Difference between revisions 42547 and 42562 on enwiki

This is the [[history]] of [[Côte d'Ivoire]].  See also the [[history of Africa]] and [[history of present-day nations and states]] and [[Civil war in Ivory Coast]].

The early history of Côte d'Ivoire is virtually unknown, although it is thought that a [[neolithic]] culture existed there. [[France]] made its initial contact with Côte d'Ivoire in [[1637]], when [[missionaries]] landed at [[Assinie]] near the [[Gold Coast (British colony)|Gold Coast]] (now [[Ghana]]) border. Early contacts were limited to a few missionaries because of the inhospitable coastline and settlers' fear of the inhabitants.

In the [[18th century]], the country was invaded by two related [[Akan]] groups - the [[Agnis]], who occupied the southeast, and the [[Baoulés]], who settled in the central section. In [[1843]]-[[1844]], Admiral [[Bouet-Williaumez]] signed treaties with the kings of the [[Grand Bassam]] and Assinie regions, placing their territories under a French [[protectorate]]. French [[explorers]], missionaries, trading companies, and soldiers gradually extended the area under French control inland from the lagoon region. However, pacification was not accomplished until [[1915]].

== French Period ==

Côte d'Ivoire officially became a [[French colony]] on [[March 10]], [[1893]]. [[Captain Binger]], who had explored the Gold Coast frontier, was named the first governor. He negotiated boundary treaties with [[Liberia]] and the [[United Kingdom]] (for the Gold Coast) and later started the campaign against [[Almany Samory]], a [[Malinke]] chief, who fought against the French until [[1898]].

From [[1904]] to [[1958]], Côte d'Ivoire was a constituent unit of the [[Federation of French West Africa]]. It was a [[colony]] and an overseas territory under the [[Third Republic]]. Until the period following [[World War II]], governmental affairs in French West Africa were administered from [[Paris]]. France's policy in West Africa was reflected mainly in its philosophy of "association", meaning that all Africans in Côte d'Ivoire were officially French "subjects" without rights to representation in Africa or France.

During World War II, the [[Vichy regime]] remained in control until [[1943]], when members of Gen. [[Charles De Gaulle]]'s provisional government assumed control of all French West Africa. The [[Brazzaville conference]] in [[1944]], the first Constituent Assembly of the [[Fourth Republic]] in [[1946]], and France's gratitude for African loyalty during World War II led to far-reaching governmental reforms in 1946. French citizenship was granted to all African "subjects," the right to organize politically was recognized, and various forms of forced labor were abolished.

A turning point in relations with France was reached with the [[1956]] Overseas Reform Act (''[[Loi Cadre]]'' ), which transferred a number of powers from Paris to elected territorial governments in French West Africa and also removed remaining voting inequalities.

== Independence ==

In December [[1958]], Côte d'Ivoire became an autonomous republic within the [[French Community]] as a result of a referendum that brought community status to all members of the old Federation of French West Africa except [[Guinea]], which had voted against association. Côte d'Ivoire became independent on [[August 7]], [[1960]], and permitted its community membership to lapse. It established the commercial city [[Abidjan]] as its capital. 

Côte d'Ivoire's contemporary political history is closely associated with the career of [[Félix Houphouët-Boigny]], President of the republic and leader of the ''[[Democratic Party of Côte d'Ivoire|Parti Démocratique de la Côte d'Ivoire]]'' (PDCI) until his death on [[December 7]], [[1993]]. He was one of the founders of the ''[[Rassemblement Démocratique Africain]]'' (RDA), the leading pre-independence inter-territorial political party for all of the French West African territories except [[Mauritania]].

Houphouët-Boigny first came to political prominence in 1944 as founder of the ''Syndicat Agricole Africain'', an organization that won improved conditions for African farmers and formed a nucleus for the PDCI. After World War II, he was elected by a narrow margin to the first [[Constituent Assembly]]. Representing Côte d'Ivoire in the [[French National Assembly]] from 1946 to [[1959]], he devoted much of his effort to inter-territorial political organization and further amelioration of labor conditions. After his thirteen-year service in the French National Assembly, including almost three years as a minister in the French Government, he became Côte d'Ivoire's first prime minister in April 1959, and the following year was elected its first president.

In May 1959, Houphouët-Boigny reinforced his position as a dominant figure in West Africa by leading Côte d'Ivoire, [[Niger]], [[Upper Volta]] ([[Burkina]]), and [[Dahomey]] ([[Benin]]) into the [[Council of the Entente]], a regional organization promoting economic development. He maintained that the road to African solidarity was through step-by-step economic and political cooperation, recognizing the principle of non-intervention in the internal affairs of other African states.

The first multiparty presidential elections were held in October 1990 and Houphouët-Boigny won convincingly.

==After Houphouët-Boigny==

Houphouët-Boigny died on December 7, 1993, and was succeeded by his deputy [[Henri Konan Bédié]] who was the President of the Parliament.

He was overthrown on December 24, 1999 by General [[Robert Guéï]], a former army commander sacked by Bédié. This was the first ''[[coup d'etat|coup d'état]]'' in the history of Côte d'Ivoire. An economic downturn followed, and the [[junta]] promised to return the country to democratic rule in [[2000]].

Guéï allowed elections to be held the following year, but when these were won by [[Laurent Gbagbo]] he at first refused to accept his defeat. But street protests forced him to step down, and Gbagbo became president on October 26, 2000.

On [[September 19]], [[2002]] a rebellion in the North and the West came up and the country became divided in three parts. Mass murders occurred, notably in Abidjan from the 25 to 27th of March, when government forces killed more than 200 protesters, and on the 20 and 21st of June in Bouaké and Korhogo, where purges led to the execution of more than 100 people. A reconciliation process under international auspices started in [[2003]]. Several thousand French and West African troops remained in Côte d'Ivoire to maintain peace and help implement the peace accords.

A disarmament was supposed to take place on [[October 15]], [[2004]], but was a failure. Côte d'Ivoire is now divided between the rebel leader [[Guillaume Soro]] and president [[Laurent Gbagbo]] who has blocked the diplomatic advances made in Marcoussis and Accra—of the laws related to political reforms promised by Gbagbo in Accra, only two out of ten have been voted on so far. The Rebel side has not held its promises either, which results in a state of quasi–civil war.

Frustration is now a dominant sentiment in the population, especially since the overall quality of life has dropped since the Félix Houphouët-Boigny era. Responsibility for the worsening of the situation is widely attributed to the Northern people, though the quality of life under Houphouët-Boigny was mainly due to the sponsoring through the "Françafrique" system (designed to consolidate the influence of France in Africa), and the economy worked mainly thanks to a low-paid [[Burkinabé]] working class and immigrants from [[Mali]].

The debt of the country has now risen, civil unrest is occurring daily, and political life has turned into personal struggles for interests. To answer these problems, the concept of "ivoirité" was born, a racist term which aims mainly at denying political and economic rights to the Northern immigrants. 

New laws about eligibility, nationality and property are due to be adopted to address this issue, but if they are delayed, inscription of electors will be impossible before the next elections. This might lead to a dangerous situation where the government would stick to power, which the rebellion would likely not accept. 

Tensions between Cote D'Ivoire and France increased on November 6, 2004, after Ivorian air strikes killed 9 French peacekeepers and an aid worker.  In response, French forces attacked the airport at [[Yamoussoukro]], destroying all airplanes in the Ivorian Air Force. Violent protests erupted in both Abidjan and Yamoussoukro, and were marked by violence between Ivorians and French peacekeepers. Thousands of foreigners, especially French nationals, evacuated the two cities. 

[[Category:Côte d'Ivoire]]

[[fr:Histoire de la Côte d'Ivoire]]
[[he:היסטוריה של חוף השנהב:''This article is about the German band [[Tangerine Dream]]. For information regarding the ''Japanese'' pop song, see: [[Do As Infinity]]''

'''Tangerine Dream''' is a [[Germany|German]] group that specializes in [[electronic music]] (the members of the band strongly disagree with the New Age label).  It was founded in [[1967]] by [[Edgar Froese]] who had been studying painting and [[sculpture]]. The band has undergone several line-up changes over the years and Froese has been the only constant member. Drummer and composer [[Klaus Schulze]] was a member of an early line-up, but the most stable version of the group during their most influential mid-[[1970s]] period was as a keyboard trio with Froese, [[Christopher Franke]] and [[Peter Baumann]].

==History==
The genesis of the group was when Edgar Froese arrived in the mid-[[1960s]] in [[West Berlin]] to study art. He worked as a sculptor and studied under [[Salvador Dalí]] amongst others. His first band, the [[R&B]]-styled ''The Ones'', didn't succeed and was gradually dismantled after releasing one single. Froese turned to experimentation afterwards, playing minor gigs with various musicians. Most of these were in the famous [[Zodiac (nightclub)|Zodiac]] nightclub, but the band was even invited to play for Froese's former teacher Dalí. Music was mixed with [[literature]], painting, early forms of [[multimedia]] and more.  Only the absurdest ideas were able to gather any attention.  From this, Froese developed the phrase "in the absurd often lies what is artistically possible".  Various members of the group came and went, but the direction of the music continued to be inspired by the [[Surrealist]]s.

Froese was fascinated by technology, and skilled in using it to create music. He built instruments, and collected sounds with tape recorders wherever he went, using them to build musical works later. His early work with tape loops and similar repeating sounds was the obvious precursor to the emerging technology of the [[music sequencer|sequencer]] which Froese quickly adopted and developed to his own ends. 

Most notable of Froese's collaborations was his partnership with [[Christopher Franke]]. Franke transferred in [[1970]] from the group [[Agitation Free]] to replace Klaus Schulze as the drummer, and eventually he became Tangerine Dream's sequencer guru. He left the band, nearly three decades later, in [[1987]] for personal reasons. Many consider this to be the breakup of the band.  
Other long-term members of the group included Peter Baumann (1972-1977) (who later went on to form the Private Music label, on which the band was signed on on 1988-1991), Johannes Schmoelling (1980-1985), Paul Haslinger (1986-1990), and most recently (1990 onwards) Froese's son Jerome.  Most fans of the band consider the inclusion of Jerome into the band to be an abject disaster.  This decline in the band's popularity is seen subsequent decline in album sales.  Most stores stopped carrying Tangerine Dream CD's.  Tangerine Dream was reduced to a mail order outfit that put out substandard music.  A far cry from their formative days.

The first Tangerine Dream album, ''Electronic Meditation'', was a tape-sound piece, using the technology of the time rather than the synthesized music they later became famous for. It was a collaboration between Froese, Klaus Schulze, and [[Conrad Schnitzler]]. Beginning with their second album, ''Alpha Centauri'', the group tended to be a duo or trio of electronic keyboards augmented by Froese's guitar, Franke's drums, and sometimes assorted guest musicians. They were particular heavy users of the [[Mellotron]]. Most albums were purely instrumental--the band's two albums to prominently feature lyrics, ''Cyclone'' (1978) and ''Tyger'' (1987) (the latter set to poems by [[William Blake]]) were met with harsh response from the fans. There have been occasional vocal tracks on the band's other releases too. The band has however recently returned to this style with a (currently unfinished) musical trilogy based on [[Dante Alighieri|Dante]]'s [[The Divine Comedy]].
Tangerine Dream signed on to [[Virgin Records]] in [[1973]] and released soon afterwards their famous album, ''[[Phaedra]]'' (topping charts in the [[United Kingdom]]); one of the first ever albums released by the newly-formed label. This was the world's first commercial album to feature sequencers and came to define much more than just the band's own sound. 

Just as in the late [[1960s]] Edgar Froese had been amongst the first musicians to exploit electronic sound processing in rock-based music, in the early [[1980s]], along with some others such as [[Jean Michel Jarre]] and [[Mike Oldfield]], the band were early adopters of the new [[digital]] technology which was to come to revolutionise the sound of the synthesiser. Their technical competence and extensive experience in their early years with self-made instruments and unusual means of creating sounds meant that they were able to exploit this new technology and make music quite unlike anything which had been heard before. To a modern listener, perhaps many of their albums do not stand out in the way they would have at the time, for the musical technology they adopted at that time is now almost universally used.

Throughout the [[1970s]] and [[1980s]] the band played many live concerts (which were often improvised, and consequently widely [[Bootleg|bootlegged]]) and had numerous tours across the world. They were notorious for playing extremely loudly, and for a long time. The earliest concerts were visually quite dull by modern standards, with three men sitting motionless for several hours alongside massive electronic boxes with patch leads and a few flashing lights. Some concerts were even performed in complete darkness! As time went on, and technology advanced, the concerts become much more elaborate, with visual effects, lighting, lasers, pyrotechnics and projected images. By [[1977]] their North American tour was complete with full-scale Laserium effects.

Ever since their [[1980]] [[East Berlin]] gig (released as ''Pergamon'') when they became the first major western band to perform in a [[Socialism|socialistic]] country, Tangerine Dream were very popular behind the [[Iron Curtain]]. Especially, in [[Poland]] they were one of the most popular bands in the country in the early 1980s. They even released a live album called ''[[Poland (album)|Poland]]'' of one of their performances there. Because of the abstract nature of the music - and, arguably, the lack of lyrics - they did not attract censure from the authorities, unlike many other western bands.

In the [[1980s]], Tangerine Dream composed scores for over 20 [[Hollywood]] movies. Also, upon departing from the group, Franke went on to compose the score for the [[television]] [[science fiction]] series ''[[Babylon 5]]'' and several further Hollywood movies.

==Selected discography==
*''Electronic Meditation'' (1970)
*''Alpha Centauri'' (1971)
*''Zeit'' (1972)
*''Atem'' (1973)
*''Phaedra'' (1974)
*''[[Rubycon]]'' (1975)
*''Ricochet'' (Live) (1975)
*''Stratosfear'' (1976)
*''Encore'' (Live) (1977)
*''Sorcerer'' (Soundtrack) (1977)
*''Force Majeure'' (1979)
*''Tangram'' (1980)
*''Thief'' (Soundtrack) (1980)
*''Exit'' (1981)
*''White Eagle'' (1982)
*''Logos'' (Live) (1982)
*''Hyperborea'' (1983)
*''Poland'' (Live) (1983)
*''Le Parc'' (1984)
*''Green Desert'' (Recorded 1973, released 1986)
*''Dream Sequence'' (Compilation) (1986)
*''Underwater Sunlight'' (1986)
*''Tyger'' (1987)
*''Live Miles'' (1988)
*''Optical Race'' (1988)
*''Lily On The Beach'' (1989)
*''Melrose'' (1990)
*''Turn of the Tides'' (1994)
*''Tyranny of Beauty'' (1995)
*''Goblins Club'' (1996)
*''Oasis'' (Soundtrack) (1996)
*''Mars Polaris'' (1999)
*''I-Box 1970-1990'' (Compilation) (2000)
*''Inferno'' (2001)
*''Purgatorio'' (2004)

== Selected soundtracks ==
*''Sorcerer'' (This film is a remake of "[[The Wages of Fear]]") (1977)
*''Thief'' (1980)
*''Future War 198X'' (rumored 1982)
*''The Keep'' (1983)
*''Risky Business'' (1983)
*''Firestarter'' (1984)
*''Fright Night'' (1985)
*''Red Heat'' (1985)
*''Legend'' (U.S. theatrical version) (1985)
*''Miracle Mile'' (1989)
*''Mota Atma'' (2003)

== Selected live recordings ==
* ''Sohoman (Live in Sydney 1982)'' (1999)
* ''Soundmill Navigator (Live at the Berlin Philharmonie 1976)'' (2000)
* ''Rockface (Live in Berkley 1988)'' (2003)
* ''The Bootleg Box Set Vol. 1'' (Live, Compilation) (2003)
* ''The Bootleg Box Set Vol. 2'' (Live, Compilation) (2004)
* ''East (Live in Berlin 1990)'' (2004)
* ''Arizona (Live in Scottsdale 1992)'' (2004)
* ''Vault 4 (Live in Brighton U.K. 1986, Live in Cleveland U.S.A 1986)'' (2005)

==See also==
* [[Klaus Schulze]]
* [[Krautrock]]

==External links==
* [http://www.tangerinedream.org/ Tangerine Dream official website]
* [http://dmoz.org/Arts/Music/Bands_and_Artists/T/Tangerine_Dream/  DMoz entry on Tangerine Dream]
* [http://www.voices-in-the-net.de/ Comprehensive discography]
* [http://www.tangerinedream.pl/ Tangerine Dream – The Ultimate Online Encyclopedia] (being reconstructed)
* [http://www.opticaldream.de/ opticaldream.de - german Fan website]
* [http://www.edgarfroese.com/ Edgar Froese official website]
* [http://www.johannesschmoelling.de/ Johannes Schmoelling official website]

[[Category:German musical groups]]
[[Category:Electronic music groups]]
[[Category:New Age Music]]

[[de:Tangerine Dream]]
[[fi:Tangerine Dream]]
[[it:Tangerine Dream]]
[[pl:Tangerine Dream]]
[[fr:Tangerine Dream]]