Difference between revisions 1276221 and 1284792 on enwikiversity

[[Image:Brorfelde Schmidt Telescope.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The Schmidt Telescope at the former Brorfelde Observatory is now used by amateur astronomers. Credit: [[commons:User:Moeng|Mogens Engelund]].]]
{{complete}}⏎
A '''radiation telescope''' is an instrument designed to collect and focus radiation so as to make distant sources appear nearer.
{{experimental}}
{{primary}}
{{secondary}}
{{tertiary}}
{{research}}⏎
{{article}}
{{lecture}}
{{astronomy}}
{{Materials science}}
{{technology}}

=Notation=

'''Notation''': let the symbol '''Def.''' indicate that a definition is following.

'''Notation''': let the symbols between [ and ] be replacement for that portion of a quoted text.

'''Notation''': let the symbol '''...''' indicate unneeded portion of a quoted text.

Sometimes these are combined as '''[...]''' to indicate that text has been replaced by '''...'''.

=Universals=

To help with definitions, their meanings and intents, there is the learning resource [[theory of definition]].

=Proof of concept=

'''Def.''' "[a] short and/or incomplete [[wikt:realization|realization]] of a certain [[wikt:method|method]] or idea to demonstrate its feasibility"<ref name=ProofofConceptWikt>{{ cite web
|title=proof of concept, In: ''Wiktionary''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=November 10,
|year=2012
|url=http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/proof_of_concept
|accessdate=2013-01-13 }}</ref> is called a '''proof of concept'''.

'''Def.''' evidence that demonstrates that a concept is possible is called '''proof of concept'''.

The proof-of-concept structure consists of
# background,
# procedures,
# findings, and
# interpretation.<ref name=Lehrman>{{ cite journal
|author=Ginger Lehrman and Ian B Hogue, Sarah Palmer, Cheryl Jennings, Celsa A Spina, Ann Wiegand, Alan L Landay, Robert W Coombs, Douglas D Richman, John W Mellors, John M Coffin, Ronald J Bosch, David M Margolis
|title=Depletion of latent HIV-1 infection in vivo: a proof-of-concept study
|journal=Lancet
|month=August 13,
|year=2005
|volume=366
|issue=9485
|pages=549-55
|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140673605670985
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(05)67098-5
|pmid=
|pdf=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1894952/
|accessdate=2012-05-09 }}</ref>

Proof of concept consists of a prototype instrument or device that makes a distant source appear nearer.

=Proof of technology=

"[T]he objective of a proof of technology is to determine the solution to some technical problem, such as how two systems might be integrated or that a certain throughput can be achieved with a given configuration."<ref name=ProofofConceptWikt/>

'''Def.''' "[a]n original object or form which is a basis for other objects, forms, or for its models and generalizations"<ref name=PrototypeWikt>{{ cite web
|title=prototype, In: ''Wiktionary''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=December 8,
|year=2013
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/prototype
|accessdate=2014-01-03 }}</ref> is called a '''prototype'''.

'''Def.''' "[a]n early sample or model built to test a concept or process"<ref name=PrototypeWikt/> is called a '''prototype'''.

'''Def.''' "[a]n instance of a [[wikt:category|category]] or a [[wikt:concept|concept]] that combines its most representative attributes"<ref name=PrototypeWikt/> is called a '''prototype'''.

'''Def.''' "[t]o test something using the conditions that it was designed to operate under, especially out in the real world instead of in a laboratory or workshop"<ref name=FieldTestWikt>{{ cite web
|title=field-test, In: ''Wiktionary''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=August 5,
|year=2012
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/field-test
|accessdate=2014-01-03 }}</ref> is called "field-test", or a '''field test'''.

A "proof-of-technology prototype ... typically implements one critical scenario to exercise or stress the highest-priority requirements."<ref name=Liu>{{ cite journal
|author=A. Liu; I. Gorton
|title=Accelerating COTS middleware acquisition: the i-Mate process
|journal=Software, IEEE
|month=March/April
|year=2003
|volume=20
|issue=2
|pages=72-9
|url=http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/abs_all.jsp?arnumber=1184171
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1109/MS.2003.1184171
|pmid=
|pdf=http://cin.ufpe.br/~redis/intranet/bibliography/middleware/liu-cots03.pdf
|accessdate=2012-02-15 }}</ref>

"[A] proof-of-technology test demonstrates the system can be used"<ref name=Wessel>{{ cite journal
|author=Rhea Wessel
|title=Cargo-Tracking System Combines RFID, Sensors, GSM and Satellite
|journal=RFID Journal
|month=January 25,
|year=2008
|volume=
|issue=
|pages=1-2
|url=http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/pdf/3870/1/1/rfidjournal-article3870.PDF
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|pdf=
|accessdate=2012-02-15 }}</ref>.

"The strongest proof of technology performance is based on consistency among multiple lines of evidence, all pointing to similar levels of risk reduction."<ref name=Rao>{{ cite book
|author=P. Suresh, C. Rao, M.D. Annable and J.W. Jawitz
|title=''In Situ'' Flushing for Enhanced  NAPL Site Remediation: 
Metrics for Performance Assessment, In: ''Abiotic ''In Situ'' Technologies for Groundwater Remediation Conference''
|publisher=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
|location=Cincinnati, Ohio
|month=August
|year=2000
|editor=E. Timothy Oppelt
|pages=105
|url=
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|pdf=http://www.afcee.af.mil/shared/media/document/AFD-071003-081.pdf#page=108
|accessdate=2012-02-15 }}</ref>

=Control group=

The findings demonstrate a statistically systematic change from the status quo or the [[control group]].

A control group for a radiation telescope would contain
# an aperture, or an entry avenue into the instrument,
# collimators, or lenses, to concentrate radiation,
# moderators, to systematically reduce the incoming radiation so as to allow determination of incoming direction,
# detectors, or sensors, to convert the incoming radiation into electrical impulses,
# amplifiers, or processors, and
# supports, to provide orientation and stability of all components.⏎
⏎
=Astronomy=
[[Image:Mauna Kea observatory.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Sunset over four telescopes of the [[w:Mauna Kea Observatories|Mauna Kea Observatories]] is pictured, from left to right: the [[w:Subaru Telescope|Subaru Telescope]], the twin [[w:W. M. Keck Observatory|Keck I and II telescope]]s, and the [[w:NASA Infrared Telescope Facility|NASA Infrared Telescope Facility]]. Credit: [http://flickr.com/photos/35188692@N00 Alan L].]]
(contracted; show full)
|format=PDF
|last=Institute for Astronomy – University of Hawaii
|publisher=Hawai`i State Department of Land and Natural Resources
|accessdate=August 19, 2010
|date=January 2009 }}</ref> replete with endangered species and ongoing cultural practices, continues to be a topic of debate and protest. Studies are underway to determine their effect on the summit ecology, particularly on the rare [[w:Wēkiu bug|Wēkiu bug]].
   It was designated a [[w:National Natural Landmark|National Natural Landmark]] in 1972.<ref name=nnl>{{ cite web
|title=National Natural Landmark
|url=http://www.nature.nps.gov/nnl/site.cfm?Site=MAKE-HI
|publisher=National Park Service
|accessdate=12 December 2012 }}</ref><ref name=MaunaKea>{{ cite web
|title=Mauna Kea, In: ''Wikipedia''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
(contracted; show full)|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=April 1,
|year=2013
|url=http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/telescopy
|accessdate=2013-07-21 }}</ref> is called '''telescopy'''.

'''Def.''' "[t]he manufacture and use of radio telescopes"<ref name=RadiotelescopyWikt>{{ cite 
journalweb
|title=radiotelescopy⏎
|journal=, In: ''Wiktionary''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=April 2,
|year=2013
|url=http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/radiotelescopy
|pdf=⏎
|accessdate=2013-07-21 }}</ref> is called '''radiotelescopy'''.

=Sources=
[[Image:Horizontal cyclotron with glowing beam.jpg|thumb|center|300px|This image shows a beam of accelerated ions (perhaps protons or deuterons) escaping the accelerator and ionizing the surrounding air causing a blue glow. Credit: Lawrence Berkely National Laboratory.]]
(contracted; show full)
|author=Donald J. Williams
|title=Energetic Particles Detector (EPD)
|publisher=NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
|location=Greenbelt, Maryland USA
|month=May 14,
|year=2012
|url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/experimentDisplay.do?id=1989-084B-06

|pdf=⏎
|accessdate=2012-08-11 }}</ref>
{{clear}}

=Positron telescopes=
[[Image:509305main GBM positron event 300dpi.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Observation of positrons from a terrestrial gamma ray flash is performed by the Fermi gamma ray telescope. Credit: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center.]]
The image at right contains a picture of the Fermi gamma-ray telescope that performed observations of positrons from their terrestrial gamma-ray flashes.

(contracted; show full)ident photon. The positions of the interactions, in both the front and rear scintillators, was also measured. The [[w:Euclidean vector|vector]], '''V''', connecting the two interaction points determined a direction to the sky, and the angle θ about this direction, defined a cone about '''V''' on which the source of the photon must lie, and a corresponding "event circle" on the sky."<ref name=ComptonGammaRayObservatory>{{ cite 
journalweb
|title=Compton Gamma Ray Observatory⏎
|journal=, In: ''Wikipedia''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=March 26,
|year=2013
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compton_Gamma_Ray_Observatory
|pdf=⏎
|accessdate=2013-04-05 }}</ref>

"COMPTEL's upper layer of detectors are filled with a liquid scintillator which scatters an incoming gamma-ray photon according to the Compton Effect. This photon is then absorbed by NaI crystals in the lower detectors. The instrument records the time, location, and energy of the events in each layer of detectors which makes it possible to determine the direction and energy of the original gamma-ray photon and reconstruct an image and energy spectrum of the s(contracted; show full)illator]] crystals to measure the total energy of the particles. The LAT's field of view is large, about 20% of the sky. The resolution of its images is modest by astronomical standards, a few arc minutes for the highest-energy photons and about 3 degrees at 100 MeV. The LAT is a bigger and better successor to the [[w:EGRET (telescope)|EGRET]] instrument on NASA's [[w:Compton Gamma Ray Observatory|Compton Gamma Ray Observatory]] satellite in the 1990s."<ref name=FermiTelescope>{{ cite 
journalweb
|title=Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope⏎
|journal=, In: ''Wikipedia''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=June 9,
|year=2012
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermi_Gamma-ray_Space_Telescope
|pdf=⏎
|accessdate=2012-06-10 }}</ref>

"For X-rays, the index of refraction is defined by Rayleigh scattering,"<ref name=Wogan>{{ cite web
|author=Tim Wogan
|title=Silicon 'prism' bends gamma rays
|publisher=Institute of Physics
|location=
|month=May 9,
(contracted; show full)
{{clear}}

=X-ray telescopes=
[[Image:Xrtlayout.gif|thumb|right|200px|The XRT uses a grazing incidence Wolter 1 telescope to focus X-rays onto a state-of-the-art CCD. Credit: .]]
"X-ray telescopes can use a variety of different designs to image X-rays. The most common methods used in X-ray telescopes are grazing incidence mirrors and coded apertures. The limitations of X-ray optics result in much narrower fields of view than visible or UV telescopes."<ref name=Xraytelescope>{{ cite 
journalweb
|title=X-ray telescope⏎
|journal=, In: ''Wikipedia''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=April 17,
|year=2012
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_telescope
|pdf=⏎
|accessdate=2012-06-15 }}</ref>

An extreme example of a reflecting telescope is demonstrated by the grazing incidence X-ray telescope (XRT) of the [[w:Swift Gamma-Ray Burst Mission|Swift]] satellite that focuses X-rays onto a state-of-the-art charge-coupled device (CCD), in red at the focal point of the grazing incidence mirrors (in black at the right).

(contracted; show full)  |year=1952
  |ref=Wolter, Generalized Schwarschild Mirror System, 1952
}}</ref>. Not surprisingly, these are called Wolter telescopes of type I, II, and III.  Each has different advantages and disadvantages.<ref name=Petre>{{ cite web 
  |author=Rob Petre 
|url=http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/science/how_l2/xtelescopes_systems.html 
  |title=X-ray Imaging Systems 
  |publisher=NASA
  |ref=Petre, X-ray Imaging Systems }}</ref>"<ref name=Woltertelescope>{{ cite 
journalweb
|title=Wolter telescope⏎
|journal=, In: ''Wikipedia''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=February 20,
|year=2012
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolter_telescope
|pdf=⏎
|accessdate=2012-06-15 }}</ref>

=Optical telescopes=
[[Image:HST-SM4.jpeg|thumb|right|200px|The Hubble Space Telescope is seen from the departing Space Shuttle Atlantis, flying Servicing Mission 4 (STS-125), the fifth and final human spaceflight to visit the observatory. Credit: Ruffnax (Crew of STS-125).]]
[[Image:HaleTelescope-MountPalomar.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Mt.Palomar's 200-inch Telescope, pointing to the zenith, is seen from the east side. Note the person standing below the telescope (center-right at the bottom of the image). Credit: NASA.]]
'''Def.''' "[a] [[wikt:monocular|monocular]] [[wikt:optical|optical]] [[wikt:instrument|instrument]] possessing [[wikt:magnification|magnification]] for observing distant objects", per Wiktionary [[wikt:telescope|telescope]], is called a '''telescope'''.

The [[w:Hubble Space Telescope|Hubble Space Telescope]] (HST) is an excellent example of a [[Radiation satellites|radiation astronomy satellite]] designed for more than one purpose: the various astronomies of [[optical astronomy]].

The HST is an optical astronomy telescope that “incorporated a set of 48 filters isolating spectral lines of particular astrophysical interest."<ref name=HubbleSpaceTelescope>{{ cite journalweb
|title=Hubble Space Telescope⏎
|journal=, In: ''Wikipedia''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=January 21,
|year=2013
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubble_Space_Telescope
|accessdate=2013-01-22 }}</ref>

Most radiation telescopes, especially optical telescopes, combine a variety of lenses, mirrors, active and adaptive optics, filters, detectors, mounts, image processing, and observatories, in many locations.
{{clear}}

=Active optics=
[[Image:GTC Active Optics Acutators.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Actuators are part of the active optics of the ''[[w:Gran Telescopio Canarias|Gran Telescopio Canarias]]''. Credit: .]]
“'''Active optics''' is a [[w:technology|technology]] used with [[w:reflecting telescope|reflecting telescope]]s developed in the 1980s<ref name=Hardy>{{ cite journal
|author=John W. Hardy
|title=Active optics: A new technology for the control of light
|year=1977
|month=June
|series=Proceedings of the IEEE
|pages=110
|url=http://oai.dtic.mil/oai/oai?verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=ADA339170
|bibcode=1978IEEEP..66..651H }}</ref>, which actively shapes a telescope's [[w:mirror|mirror]]s to prevent deformation due to external influences  such as wind, temperature, mechanical stress. Without active optics, the construction of 8 metre class telescopes is not possible, nor would telescopes with segmented mirrors be feasible.” from the Wikipedia article on [[w:Active optics|active o<ref name=ActiveOptics]]./>

“[T]elescopes built since the 1980s use very thin mirrors ... which are too thin to keep themselves rigidly in the correct shape. Instead, an array of [[w:actuator|actuator]]s behind the mirror keeps it in an optimal shape. The telescope may also be segmented into many small mirrors, preventing most of the gravitational distortion that occurs in large, thick mirrors. The combination of actuators, a quality-of-image [[w:detector|detector]], and a real-time computer program to move the actuators to obtain the best possible image is termed ''active optics''. The name ''active'' optics means that the system keeps a mirror (usually the primary) in its optimal shape against all environmental factors such as [[w:gravity|gravity]] (at different telescope inclinations), wind, temperature changes, telescope axis deformation, et cetera. Active optics correct all factors that may affect image quality at timescales of one second or more. The telescope is therefore ''actively'' still, in its optimal shape.” after the Wikipedia article on [[w:<ref name=ActiveOptics>{{ cite web
|title=Active optics, In: ''Wikipedia''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=12 October
|year=2014
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active  _optics⏎
⏎
|active optics]].cessdate=2014-12-25 }}</ref>
{{clear}}

=Adaptive optics=
[[Image:GRAAL instrument.jpg|thumb|right|200px|This image shows some of the GRAAL instrument team inspecting GRAAL’s mechanical assembly. Credit: ESO.]]
'''Def.''' "[a]n optical system in telescopes that reduces atmospheric distortion by dynamically measuring and correcting wavefront aberrations in real time, often by using a deformable mirror", from Wiktionary [[wikt:a<ref name=AdaptiveOpticsWikt>{{ cite web
|title=adaptive optics, In: ''Wiktionary''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundaptive optics|on, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=16 June
|year=2013
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/adaptive  _optics]],⏎
|accessdate=2014-12-25 }}</ref> is called '''adaptive optics'''.

"Already it has allowed ground-based telescopes to produce images with sharpness rivalling those from the Hubble Space Telescope. The technique is expected to revolutionize the future of ground-based optical astronomy."<ref name=Roddier>{{ cite book
|author=
|title=Adaptive Optics in Astronomy
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
|location=Cambridge, United Kingdom
|month=
(contracted; show full)o's [double] concave one. The advantage of this arrangement is [that] the rays of light emerging from the eyepiece are converging. This allows for a much wider [[w:field of view|field of view]] and greater eye relief but the image for the viewer is inverted. Considerably higher magnifications can be reached with this design but to overcome [[w:Optical aberration|aberration]]s the simple objective lens needs to have a very high [[w:Focal ratio|f-ratio]]"<ref name=RefractingTelescope>{{ cite 
journalweb
|title=Refracting telescope⏎
|journal=, In: ''Wikipedia''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=July 7,
|year=2012
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refracting_telescope
|pdf=⏎
|accessdate=2012-07-07 }}</ref>.

"All refracting telescopes use the same principles. The combination of an [[w:objective (optics)|objective]] [[w:lens (optics)|lens]] '''1''' and some type of [[w:eyepiece|eyepiece]] '''2''' is used to gather more light than the human eye could collect on its own, focus it '''5''', and present the viewer with a [[w:brightness|brighter]], [[w:clarity|clearer]], and [[w:magnification|magnified]] [[w:virtual image|virtual image]] '''6'''."<ref name=RefractingTelescope/>
{{clear}}

=Reflecting telescopes=
[[Image:SOFIA 2.5M Primary Mirror.jpg|thumb|left|200px|The [[NASA]] logo on Bldg. 703 at the Dryden Aircraft Operations Facility in Palmdale, California, is reflected in the 2.5 m primary mirror of the SOFIA observatory's telescope. Credit: .]]
[[Image:Franklin reflector 24.jpg|right|thumb|200px|24 inch convertible Newtonian/Cassegrain reflecting telescopeis shown on display at the [[w:Franklin Institute|Franklin Institute]]. Credit: .]]
"A '''reflecting telescope''' (also called a '''reflector''') is an [[w:optical telescope|optical telescope]] which uses a single or combination of [[w:curved mirror|curved mirror]]s that reflect [[w:light|light]] and form an [[w:image|image]]."<ref name=ReflectingTelescope>{{ cite journalweb
|title=Reflecting telescope⏎
|journal=, In: ''Wikipedia''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=July 2,
|year=2012
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflecting_telescope
|pdf=⏎
|accessdate=2012-07-07 }}</ref>
{{clear}}

=Catadioptric telescopes=

'''Def.''' “optical systems that employ both refractive (dioptric) and reflective (catoptric) elements”, after Wiktionary [[wikt:catadioptric|catadioptric]], are called '''catadioptric optical systems'''.

'''Def.''' “[t]he construction and use of catadioptric lenses and systems”, from Wiktionary [[wikt:catadioptrics|catadioptrics]],<ref name=CatadioptricWikt>{{ cite web
|title=catadioptric, In: ''Wiktionary''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=9 October
|year=2013
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/catadioptric
|accessdate=2014-12-25 }}</ref> are called '''catadioptric optical systems'''.

'''Def.''' “[t]he construction and use of catadioptric lenses and systems”<ref name=CatadioptricsWikt>{{ cite web
|title=catadioptrics, In: ''Wiktionary''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=9 October
|year=2013
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/catadioptrics
|accessdate=2014-12-25 }}</ref> is called '''catadioptrics'''.

=Dobsonian telescopes=
[[Image:Red dobsonian.jpg|thumb|right|200px|This is a red Dobsonian telescope on display at Stellafane in the early 1980s. Credit: .]] 
(contracted; show full)of four different wavelengths: 17.1, 19.5, 28.4, and 30.4 nm, corresponding to light produced by highly ionized iron (XI)/(X), (XII), (XV), and helium (II), respectively. EIT is built as a single telescope with a quadrant structure to the entrance mirrors: each quadrant reflects a different colour of EUV light, and the wavelength to be observed is selected by a shutter that blocks light from all but the desired quadrant of the main telescope."<ref name=ExtremeUltravioletImagingTelescope>{{ cite 
journalweb
|title=Extreme ultraviolet Imaging Telescope⏎
|journal=, In: ''Wikipedia''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=December 28,
|year=2012
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extreme_ultraviolet_Imaging_Telescope
|pdf=⏎
|accessdate=2013-07-24 }}</ref>

"EIT is the first long-duration instrument to use normal incidence multilayer coated optics to image the Sun in extreme ultraviolet. This portion of the spectrum is extremely difficult to reflect, as most matter absorbs the light very strongly. Conventionally these wavelengths have been reflected either using grazing incidence (as in a Wolter telescope for imaging X-rays) or a diffraction grating (as ... flown on Skylab in the mid 1970s)."<ref name=Extreme(contracted; show full)ned. While ... color filters transmit certain colors from the spectrum and are usually used for observation of the [[w:planets|planets]] and the [[Moon]], ... polarizing filters work by adjusting the brightness, and are usually used for the Moon. The broadband and narrowband filters transmit the wavelengths that are emitted by  ... [[w:Hydrogen|hydrogen]] and [[w:Oxygen|oxygen]] atoms, and are frequently used for reducing [[w:light pollution|light pollution]].[1]”<ref name=AstronomicalFilter>{{ cite 
journalweb
|title=Astronomical filter⏎
|journal=, In: ''Wikipedia''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=July 18,
|year=2012
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_filter
|pdf=⏎
|accessdate=2012-07-29 }}</ref>

=Infrared telescopes=
[[Image:Spitzer- Telescopio.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The image shows the Spitzer Space Telescope prior to launch. Credit: NASA/JPL/Caltech.]]
[[Image:Diagram Reflector RitcheyChretien.svg|thumb|right|200px|The diagram is  of a Ritchey-Chrétien reflector telescope. Credit: .]]
[[Image:NOFS 40inch03.jpg|thumb|left|200px|This is an early Ritchey-Chrétien reflector telescope. Credit: P. Shankland.]]
The Spitzer telescope is a "Ritchey–Chrétien telescope ... a specialized Cassegrain telescope ... that has a hyperbolic primary mirror and a hyperbolic secondary mirror designed to eliminate optical errors (coma). They have [a] large field of view free of optical errors compared to a more conventional reflecting telescope configuration."<ref name=RitcheyChretienTelescope>{{ cite journalweb
|title=Ritchey–Chrétien telescope⏎
|journal=, In: ''Wikipedia''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=May 22,
|year=2013
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ritchey–Chrétien_telescope
|pdf=⏎
|accessdate=2013-07-24 }}</ref>

"The [[w:radius of curvature (optics)|radii of curvature]] of the primary and secondary mirrors, respectively, in a two-mirror Cassegrain configuration are

:<math>R_1 = -\frac{2DF}{F - B}</math>
and

:<math>R_2 = -\frac{2DB}{F - B - D}</math>
(contracted; show full)e opened when the telescope is in use. ... The dryness of the air around and above Mt. Graham is particulatly vital for [[w:Extremely high frequency|EHF]] (extremely low wavelength radio) and far-[[w:infrared|infrared]] observations - a region of the [[w:electromagnetic spectrum|spectrum]] where the [[w:electromagnetic wave|electromagnetic wave]]s are strongly [[w:attenuation|attenuated]] by any [[w:water vapor|water vapor]] or clouds in the air.”<ref name=HeinrichHertzSubmillimeterTelescope>{{ cite 
journalweb
|title=Heinrich Hertz Submillimeter Telescope⏎
|journal=, In: ''Wikipedia''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=May 5,
|year=2012
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Hertz_Submillimeter_Telescope
|pdf=⏎
|accessdate=2012-08-04 }}</ref>
{{clear}}

=Radio telescopes=
[[Image:parkes.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|200px|This 64 meter radio telescope is at [[w:Parkes Observatory|Parkes Observatory]] Credit: John Sarkissian (CSIRO Parkes Observatory).]]
'''Def.''' “[a] device for observing astronomical sources of radio waves”, after Wiktionary [[wikt:radio telescope|radio telescope]], is called a '''radio telescope'''.

(contracted; show full)
"A '''solar telescope''' is a special purpose [[w:telescope|telescope]] used to observe the [[Sun (star)|Sun]]. Solar telescopes usually detect light with wavelengths in, or not far outside, the [[w:visible spectrum|visible spectrum]]."<ref name=SolarTelescope>{{ cite 
journalweb
|title=Solar telescope⏎
|journal=, In: ''Wikipedia''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=May 31,
|year=2012
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_telescope
|pdf=⏎
|accessdate=2012-07-07 }}</ref>
{{clear}}

=Asteroid telescopes=
[[Image:Lowell astrograph.jpg|thumb|200px|right|The Lowell astrograph is a dedicated astrophotography telescope. Credit: .]]
The Lowell astrograph imaged at right is a 13-inch, f/5.3 astrograph at Lowell Observatory,  a refractor with a 3 element Cooke triplet lens.<ref name=Tombaugh>{{ cite web
|author=Clyde W. Tombaugh
|title=The Struggles to Find the Ninth Planet
(contracted; show full)|url=http://www.almaobservatory.org/en/visuals/images/the-alma-observatory/?g2_itemId=3939
|pdf=
|accessdate=2013-07-21 }}</ref>
{{clear}}

=Mounts=

“A telescope mount is a mechanical structure which supports a telescope. Telescope mounts are designed to support the mass of the telescope and allow for accurate pointing of the instrument.”<ref name=Telescope>{{ cite 
journalweb
|title=Telescope⏎
|journal=, In: ''Wikipedia''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=July 4,
|year=2012
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telescope
|pdf=⏎
|accessdate=2012-07-07 }}</ref>

'''Def.''' “an object on which another object”<ref name=Mount>{{ cite journalweb
|title=mount⏎
|journal=, In: ''Wiktionary''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=June 8,
|year=2012
|url=http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mount
|pdf=⏎
|accessdate=2012-07-07 }}</ref> is attached for support is called a '''mount'''.

=Altazimuth mounts=
[[Image:heliostat.jpg|right|200px|thumb|A [[w:heliostat|heliostat]] is shown at the THÉMIS experimental station in France. The mirror rotates on an alt-azimuth mount. The pointing direction of the mirror is perpendicular to its surface. Credit: .]]
(contracted; show full)
{{clear}}

=Equatorial mounts=

“The equatorial mount has north-south "polar axis" tilted to be parallel to Earth's polar axis that allows the telescope to swing in an east-west arc, with a second axis perpendicular to that to allow the telescope to swing in a north-south arc. Slewing or mechanically driving the mounts polar axis in a counter direction to the Earth's rotation allows the telescope to accurately follow the motion of the night sky.” from the Wikipedia articl
e about the [[w:Telescope mount|telescope mount]].

=Hexapod mounts=
[[Image:DOT main mirror.jpg|thumb|right|200px|This is an image of the top part of the Dutch Open Telescope. Credit: Tim van Werkhoven.]]
(contracted; show full)
| author = Reiner Vogel
| title = Circle Segment Platform (link from his English language page)
| year = 2007
| url = http://www.reinervogel.net/index_e.html
| accessdate = 13 March 2011 }}</ref>"<ref name=ClockDrive>{{ cite 
journalweb
|title=Clock drive⏎
|journal=, In: ''Wikipedia''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=May 30,
|year=2012
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clock_drive
|pdf=⏎
|accessdate=2012-07-07 }}</ref>
{{clear}}

=Clocks=
[[Image:FOCS-1.jpg|thumb|left|200px| The FOCS 1 is a continuous cold caesium fountain atomic clock in Switzerland. Credit: .]]
"An '''atomic clock''' is a [[w:clock|clock]] device that uses an [[w:electronic transition|electronic transition]] [[w:frequency|frequency]] in the [[w:microwave|microwave]], [[w:light|optical]], or [[w:ultraviolet|ultraviolet]] region<ref name=McCarthy>{{ cite book
(contracted; show full) an astronomical telescope and detector system that makes observations without the intervention of a human. In astronomical disciplines, a telescope qualifies as robotic if it makes those observations without being operated by a human, even if a human has to initiate the observations at the beginning of the night, or end them in the morning. A robotic telescope is distinct from a remote telescope, though an instrument can be both robotic and remote."<ref name=RoboticTelescope>{{ cite web
|title=
article titlRobotic telescope, In: ''Wikipedia''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=July 1,
|year=2013
|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotic_telescope
|accessdate=2014-01-03 }}</ref>
{{clear}}
(contracted; show full)omena). ... Most optical telescopes are housed within a dome or similar structure, to protect the delicate instruments from the elements. Telescope domes have a slit or other opening in the roof that can be opened during observing, and closed when the telescope is not in use. In most cases, the entire upper portion of the telescope dome can be rotated to allow the instrument to observe different sections of the night sky. Radio telescopes usually do not have domes."<ref name=Observatory>{{ cite 
journalweb
|title=Observatory⏎
|journal=, In: ''Wikipedia''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=May 11,
|year=2012
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_observatory
|pdf=⏎
|accessdate=2012-05-15 }}</ref>

“An '''equatorial room''', in [[w:Observatory#Astronomical_observatories|astronomical observatories]], is the room which contains an [[w:equatorial mount|equatorial mount]]ed [[w:telescope|telescope]]. It is usually referred to in observatory buildings that contain more than one type of instrument: for example buildings with an "equatorial room" containing an equatorial telescope and a "transit room" containing a [[w:tr(contracted; show full)|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=December 18,
|year=2011
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Array_of_Low_Energy_X-ray_Imaging_Sensors
|accessdate=2012-12-09 }}</ref>


=Research=

==Proof of concept==

'''Def.''' "[a] short and/or incomplete [[wikt:realization|realization]] of a certain [[wikt:method|method]] or idea to demonstrate its feasibility"<ref name=ProofofConceptWikt>{{ cite web
|title=proof of concept, In: ''Wiktionary''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=November 10,
|year=2012
|url=http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/proof_of_concept
|accessdate=2013-01-13 }}</ref> is called a '''proof of concept'''.

'''Def.''' evidence that demonstrates that a concept is possible is called '''proof of concept'''.

The proof-of-concept structure consists of
# background,
# procedures,
# findings, and
# interpretation.<ref name=Lehrman>{{ cite journal
|author=Ginger Lehrman and Ian B Hogue, Sarah Palmer, Cheryl Jennings, Celsa A Spina, Ann Wiegand, Alan L Landay, Robert W Coombs, Douglas D Richman, John W Mellors, John M Coffin, Ronald J Bosch, David M Margolis
|title=Depletion of latent HIV-1 infection in vivo: a proof-of-concept study
|journal=Lancet
|month=August 13,
|year=2005
|volume=366
|issue=9485
|pages=549-55
|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140673605670985
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(05)67098-5
|pmid=
|pdf=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1894952/
|accessdate=2012-05-09 }}</ref>

Proof of concept consists of a prototype instrument or device that makes a distant source appear nearer.

==Proof of technology==

"[T]he objective of a proof of technology is to determine the solution to some technical problem, such as how two systems might be integrated or that a certain throughput can be achieved with a given configuration."<ref name=ProofofConceptWikt/>

'''Def.''' "[a]n original object or form which is a basis for other objects, forms, or for its models and generalizations"<ref name=PrototypeWikt>{{ cite web
|title=prototype, In: ''Wiktionary''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=December 8,
|year=2013
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/prototype
|accessdate=2014-01-03 }}</ref> is called a '''prototype'''.

'''Def.''' "[a]n early sample or model built to test a concept or process"<ref name=PrototypeWikt/> is called a '''prototype'''.

'''Def.''' "[a]n instance of a [[wikt:category|category]] or a [[wikt:concept|concept]] that combines its most representative attributes"<ref name=PrototypeWikt/> is called a '''prototype'''.

'''Def.''' "[t]o test something using the conditions that it was designed to operate under, especially out in the real world instead of in a laboratory or workshop"<ref name=FieldTestWikt>{{ cite web
|title=field-test, In: ''Wiktionary''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=August 5,
|year=2012
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/field-test
|accessdate=2014-01-03 }}</ref> is called "field-test", or a '''field test'''.

A "proof-of-technology prototype ... typically implements one critical scenario to exercise or stress the highest-priority requirements."<ref name=Liu>{{ cite journal
|author=A. Liu; I. Gorton
|title=Accelerating COTS middleware acquisition: the i-Mate process
|journal=Software, IEEE
|month=March/April
|year=2003
|volume=20
|issue=2
|pages=72-9
|url=http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/abs_all.jsp?arnumber=1184171
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1109/MS.2003.1184171
|pmid=
|pdf=http://cin.ufpe.br/~redis/intranet/bibliography/middleware/liu-cots03.pdf
|accessdate=2012-02-15 }}</ref>

"[A] proof-of-technology test demonstrates the system can be used"<ref name=Wessel>{{ cite journal
|author=Rhea Wessel
|title=Cargo-Tracking System Combines RFID, Sensors, GSM and Satellite
|journal=RFID Journal
|month=January 25,
|year=2008
|volume=
|issue=
|pages=1-2
|url=http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/pdf/3870/1/1/rfidjournal-article3870.PDF
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|pdf=
|accessdate=2012-02-15 }}</ref>.

"The strongest proof of technology performance is based on consistency among multiple lines of evidence, all pointing to similar levels of risk reduction."<ref name=Rao>{{ cite book
|author=P. Suresh, C. Rao, M.D. Annable and J.W. Jawitz
|title=''In Situ'' Flushing for Enhanced  NAPL Site Remediation: 
Metrics for Performance Assessment, In: ''Abiotic ''In Situ'' Technologies for Groundwater Remediation Conference''
|publisher=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
|location=Cincinnati, Ohio
|month=August
|year=2000
|editor=E. Timothy Oppelt
|pages=105
|url=
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|pdf=http://www.afcee.af.mil/shared/media/document/AFD-071003-081.pdf#page=108
|accessdate=2012-02-15 }}</ref>

==Control groups==

The findings demonstrate a statistically systematic change from the status quo or the [[control group]].

A control group for a radiation telescope would contain
# an aperture, or an entry avenue into the instrument,
# collimators, or lenses, to concentrate radiation,
# moderators, to systematically reduce the incoming radiation so as to allow determination of incoming direction,
# detectors, or sensors, to convert the incoming radiation into electrical impulses,
# amplifiers, or processors, and
# supports, to provide orientation and stability of all components.⏎
⏎
=See also=
{{div col|colwidth=12em}}
* [[w:List of telescope parts and construction|List of telescope parts]]
* [[Radiation]]	
* [[Radiation astronomy]]
* [[Radiation detectors]]
* [[Radiation satellites]]
{{Div col end}}
(contracted; show full)* [http://www.springerlink.com/ SpringerLink]
* [http://www.tandfonline.com/ Taylor & Francis Online]
* [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/Tools/convcoord/convcoord.pl  Universal coordinate converter]
* [http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/advanced/search Wiley Online Library Advanced Search]
* [http://search.yahoo.com/web/advanced Yahoo Advanced Web Search]

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