Difference between revisions 7293 and 7709 on enwiki

[[Image:C64 artistic closeup.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Close-up of C64]]

'''Commodore 64''' ('''C64''', '''CBM 64''') was a popular [[home computer]] of the [[1980s]]. Announced by [[Commodore International|Commodore Business Machines]] (founded and owned by [[Jack Tramiel]]) in [[January]] [[1982]] and released in [[September]] of that year at a price of US$595, it offered unprecedented value (sound and graphics performance) for the money.  Its very aggressive pricing in comparison to competitors quickly started a price war. With estimated sales between 17 and 25 million units by the time it was discontinued in [[1993]], the C64 became and remains the best-selling computer model of all time.

== History ==

[[Image:IMG_0032.JPG|thumb|C64 in original 'breadbin' box, similar to predecessor VIC-20.]] The cost of building each C64 was estimated at US$135 due to Commodore's [[vertical integration]] (Commodore owned [[MOS Technology|MOS Technology, Inc]], who made most of the chips), leaving a large margin to work with. Commodore marketed the machine aggressively, selling it in department stores, discount stores, and toy stores in addition to its network of authorized dealers. This allowed it, like its predecessor, the [[Commodore VIC-20|VIC-20]], to compete against video game consoles. In [[1983]], Commodore offered a $100 rebate in the United States on the purchase of a C64 upon receipt of any video game console or computer. 

In order to take advantage of the $100 rebate, some mail-order dealers and retailers offered a [[Timex Sinclair 1000]] for as little as $10 with purchase of a C64 so the consumer could send the computer to Commodore, collect the rebate, and pocket the difference. [[Timex Corporation]] departed the marketplace within a year.

The success of the VIC-20 and C64 also contributed significantly to the departure of [[Texas Instruments]] from the home computer field (see [[Texas Instruments TI-99/4A|TI-99/4A]]) and to the infamous [[video game crash of 1983]].

Commodore attempted in [[1984]] to replace the C64 with the [[Commodore Plus/4]], which offered a higher-color display, a better implementation of [[Commodore BASIC|BASIC]] (V3.5), and built-in software. But Commodore made the colossal strategic mistake of making it incompatible with the huge C64 software library. To top it all off, it lacked sprite capability and had poorer sound, two of the strengths that had made the C64 a star. It flopped, to no one's surprise except Commodore's, while the C64 soldiered on. Commodore probably made this mistake because in that era hardware was still considered more significant than software, and it was not understood that in the future hardware would become a commodity item and that software would rule as the most important selling point.

Commodore was determined not to repeat the same mistake, and made sure that the eventual successors to the C64—the [[Commodore 128]] and 128D computers ([[1985]])—were as good as, and were fully compatible with the original. As more advanced computers came onto the market, Commodore positioned the '64 as an entry-level computer, lowering the price as necessary.

[[Image:C64C.jpg|thumb|C64C with optional CBM 1764 RAM Expansion Unit.]]

In [[1986]], Commodore released the '''Commodore 64C''' computer, which was functionally identical to the original, but whose exterior design was remodelled in the spirit of the C128 to reflect "modernism". In [[1987]] Commodore began to ship C64Cs with a totally redesigned motherboard in an effort to further reduce the cost of manufacturing the C64. The new board, commonly known as a "short board", featured a new and larger 64-pin PLA chip, which integrated many discrete [[transistor-transistor logic|TTL]] logic chips. The colour RAM was also integrated in later revisions of the [[Programmable Logic Array|PLA]]. The IC's were also re-numbered to 85xx in order to reflect the change to the newer HMOS chip manufacturing process. This made the C64C far more reliable, because these chips ran cooler than the previous generation of [[NMOS]] chips used in the C64.

The C64C often came bundled with the third-party [[GEOS]] [[GUI]]-based operating system.

At the time of its introduction, the C64's graphics and sound capabilities were rivaled only by the [[Atari 8-bit family]].  This was at a time when most IBM PCs and compatibles had text-only graphics cards, [[green screen]] monitors, and sound consisting of squeaks and beeps from the built-in tiny, low-quality [[tweeter]]. Due to its advanced graphics and sound, the 64 is often credited with starting a computer subculture known as the [[demoscene]] (see also [[Commodore 64 demos]]). As of the turn of the millennium, it is still being actively used as a demo machine, especially for music (its sound chip even being used in special sound cards for PCs).  For all, other than special enthusiasts, however, the C64 lost its top position when the [[16-bit]] [[Atari ST]] and [[Commodore Amiga]] were released in the mid-80s.

In 1990 the C64 was released in a form of a games console, called the '''Commodore 64GS''' ('''C64GS'''). It is basically a C64 motherboard modified to orient the cartridge connector to a vertical position, to allow cartridges to be inserted from above. A modified ROM replaced the BASIC interpreter with a boot screen to inform the user to insert a cartridge. Needless to say, the C64GS was another commercial failure for Commodore, and was never even released outside of Europe.

In 1990-1991, the [[Commodore 65]] (also known as the <b>C64DX</b>) was prototyped, but never released.

Another modern development is the [[C-One]] [http://c64upgra.de/c-one/] which will make use of modern hardware such as hard drives and ethernet.

In the summer of [[2004]], after an absence from the marketplace of more than 10 years, PC manufacturer [[Tulip Computers BV]] (owners of the Commodore brand since 1997) announced the [[C64 Direct-to-TV]] '''(C64DTV)''', a [[joystick]]-based [[TV game]] based on the C64 with 30 titles built into ROM designed by [[Jeri Ellsworth]], a [[autodidacticism|self-taught]] designer. It was similar in concept to other mini-consoles based on the [[Atari 2600]] and [[Intellivision]], which had gained modest success earlier in the decade. The product was advertised on [[QVC]] in the United States for the 2004 holiday season.

== Description ==

The C64 used an [[8-bit]] [[MOS Technology 6510]] [[microprocessor]] (a close derivative of the [[MOS_Technology_6502 | 6502]] with an added 6-bit internal I/O port that in the C64 is mainly used to bank-switch the machine's [[Read-only memory|ROM]] in and out of the processor's address space) and had 64 [[kilobyte]]s of [[Random Access Memory|RAM]], of which 38 KB were available to built-in [[Commodore BASIC|Commodore BASIC 2.0]]. In the [[United Kingdom|UK]], the C64 rivalled the British-built [[Sinclair Research|Sinclair]] [[ZX Spectrum]] in popularity, benefitting from a full-sized full-travel keyboard and more advanced graphics and sound chips.

[[Image:C64scrn.png|400px|frame|Startup screen of C64, and rudimentary BASIC program ready to run.]]

The graphics chip, [[MOS Technology VIC-II|VIC-II]], featured 16 colors, eight [[sprite (computer graphics)|sprite]]s, [[scrolling]] capabilities, and two bitmap graphics modes. The standard text mode featured 40 columns, like most [[Commodore PET]] models. [[Computer game|Computer]]/[[video game]] and [[Demo Scene|demo]] programmers quickly learned how to exploit quirks in the VIC-II to gain additional capabilities, like making more than 8 sprites appear, and move, simultaneously. (In fact, one webmaster of a Commodore 64 games museum website mentioned that to this day, he does not know how the game [[Clystron]]'s title screen managed to display 4 different colours on the same 8&times;8 pixel block without halving the horizontal resolution.)

The sound chip, [[MOS Technology SID|SID]], had three channels with several different [[waveform]]s, [[ring modulation]] and filter capabilities. It, too, was very advanced for its time. It was designed by Bob Yannes, who would later co-found synthesizer company [[Ensoniq]]. Yannes criticized other contemporary computer sound chips as "primitive, obviously (...) designed by people who knew nothing about music." 

Often the game music became a hit of its own among C64 users. The music for the game [[Ghostbusters (video game)|Ghostbusters]] is one such example, which played an instrumental version of the song 'Ghostbusters' by [[Ray Parker Jr.]], from the movie of the same name. As the song played, the lyrics displayed onscreen, with a [[Karaoke]] type ball jumping on them. Well-known composers and programmers of game music on the C64 were [[Rob Hubbard]] and [[Martin Galway]], among many others.

Unfortunately, the onboard [[Commodore BASIC|BASIC]] programming language offered no easy way to tap the machine's advanced graphics and sound capabilities, so the user needed to either use <code>[[Peek|PEEK]]</code> and <code>[[Poke|POKE]]</code> commands to directly access the associated [[memory address]]es to achieve the required results, use third party BASIC extensions such as [[Simons' BASIC]], or program in [[assembly language]]. Commodore had a better implementation of BASIC but reportedly chose to ship the C64 with the same BASIC 2.0 used in the VIC-20 for fear of the C64 eating into the sales of its [[Commodore PET|PET/CBM]] line.

== Peripheral units ==
Almost all Commodore peripherals at the time included their own [[embedded system|embedded]] computers, which, arguably, increased performance, by leaving the main CPU free while the peripheral's computer fetched/stored/output/(pre-)processed data. However, this "distributed processing scheme" pushed the price of Commodore peripherals up somewhat.

Although not always supplied with the machine, [[floppy disk]] drives of the 5&frac14; inch ([[Commodore 1541]] and 1571) and, later, 3&frac12; inch ([[Commodore 1581|1581]]) variety were available.  The 1541 had a relatively poor reputation and was excruciatingly slow in loading programs because of among other things, poor [[Commodore DOS]] [[firmware]] which had numerous [[computer bug|bug]]s and inefficient algorithms. It used to be a common joke to 'go grab a cup of coffee [or hot chocolate]' after entering the command to load a program on the C64 (like in the following example, where the [[asterisk|asterisk (<tt>*</tt>)]] [[wild card]] character designates the first program on the disk, '<tt>8</tt>' is the disk drive device number, and the '<tt>1</tt>' signifies that the file is to be loaded not to the standard [[memory address]], but to the address where its program header says&mdash;this usually signifies an [[executable]] file, as opposed to a BASIC program.

 LOAD "*",8,1

Commodore sold an [[IEEE-488]]-standard parallel bus converter for the C64 which plugged into the machine's expansion port, but few C64 owners took advantage of this and the accompanying IEEE devices that Commodore sold (the [[Commodore SFD-1001|SFD-1001]] [[megabyte|1-megabyte]] 5&frac14; inch floppy disk drive, and the peripherals originally made for the IEEE equipped [[Commodore PET|PET]] computers, such as the 4040 and 8050 drives and the 9060/9090 [[hard disk]] drives).

Because the 1541 was so slow and the IEEE converter (and drives) so expensive, a number of aftermarket drives became available, offering better reliability, quieter operation, or simply a lower price, than the 1541, although often at the expense of compatibility. In addition, a company called [[Epyx]] released their ''[[Epyx FastLoad|FastLoad]]'' cartridge for the C64 which replaced some of the 1541's slow routines with its own custom code, thus allowing users to load programs at a fraction of the time (~ 1/5th). The cartridge was so well-received by grateful C64 owners that many Commodore dealers started selling the Epyx cartridge as a standard item when selling a new C64 with the 1541. Competing fastloaders with even better speed later became available, either on cartridge or even as replacement ROM chips that were fitted into the C64 and any disk drives attached.

In Europe, the C64 was often used with cassette [[Compact audio cassette|tape]] drives ([[Datassette]]s), which were much cheaper, but also much slower than floppy drives. Many European software developers wrote their own fast tape loaders which replaced the internal kernel code in the C64 and offered loading times often faster than standard-speed disc. Novaload was the most popular tape loader used by the majority of British and American software developers. In the United States, the floppy drives were much more common. The C64 popularized their use there, being the first computer to make them affordable.

Likewise, because Commodore offered a number of inexpensive [[modem]]s for the C64, the machine also helped popularize the use of modems for telecommunications. In the United States, Quantum Computer Services (later [[America Online]]) offered an online service called [[Quantum Link]] for the C64 that featured chat, downloads, and online games.  In the UK, [[Compunet]] was a very popular online service for C64 users (requiring special Compunet modems) from 1984 to the early 1990s. In [[Germany]] the very restictive rules of the state-owned telephone system prevented widespread use of modems, prompting the use of inferior [[acoustic coupler]]s instead.

Inexplicably, however, Commodore replaced the [[MOS Technology 6551|6551]] [[universal asynchronous receiver transmitter|UART]] chip with a software emulator just prior to the machine's release, the software UART dramatically reducing the speed potential of the C64's modem interface. Again creating an aftermarket demand, Commodore faced companies that sold cartridges that fit their expansion slot, sold to put back what the C64 had been intended to have: a hardware UART.

The '''Commodore 1701''' was a 13" color monitor for the C64, which accepted analog [[composite video]] as input, as well as separate chrominance and luminance signals (today we call this [[S-Video]]) for a surpassingly sharp and vibrant screen image. This allowed the 1701 to be used as a television, by connecting a [[VCR]] and using its [[tuner|RF tuner]] for channel reception. [[Philips]] also sold a cheap external TV tuner mainly targeted at people who wished to use a composite video home computing monitor as a TV.

Like the [[Apple II family]], third-party acceleration boards providing a faster CPU appeared late in the C64's life. Due to timing issues with the VIC-II chip, however, C64 accelerators were much more complex and expensive to implement than their counterparts for other computers. So while accelerators based on the [[Western Design Center 65C02]], usually running at 4 MHz, and on the [[65816]] at up to 20 MHz appeared, they appeared too late and at a price of US$199 or higher were too expensive to gain widespread use.

== Software ==

The C64 amassed a large software library of nearly 10,000 commercial titles, rivaled in its day only by the Apple II family. An Apple II+ emulator called ''The Spartan'', manufactured by Mimic Systems Inc., was available for the C-64 but never gained much popularity. The C64's programs may still be run today even if one lacks the hardware, due to an abundance of software [[emulator]]s for Amiga, Atari, Mac, MSDOS, Win32, Palm OS, and Linux systems. Most of them do not get the sound quite right, however; the SID chip contains complex [[analog]] circuitry that is extremely difficult to emulate well in a digital implementation, which a software emulator inherently is. There are also special interface cables available, with software, to connect 1541 disk drives or C64s to PCs for emulation, archiving, and backup purposes. 

Aside from games, and office applications like wordprocessors, spreadsheets, and database programs, etc, the C64 was well equipped with development tools, from Commodore as well as third-party vendors. Various assembler solutions were available, though perhaps the Rolls-Royce of these was the ''MIKRO'' assembler, which was in [[cartridge (electronics)|cartridge]] form, and integrated seamlessly with the standard BASIC screen editor. Several companies sold BASIC compilers, C compilers and Pascal compilers, to mention but a few popular languages available for the machine.

Besides prepackaged commercial software, the C64, like the VIC before it, had a large library of [[type-in program]]s. Numerous [[computer magazine]]s offered type-in programs, usually written in BASIC or assembly language or a combination of the two. Because of its immense popularity, many general-purpose magazines that supported other computers offered C64 type-ins (''[[Compute!]]'' was one of these), and at its peak, there were five magazines in North America (''Ahoy!,'' ''Commodore Magazine,'' ''[[Compute!'s Gazette]],'' ''[[Run magazine|RUN]],''  and  ''Transactor'') dedicated to Commodore computers exclusively. Books of type-ins were also common, especially in the machine's early days. A large library of [[public domain]] and [[freeware]] programs, distributed by [[online service]]s such as Q-Link and [[CompuServe]], [[Bulletin board system|BBSs]], and user groups also emerged.

Perhaps because of its low cost and easy availability of inexpensive modems, the C64 had widespread problems with [[software piracy]]. Many BBSs offered cracked commercial software, sometimes requiring special access and usually requiring users to maintain an upload/download ratio. A large number of [[warez]] groups existed, including [[Fairlight (group)|Fairlight]], which continued to exist more than a decade after the C64's demise. Some members of these groups turned to telephone [[phreaking]] and [[credit card]] or [[calling card]] fraud to make long-distance calls, either to download new titles not yet available locally, or to upload newly cracked titles released by the group.

The magnetic tapes and disks upon which home computer software were stored are decaying at an alarming rate. In order to preserve game software for future users, efforts are underway to copy from these degrading media onto fresh media which will help ensure a long life for the software and make it available for emulation. One such effort is the ''GameBase 64 (GB64)'' organization (see external link below). The GoodGB64 variant of Cowering's [[Good Tools]] allows users to audit their C64 game collections (the 2.02 version of GoodGB64 lists 15,712 "ROM"s).

If someone wants to transfer his own, personal discs to or from the PC, there are additional tools available. For example, [http://sta.c64.org/sc.html The Star Commander] is a DOS-based tool, [http://www.lb.shuttle.de/puffin/cbm4linux/ cbm4linux] is a Linux tool, and [http://www.trikaliotis.net/cbm4win cbm4win] is a Windows tool to transfer data from an original floppy drive to the PC, or vice versa, using a simple [http://sta.c64.org/xcables.html X-cable].

In addition, there are now a growing number of emulators available, which allow the use of an emulated C64 on modern PC hardware.  The most popular & compatible are [[VICE]], or [http://www.computerbrains.com CCS64] which are (currently) both free to download & use (Windows only).

=== Screenshots ===
{|
|[[Image:C64_Multiplan.png|144px|Screenshot Multiplan]]&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
|[[Image:C64_GEOS.png|160px|Screenshot [[GEOS]] (desktop)]]
|[[Image:C64_Geowrite.png|160px|Screenshot geoWrite]]
|[[Image:C64_Donkey_Kong.png|160px|Screenshot Donkey Kong]]
|-
|[[Multiplan]]
|[[GEOS]] (desktop)
|geoWrite
|''[[Donkey Kong (arcade game)|Donkey Kong]]''
|-
|[[Microsoft]] ([[1983]])
|Berkeley Softworks ([[1988]])
|Berkeley Softworks ([[1987]])
|[[Nintendo]] ([[1983]])
|}
{|
|[[Image:C64_Ghostbusters.png|160px|Screenshot Ghostbusters]]
|[[Image:C64_Winter_Games.png|160px|Screenshot Winter Games]]
|[[Image:C64_IKPlus.png|160px|Screenshot International Karate+]]
|[[Image:C64_Maniac_Mansion.png|160px|Screenshot Maniac Mansion]]
|-
|''[[Ghostbusters (computer game)|Ghostbusters]]''
|''[[Winter Games]]''
|''[[International Karate Plus|International Karate+]]''
|''[[Maniac Mansion]]''
|-
|[[Activision]] ([[1984]])
|[[Epyx]] ([[1985]])
|[[System 3 (company)|System 3]] ([[1987]])
|[[Lucasfilm Games]] ([[1987]])
|}

Additional screenshots can be found on the [[Commodore 64 software]] page.

==Specifications==
*Microprocessor CPU:
** [[MOS Technology 6510]] or [[MOS Technology 8500]] (the 6510/8500 being a modified [[MOS Technology 6502|6502]] with an integrated 6-bit I/O port)
** Clock speed: 0.985 MHz ([[PAL]]) / 1.023 MHz ([[NTSC]])

*Video hardware: [[MOS Technology VIC-II]] MOS 6567/8567 ([[NTSC]]) MOS 6569/8569 ([[PAL]])
**Text mode: 40&times;25, 16 colors 
**Graphics modes: 160&times;200, 320&times;200 
**8 hardware sprites 

*Sound hardware: [[MOS Technology SID|MOS Technology 6581/8580 "SID"]]
**3 voices, [[synthesizer#sound basics|ADSR]] programmable.
**4 Waveforms: Triangle, Sawtooth, Variable Pulse, Noise
**Oscillator Synchronization, [[Ring modulation]]
**Programmable Filter: [[High Pass]], [[Low Pass]], [[Band Pass]], [[Notch Filter]]

*RAM: 
** 64 [[kilobyte|KB]] (65,535 bytes) (38K available for BASIC programs by default) 
** 0.5 KB Color RAM (1K [[nybble]]s)
** Expandable to 320 KB with [[Commodore REU|Commodore 1764]] 256K RAM Expansion Unit (REU); although only 64KB directly accessible; REU mostly intended for [[GEOS]]. REUs of 128K and 512K, originally designed for the C128, were also available, but required the user to also buy a stronger power supply from some third party supplier; with the 1764 this was included.

*ROM: 
** 20 KB (8 KB [[Commodore BASIC|BASIC 2.0]], 8 KB [[Kernal|KERNAL]]<!-- sic, the BASIC continues into the upper ROM chip -->, 4 KB character generator providing two 2 KB character sets)

*I/O Ports:
** High-quality Y/C ([[S-Video]]) (8-pin [[DIN plug]]) with chroma/luma out and sound in + out, used with some Commodore video monitors (DIN-to-phono plug converter delivered with monitor). Not available on the earliest NTSC units. The now-standard 4-pin Mini-DIN S-Video plug didn't yet exist back then, but adapters are easy to build.
** [[Composite video]] (one-signal video output to monitor included in afore mentioned 8-pin DIN plug, and separate integrated [[RF modulator]] antenna output, which also carries sound, to TV on an [[RCA]] socket)
** 2 &times; screwless [[D-subminiature|DE9M]] [[game controller]] ports ([[Atari 2600]] de facto standard, supporting one digital [[joystick]] and/or one pair of analog [[paddle (game controller)|paddle]]s each; one of them also supports a [[light pen]]. Later a C64-specific [[computer mouse]] was released by Commodore that (ab)uses the paddle pins to transmit its signals)
** [[Cartridge (electronics)|Cartridge]] expansion slot (slot for [[edge connector]] with 6510 CPU address/data bus lines and control signals, as well as GND and voltage pins; used for program modules and memory expansions, among others)
** [[Commodore PET|PET]]-type [[Datassette]] 300 [[baud]] tape interface (edge connector with cassette motor/read/write/sense signals and GND and +5V pins; the motor pin is powered to directly supply the motor)
** User port (edge connector with [[Transistor-transistor logic|TTL]]-level [[RS-232]] signals, for modems, etc; and byte-parallel signals which can be used to drive third-party parallel printers, among other things; with 17 logic signals, 7 GND and voltage pins, including 9V AC voltage)
** Serial bus (serial version of [[IEEE-488]], 6-pin DIN plug) for CBM printers and disk drives

*Power supply: 5V DC and 9V AC from external "monolithic power brick", attached to computer's 7-pin female DIN-connector

==See also==
*[[Commodore 64 software]]
*[[List of Commodore 64 games]]
*[[Commodore 64 demos]]

==References==
* Commodore Business Machines, Inc., Computer Systems Division (1982).  ''Commodore 64 Programmer's Reference Guide''. Self-published by CBM. ISBN 0-672-22056-3.
* Angerhausen, M.; Becker, Dr. A.; English, L.; Gerits, K. (1983, 84). ''The Anatomy of the Commodore 64''.  Abacus Software (US ed.) / First Publishing Ltd. (UK ed.).  ISBN 0-948015-004 (UK ed.).  German original edition published by Data Becker GmbH, Düsseldorf.

==External links==
Emulators:
*[http://www.viceteam.org/ VICE emulator] &ndash; C64 emulator for various operating systems (UNIX, BeOS, Windows etc.)
*[http://computerbrains.com/ccs64/ CCS64] &ndash; By Håkan Sundell
*[http://www.geocities.com/SiliconValley/Park/6558/win64.htm Win64] &ndash; C64 emulator for MS Windows

Link portals:
*[http://www.c64.org/ c64.org] &ndash; A useful link portal
*[http://www.c64.cc/ Cocos (Commodore Computer Sitelist)] &ndash; A large directory of C64- and [[demoscene]]-related links

Archives:
*[ftp://ftp.scs-trc.net The Digital Dungeon (TDD)] &ndash; FTP site full of old and recent C64 software
*[http://www.c64.ch/ www.c64.ch] &ndash; An archive of C64 demos
*[http://www.gamebase64.com/ GameBase 64] &ndash; C64 game software preservation site
*[http://www.lemon64.com/ Lemon 64] &ndash; Site with general information, game reviews and a forum
*[http://www.c64hq.com C64HQ] &ndash; Graphically nice site with interviews of famous C64 game creators & sceners, game- and demodownloads and more

Other:
*[http://www.islandnet.com/~kpolsson/c64hist/ Chronology of the Commodore 64 Computer] &ndash; By Ken Polsson
*[http://pressplayontape.com/ Press Play on Tape] &ndash; Danish 'C64 revival' band
*[http://www.slayradio.org/ SLAY Radio] &ndash; Radio with live DJs playing Remixes of C64 game and demo music
*[http://remix.kwed.org/ remix.kwed.org] &ndash; Remixes of C64 game music in [[mp3]]-format
*[http://www.doyouremember.co.uk/memory.asp?memID=4023 Commodore 64 memories and memorabilia] &ndash; Fond memories written by Commodore 64 users

{{CBM computers}}

[[Category:Home computers|Comm5]]

[[da:Commodore 64]]
[[de:C64]]
[[fi:Commodore 64]]
[[fr:Commodore 64]]
[[he:&#1511;&#1493;&#1502;&#1493;&#1491;&#1493;&#1512; 64]]
[[hu:Commodore 64]]
[[it:Commodore 64]]
[[nl:Commodore 64]]
[[no:Commodore 64]]
[[nn:Commodore 64]]
[[pl:Commodore 64]]
[[sv:Commodore 64]]
[[tr:Commodore 64]]''I have a strong interest in the history of Eastern Germany and Eastern Europe.
For too many years has the real history been kept from the public .

My interest in my ancestors has lead me back a few thousand years and I welcome anyone with an honest viewpoint ,question or suggestion.'' 

Topics I have started on wikipedia or added to: (partial list)

*[[Adalbert Apostle of the Slavs]]*[[Adalbert of Prague]]*[[Adalbert of Bremen]]    
*[[Adam of Bremen]] *[[Alamanni]]  *[[Alexander Platz]]
*[[Aldona Ona]]  *[[Adelaide of Italy]]     *[[Allied Control Council]]
*[[Amalasuntha]]*[[Amber Road]]       *[[Angle tribe]]
*[[Ansgar]]*[[Archbishops of Riga]]*[[Aurochs]] *[[Balthasar Behem Codex]] 
*[[Balt]]     *[[Baltic languages]]     *[[Baltic Sea]]       
*[[Berlin]]       *[[Brandenburg]]  *[[Burgundians]]  
*[[Brandenburg bishops and margraves]]    *[[Bohemia]]     *[[Boii]]
*[[Cannabis]]    *[[Casimir III]]       *[[Casimir IV]]  *[[Charles IV]]           *[[Christkindl Markt]]
*[[Cimbri]]*[[Codex argenteus]]  *[[Codex Manesse]]                        
*[[Confederations of Germanic Tribes]]
*[[Council of Constance]]*[[Conrad II]] *[[Culmer Land]]
*[[Dago]]*[[Dagome Iudex]]                      
*[[Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit]]   *[[Danzig]] *[[Free State Danzig]]
*[[Eadgyth]],Edith
*[[Erasmus Reinhold]]            *[[Elbing]]          *[[Ermeland]]
*[[Ernst Theodor Amadeus Hoffmann]]        
*[[Franconia]]                   *[[Frederick I William of Prussia]] 
*[[Frederick V]]
*[[ Galinder]]  *[[Gediminas]]   *[[List of German Kings and Emperors]]  
*[[Geza of Hungary]]
*[[Glass]] = glaes  *[[Godesberg]] *[[Gdynia]] Germany Islands 
*[[Habsburg]] 
*[[Hamburg]]                              *[[Haithabu]] 
*[[Hanseatic League]] 

*[[Heimatvertriebene]]
*[[Henry I the Fowler]]  *[[Henry I the Bearded]]
*[[Henry II of Saxony]]
*[[Hohenzollern]] 

*[[Insterburg]] 
*[[Jagiello]]   *[[Jadwiga, queen of Poland]]
*[[Jatwingian-Sudauer language]]*[[Jobst of Moravia]]*[[Johann Gottfried von Herder]] *[[John the Blind of Luxemburg]] 
*[[Johann Sigismund]]   *[[Jordanes]]
*[[Jutland]]  *[[Jutland Peninsula]] *[[Kaliningrad]]
*[[Kaliningrad Oblast]] *[[Kashubian]] *[[Koenigsberg]]
*[[Langobardi]]   *[[Louis I the Great of Hungary]]     *[[Lugier]]
*[[Magdeburg]]      *[[Marcomanni]] *[[Marbod]]  
*[[Masovia]] *[[Masuria]]*[[Matthew of Krakow]] *[[Merseburg]]   *[[Mieszko I]]   
*[[Moneta Nova]]      *[[Moravia]]  
*[[Noah]] 3 sons [[Sem]] [[Ham]] [[Japheth]]
*[[Nuremberg]] *[[Nutcracker]] 
*[[Old Prussian]] *[[Odoacer]]* [[Otto I the Great]]  *[[Otto II]]   *[[Otto III]]
*[[Pomerania]]  *[[Pomeranian language]]  *[[Pomesania]]
*[[Posen]] [[Potsdam Conference]] 
*[[Prague]]  *[[Ruprecht-Karls University Heidelberg]]
*[[Prussia]]  *[[Prussian Confederation]] *[[Ptolemy]]  *[[Riga]]
*[[Salian]]   *[[Samland]]
*[[Saxon Dukes,Kings,Emperors]]                
*[[Sigismund I]]
*[[Sigismund]] emperor  *[[Sigismund II Augustus]] *[[Sigismund Bathory]]
*[[Sigismund III Vasa]]
*[[Silesia]]  *[[Suebi]]  *[[Suebians]]
*St.[[Bruno of Querfurt]] *[[St. Casimir]] *[[St. Gall]]
*St.[[Hedwig of Andechs]]
*[[St.Maurice]]
*St.[[Nicolas of Myra]]
*St.[[Stephen of Hungary]]
*[[Tacitus]]   *[[Theodoric the Great]]*[[Teutonic Knights]]
*[[Theophanu]] *[[Treaty of Brest-Litowsk]]  *[[Truso]]
*[[Turners]] 
*[[Ulfilas]] *[[University of Krakow]]  *[[Usedom Peninsula]]  
*[[Vandals]]  *[[Vistula River]]   *[[Vinland]]

*[[George Washington]] Landes Vater
*[[Wernher Von Braun]]
*[[Widewuto]] 
*[[Wollin Peninsula]]  *[[Worms]] *[[Wotan]]          *[[Wroclaw]]
*[[Wulfstan of Haithabu]]

'''Many different people input articles in wikipedia. Texts change constantly'''
   Therefore much of the contents do not remain my input.
Articles needing work:
*[[Nicolaus Copernicus]]
*[[Thirteen Years War]] 
*[[Thorn]]= Torun   [[Masovia]]  *[[Gdansk]] etc  

*[[Habsburg]]    *[[Hohenzollern]]       *[[Holy Roman Empire]]              

*[[Latin Names of German Cities]]

*[[Suebi]]  *[[Saxons]]   *[[Heruli]]  *[[Sciri]] *[[Rugi]]
*[[Burgundians]]  *[[Goths]] 

* Maps: 
*[[Map makers]]
*[[Sebastian Muenster]]
*[[Martin Heilwig]]
*[[Hartmann Schedel]]
*[[Isidore of Seville]]
*[[Martin Waldseemueller]]  
*map of [[Ermeland]] by [[Johann Friedrich Endersch]]

''These maps show [[Nicolaus Copernicus]] birthplace of city of Thorn, Prussia 
and Frauenburg Prussia( place of work and death)''
*Map of Prussia ca 1600[[http://wwwtest.library.ucla.edu/libraries/mgi/maps/blaeu/prvssia.jpg]] 

Map of 1570 Pomerania,Mark Brandenburg [[Prussia]][[http://www.uni-mannheim.de/mateo/desbillons/atlas/seite70.html]]

Index of countries in Europe , 1570 Atlas: [[http://www.uni-mannheim.de/mateo/desbillons/atlas/seite98.html]]

Index of Prussian Documents ''Preussische Urkunden'' and map of 1547 Prussia (republished 1588) under Landeskunde at [[http://www.rrz.uni-hamburg.de/Landesforschung/pub/3frame.html?/Landesforschung/pub/js413.htm]]

*[[Heimatvertriebene]]     *[[Horse breeds]]   *[[Akhal-Tekes]]   *[[Trakehner]]

Current photos from [[Oblast Kaliningrad]] Northern East Prussia Koenigsberg at:[[http://www.euronet.nl/~jlemmens/prussia.html]]


My personal website is http://www.crystalbay.net/prussia-baltic or 

*http://crystalbay.net/prussia-baltic/deutsch.htm
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[[talk:H._Jonat|/Talk]] 
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