robert Trent Jones Golf Trail]] *[[Alabama Shakespeare Festival]] </small> == Notes == ¹ The phrase ''The Heart of Dixie'' is required by state law to be included on all state license plates. {{Alabama}} {{United States}} [[Category:U.S. states]] [[Category:Alabama| ]] <!-- The below are interlanguage links. --> [[bg:Алабама]] [[da:Alabama]] [[de:Alabama]] [[et:Alabama]] [[es:Alabama]] [[eo:Alabamo]] [[fr:Alabama]] [[gl:Alabama]] [[id:Alabama]] [[it:Alabama]] [[he:אלבמה]] [[lv:Alabama]] [[nl:Alabama]] [[ja:アラバマ州]] [[no:Alabama]] [[pl:Alabama (stan w USA)]] [[pt:Alabama]] [[sl:Alabama]] [[sr:Алабама]] [[fi:Alabama]] [[sv:Alabama]] [[uk:Алабама]] [[zh:阿拉巴馬州'''String theory''' is a [[physical theory|physical model]] whose fundamental building blocks are one-dimensional extended objects (strings) rather than the zero-dimensional points (particles) that were the basis of most earlier physics. For this reason, string theories are able to avoid problems associated with the presence of pointlike particles in a physical theory. Detailed study of string theories has revealed that they describe not just strings but other objects, variously including points, membranes, and higher-dimensional objects. As discussed below, it is important to realize that no string theory has yet made firm predictions that would allow it to be experimentally tested. The term 'string theory' properly refers to both the 26-dimensional [[bosonic string theory|bosonic string theories]] and to the 10-dimensional [[superstring theory|superstring theories]] discovered by adding [[supersymmetry]]. Nowadays, 'string theory' usually refers to the supersymmetric variant while the earlier is given its full name, 'bosonic string theory'. Interest in string theory is driven largely by the hope that it will prove to be a [[theory of everything]]. It is one viable solution for [[quantum gravity]], and in addition to gravity it can naturally describe interactions similar to [[electromagnetism]] and the other forces of nature. Superstring theories also include [[fermion]]s, the building blocks of [[matter]]. It is not yet known whether string theory is able to describe a universe with the precise collection of forces and matter that we observe, nor how much freedom to choose those details the theory will allow. On a more concrete level, string theory has led to advances in the mathematics of [[Knot_theory|knots]], [[Calabi-Yau spaces]] and many other fields. Much exciting new mathematics in recent years has its origin in string theory. String theory has also led to much insight into [[supersymmetry|supersymmetric]] [[gauge theory|gauge theories]], a subject which includes possible extensions of the [[standard model]]. ==History== String theory was originally invented to explain certain peculiarities of [[hadron]] behavior. In certain particle-accelerator experiments, physicists observed that a hadron's [[angular momentum]] was exactly proportional to the square of its [[energy]]. No simple model of the hadron, such as picturing it as a set of smaller particles held together by spring-like forces, was able to explain these relationships. In order to account for these "Regge trajectories", physicists turned to a model where each hadron was in fact a rotating string, moving in accordance with Einstein's [[special relativity|special theory of relativity]]. The concepts which resulted became one component of [[bosonic string theory]], which is still the first version taught to many students. (The original need for a viable theory of hadrons has been fulfilled by [[quantum chromodynamics]], the study of [[quark]]s and their interactions. It is now hoped that string theory or some descendant of it will provide a more fundamental knowledge behind quarks themselves.) Bosonic string theory is formulated in terms of the [[Nambu-Goto action]], a mathematical quantity which can be used to predict how strings move through space and time. By applying the ideas of [[quantum mechanics]] to the Nambu-Goto action—a procedure known as [[quantization (physics)|quantization]]—one can deduce that each string can vibrate in many different ways, and that each vibrational state appears to be a different particle. The mass the particle has, and the fashion with which it can interact, are determined by the way the string vibrates—in essence, by the "note" which the string sounds. The scale of notes, each corresponding to a different kind of particle, is termed the "spectrum" of the theory. These early models included both ''open'' strings, which have two distinct endpoints, and ''closed'' strings, where the endpoints are joined to make a complete loop. The two types of string behave in slightly different ways, yielding two spectra. Not all modern string theories use both types; some incorporate only the closed variety. However, the bosonic theory has problems. Most importantly, as the name implies, the spectrum of particles contains only [[bosons]], particles like the [[photon]] which obey particular rules of behavior. While bosons are a critical ingredient in the Universe, they are certainly not its only constituents. Investigating how a string theory may include [[fermions]] in its spectrum led to [[supersymmetry]], a mathematical relation between bosons and fermions which is now an independent area of study. String theories which include fermionic vibrations are now known as [[superstring theory|superstring theories]]; several different kinds have been described. In the [[1990s]], [[Edward Witten]] and others found strong evidence that the different superstring theories were different limits of an unknown 11-dimensional theory called [[M-theory]]. These discoveries sparked the [[second superstring revolution]]. (Several meanings of the "M" have been proposed; physicists joke that the true meaning will only be chosen when the theory is finally understood.) Many recent developments in the field relate to [[D-brane]]s, objects which physicists discovered must also be included in any theory which includes open strings. ==Basic properties== While understanding the details of string and superstring theories requires considerable mathematical sophistication, some qualitative properties of quantum strings can be understood in a fairly intuitive fashion. For example, quantum strings have tension, much like regular strings made of twine; this tension is considered a fundamental parameter of the theory. The tension of a quantum string is closely related to its size. Consider a closed loop of string, left to move through space without external forces. Its tension will tend to contract it into a smaller and smaller loop. Classical intuition suggests that it might shrink to a single point, but this would violate [[Werner Heisenberg|Heisenberg]]'s [[uncertainty principle]]. The characteristic size of the string loop will be a balance between the tension force, acting to make it small, and the uncertainty effect, which keeps it "stretched". Consequently, the minimum size of a string must be related to the string tension. ==Extra dimensions== One intriguing feature of string theory is that it predicts the number of dimensions which the universe should possess. Nothing in [[James Clerk Maxwell|Maxwell]]'s theory of [[electromagnetism]] or [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]]'s theory of [[relativity]] makes this kind of prediction; these theories require physicists to insert the number of dimensions "by hand". Instead, string theory allows one to compute the number of spacetime dimensions from first principles. Technically, this happens because [[Lorentz invariance]] can only be satisfied in a certain number of dimensions. This is roughly like saying that if we measure the distance between two points, then rotate our observer by some angle and measure again, the observed distance only stays the same if the universe has a particular number of dimensions. The only problem is that when the calculation is done, the universe's dimensionality is not four as one may expect (three axes of space and one of time), but twenty-six. More precisely, bosonic string theories are 26-dimensional, while superstring and M-theories turn out to involve 10 or 11 dimensions. However, these models appear to contradict observed phenomena. Physicists usually solve this problem in one of two different ways. The first is to [[Kaluza-Klein theory|compactify]] the extra dimensions; i.e., the 6 or 7 extra dimensions are so small as to be undetectable in our phenomenal experience. We achieve the 6-dimensional model's resolution with [[Calabi-Yau spaces]]. In 7 dimensions, they are termed [[G2 manifold|G<sub>2</sub> manifolds]]. Essentially these extra dimensions are "compactified" by causing them to loop back upon themselves. A standard analogy for this is to consider multidimensional space as a garden hose. If we view the hose from a sufficient distance, it appears to have only one dimension, its length. This is akin to the 4 macroscopic dimensions we are accustomed to dealing with every day. If, however, one approaches the hose, one discovers that it contains a second dimension, its circumference. This "extra dimension" is only visible within a relatively close range to the hose, just as the extra dimensions of the Calabi-Yau space are only visible at extremely small distances, and thus are not easily detected. (Of course, everyday garden hoses exist in three spatial dimensions, but for the purpose of the analogy, we neglect its thickness and consider only motion on the ''surface'' of the hose. A point on the hose's surface can be specified by two numbers, a distance along the hose and a distance along the circumference, just as points on the Earth's surface can be uniquely specified by latitude and longitude. In either case, we say that the object has two spatial dimensions. Like the Earth, garden hoses have an interior, a region that requires an extra dimension; however, unlike the Earth, a Calabi-Yau space has no interior.) Another possibility is that we are stuck in a 3+1 dimensional subspace of the full universe, where the "3+1" reminds us that time is a different kind of dimension than space. Because it involves mathematical objects called [[D-brane]]s, this is known as a [[Brane cosmology|braneworld]] theory. In either case, gravity acting in the hidden dimensions produces other, non-gravitational, forces, such as electromagnetism. In principle, therefore, it is possible to deduce the nature of those extra dimensions by requiring consistency with the standard model, but this is not yet a practical possibility. ==Problems== [[As of 2005]], string theory is ''unverifiable.'' It is by no means the only theory currently being developed which suffers from this difficulty; any new development can pass through a stage of unverifiability before it becomes conclusively accepted or rejected. As [[Richard Feynman]] noted in ''The Character of Physical Law,'' the key test of a scientific theory is whether its consequences agree with the measurements we take in experiments. It does not matter who invented the theory, "what his name is", or even how aesthetically appealing the theory may be—"if it disagrees with experiment, it's wrong." (Of course, there are subsidiary issues: something may have gone wrong with the experiment, or perhaps the person computing the consequences of the theory made a mistake. All these possibilities must be checked, which may take a considerable time.) No version of string theory has yet made a prediction which differs from those made by other theories—at least, not in a way that an experiment could check. In this sense, string theory is still in a "larval stage": it possesses many features of mathematical interest, and it may yet become supremely important in our understanding of the Universe, but it requires further developments before it can become verifiable. These developments may be in the theory itself, such as new methods of performing calculations and deriving predictions, or they may be advances in experimental science, which make formerly ungraspable quantities measurable. Human beings do not have the technology to observe strings (which are said to be roughly of [[Planck length]], about 10<sup>-35</sup> meters across). Eventually, we may be able to observe strings in a meaningful way, or at least to gain substantial insight by observing cosmological phenomena which may elucidate string physics. Another problem is that, like [[quantum field theory]], much of string theory is still only formulated [[perturbative]]ly (''i.e.,'' as a series of approximations rather than as an exact solution). Although nonperturbative techniques have progressed considerably—including conjectured complete definitions in [[space-time]]s satisfying certain asymptotics—a full nonperturbative definition of the theory is still lacking. == Related topics == * [[List of string theory topics]] * [[superstring theory]] * [[M-theory]] * [[quantum gravity]] * [[Kaluza-Klein theory]] * [[conformal field theory]] * [[supersymmetry]], [[supergravity]] * [[Loop quantum gravity]] * [[Graviton]] == References == ===Popular books and articles=== * Davies, Paul, and Julian R. Brown. ''Superstrings: A Theory of Everything?''. Cambridge University Press (1988). ISBN 0-521-43775-X. * [[Brian Greene|Greene, Brian]], ''The Elegant Universe: Superstrings, Hidden Dimensions, and the Quest for the Ultimate Theory'', W.W. Norton & Company; Reissue edition (2003) ISBN 0-393-05858-1. * Gribbin, John, ''The Search for Superstrings, Symmetry, and the Theory of Everything''. London, Great Britain: Little Brown and Company (1998). ISBN 0-316-32975-4. * [[Michio Kaku|Kaku, Michio]], ''Hyperspace: A Scientific Odyssey Through Parallel Universes, Time Warps, and the Tenth Dimension.'' New York, Oxford University Press (1994). ISBN 0-195-08514-0. ===Textbooks=== * [[Michael Green|Green, Michael]], [[John Schwarz]] and [[Edward Witten]], ''Superstring theory'', Cambridge University Press (1987). The original textbook. ** Vol. 1: Introduction, ISBN 0-521-35752-7. ** Vol. 2: Loop amplitudes, anomalies and phenomenology, ISBN 0-521-35753-5. * Johnson, Clifford, ''D-branes'', Cambridge University Press (2003). ISBN 0-521-80912-6. * [[Joseph Polchinski|Polchinski, Joseph]], ''String Theory'', Cambridge University Press (1998). A modern textbook. ** Vol. 1: An introduction to the bosonic string, ISBN 0-521-63303-6. ** Vol. 2: Superstring theory and beyond, ISBN 0-521-63304-4. * Zwiebach, Barton. ''A First Course in String Theory.'' Cambridge University Press (2004). ISBN 0-521-83143-1. ===External links=== *[http://superstringtheory.com/ Superstringtheory.com] - A popular online guide. *[http://tena4.vub.ac.be/beyondstringtheory/ Beyond String Theory] - An ongoing project, illuminating many aspects of string theory and related topics. *[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/elegant/ The Elegant Universe] - NOVA documentary by Brian Greene. Various images, texts, videos and animations explaining string theory. *[http://www.msnbc.com/news/201650.asp The Symphony of Everything: a short interactive introduction to string theory.] *[http://schwinger.harvard.edu/~sps/ SCI.physics.STRINGS] - The home page of a newsgroup dedicated to string theory *[http://xxx.arxiv.org/abs/hep-th/0311044 Resource Letter] - A good guide for students to the string theory literature. [[Category:String theory]] [[de:Stringtheorie]] [[el:Θεωρία Χορδών]] [[es:Teoría de cuerdas]] [[fr:Théorie des cordes]] [[he:תורת המיתרים]] [[hu:Húrelmélet]] [[nl:stringtheorie]] [[pt:Teoria das cordas]] [[ru:Òåîðèÿ ñòðóí]] [[sv:Strängteori]] [[zh:弦理论]] [[simple:String theory]] All content in the above text box is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike license Version 4 and was originally sourced from https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?diff=prev&oldid=28305.
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