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{{Infobox book | <!-- See Wikipedia:WikiProject_Books -->
| name = The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind
| image =
| caption =
| author = [[Julian Jaynes]]
| country = [[United States]]
| language = [[English language|English]]
| genre = [[Psychology]]
| publisher = [[Houghton Mifflin Company]]
| release_date = 1976
| media_type = Print
| pages = 467
| isbn = 0-395-32932-9
}}
'''''The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind''''' is a 1976 book by [[Julian Jaynes]] which makes the case that a bicameral mentality, a state in which cognitive functions are divided between one part of the brain which appears to be "speaking", and a second part which listens and obeys, was the normal and ubiquitous state of the human [[mind]] as recently as 3000 years ago.

== Jaynes' argument ==

Jaynes built a case for his hypothesis that human brains existed in a bicameral state until as recently as 3000 years ago by citing evidence from many diverse sources including historical literature. He took an [[interdisciplinary]] approach, drawing data from many different fields.<ref name="EvidenceSummary">{{cite web | year=1998–2006 | last=Kuijsten | first=Marcel | url=http://www.julianjaynes.org/evidence_summary.php | title=Summary of Evidence | accessdate=2006-05-22}}</ref> Jaynes asserted that, until roughly the times written about in [[Homer]]'s ''[[Iliad]]'', humans did not generally have the self-awareness characteristic of [[consciousness]] as most people experience it today.  Rather, the bicameral individual was guided by mental commands believed to be issued by external "[[Deity|gods]]" — commands which were recorded in ancient [[Mythology|myths]], legends and historical accounts. This is exemplified not only in the commands given to characters in ancient epics but also the very [[muse]]s of [[Greek mythology]] which "sang" the poems: the ancients literally heard muses as the direct source of their [[music]] and [[poetry]].

For example, in the ''[[Iliad]]'' and sections of the [[Old Testament]] no mention is made of any kind of [[cognition|cognitive]] processes such as [[introspection]], and there is no apparent indication that the writers were self-aware. According to Jaynes, the older portions of the [[Old Testament]] (such as the [[Book of Amos]]) have few or none of the features of some later books of the Old Testament (such as [[Ecclesiastes]]) as well as later works such as Homer's ''[[Odyssey]]'', which show indications of a profoundly different kind of mentality — an early form of consciousness.<ref name="EvidenceSummary" />

Jaynes noted that in ancient societies the corpses of the dead were often treated as though still alive (being seated, dressed and even fed) and argued that the dead bodies were presumed to be still living and the source of auditory hallucinations (see [[ancestor worship]]).<ref name="EvidenceSummary" /> This adaptation to the village communities of 100 individuals or more formed the core of religion. Unlike today's hallucinations, the voices of ancient times were structured by cultural norms to produce a seamlessly functioning society. In Ancient Greek culture there is often mention of the [[Logos]], which is a very similar concept. It was a type of guiding voice that was heard as from a seemingly external source.

Jaynes inferred that these "voices" came from the [[right brain]] counterparts of the [[left brain]] language centres—specifically, the counterparts to [[Wernicke's area]] and [[Broca's area]]. These regions are somewhat dormant in the right brains of most modern humans, but Jaynes noted that some studies show that auditory hallucinations correspond to increased activity in these areas of the brain.<ref name="EvidenceSummary" />

Even in modern times, Jaynes notes that there is no consensus as to the cause or origins of [[schizophrenia]] (the subject is still hotly debated). According to Jaynes, schizophrenia is simply a vestige of humanity's earlier state.<ref name="EvidenceSummary" /> Recent evidence shows that many schizophrenics don't just hear random voices but experience "command hallucinations" instructing their behavior or urging them to commit certain acts. As support for Jaynes's argument, these command hallucinations are little different from the commands from gods which feature so prominently in ancient stories.<ref name="EvidenceSummary" />

Jaynes theorized that a shift from bicameralism marked the beginning of [[introspection]] and [[consciousness]] as we know it today. According to Jaynes, this bicameral mentality began malfunctioning or "breaking down" during the second millennium BC. He speculates that primitive ancient societies tended to collapse periodically, (as in Egypt's Intermediate Periods and the periodically vanishing cities of the Mayas) as changes in the environment strained the socio-cultural equilibria sustained by this bicameral mindset. [[Bronze age collapse|The mass migrations of the second millennium BC]], caused by Mediterranean-wide earthquakes, created a rash of unexpected situations and stresses that required ancient minds to become more flexible and creative. Self-awareness, or consciousness, was the culturally evolved solution to this problem. This necessity of communicating commonly observed phenomena among individuals who shared no common language or cultural upbringing encouraged those communities to become self-aware to survive in a new environment. Thus consciousness, like bicamerality, emerged as a neurological adaptation to social complexity in a changing world.

Jaynes further argues that [[divination]], [[prayer]] and [[oracle]]s arose during this breakdown period, in an attempt to summon instructions from the "gods" whose voices could no longer be heard.<ref name="EvidenceSummary" /> The consultation of special bicamerally operative individuals, or of [[casting lots]] and so forth, was a response to this loss, a transitional era depicted for example in the book of [[Books of Samuel|1 Samuel]]. It was also evidenced in children who could communicate with the gods, but as their neurology was set by language and society they gradually lost that ability. Those who continued prophesying, being bicameral according to Jaynes, could be killed.<ref>Jaynes, Julian. (1976) ''The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind''. Pg. 221</ref> Leftovers of the bicameral mind today, according to Jaynes, include religion, [[hypnosis]], possession, schizophrenia and the general sense of need for external authority in decision-making.

== Scholarly reception ==

[[Richard Dawkins]] wrote of ''The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind'' that, "It is one of those books that is either complete rubbish or a work of consummate genius, nothing in between!  Probably the former, but I'm hedging my bets."<ref>{{cite book |last= Dawkins |first= Richard | title= The God Delusion |publisher= Houghton Mifflin |year= 2006 |isbn= 1-4303-1230-0 }}</ref>

== Editions ==
''The Origin of Consciousness'' was financially successful, and has been reprinted several times. The book was originally published in 1976 (ISBN 0-395-20729-0) and was nominated for the [[National Book Award]] in 1978.  It has since been reissued (ISBN 0-618-05707-2). A new edition, with an afterword that addressed some criticisms and restated the main themes, was published in the US in 1990. This version was published in the UK by Penguin Books in 1993 (ISBN 0-14-017491-5). It has been translated into Italian, Spanish, German, French, and Persian.

== See also ==
{{Portal box|Mind and Brain|Neuroscience|Psychology}}
* [[Behavioral modernity]]
* [[Dual brain theory]]
* [[Exformation]]
* [[FOXP2]], a gene that is implicated in the development of language skills.
* [[Lateralization of brain function]]
* [[Mythopoeic thought]]
* [[Neurotheology]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|2}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.julianjaynes.org Julian Jaynes Society]
* [http://www.erikweijers.nl/pages/translations/psychology/the-origin-of-consciousness.php ''The Origin of consciousness'': Summary, selected quotes and review]

{{Laterality}}

[[Category:1976 books]]
[[Category:Cognitive science literature]]
[[Category:English-language books]]
[[Category:Neuroscience books]]