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Crater astronomy
[[Image:Chain of impact craters on Ganymede.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The image shows a chain of craters on Ganymede. Credit: Galileo Project, Brown University, JPL, NASA.]]
{{complete}}⏎
A '''crater''' may be any large, roughly circular, depression or hole in or beneath the rocky surface of a rocky object.
{{experimental}}
'''Crater astronomy''' applies the techniques of astronomy to the apparent craters observed on rocky objects in an effort to understand what they are, when they occurred, and their importance to rocky objects.
{{primary}}
{{secondary}}
{{tertiary}}
{{research}}⏎
{{article}}
{{lecture}}
{{astronomy}}
{{astrophysics}}
{{geography}}
{{geology}}
{{Materials science}}

=Notation=

'''Notation''': let the symbol '''Def.''' indicate that a definition is following.

'''Notation''': let the symbols between [ and ] be replacement for that portion of a quoted text.

'''Notation''': let the symbol '''...''' indicate unneeded portion of a quoted text.

Sometimes these are combined as '''[...]''' to indicate that text has been replaced by '''...'''.

=Universals=

'''Def.''' a "characteristic or property that particular things have in common"<ref name=UniversalWikt>{{ cite web
|title=universal, In: ''Wiktionary''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=May 28,
|year=2014
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/universal
|accessdate=2014-06-04 }}</ref> is called a '''universal'''.

"When we examine common words, we find that, broadly speaking, proper names stand for particulars, while other substantives, adjectives, prepositions, and verbs stand for '''universals'''."<ref name=Russel>{{ cite book
|author=Bertrand Russel
|title=Chapter 9, In: ''The Problems of Philosophy''
|publisher=
|location=
|month=
|year=1912
|editor=
|pages=
|url=
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|isbn=
|accessdate=2014-06-04 }}</ref>

Such words as "entity", "object", "thing", and perhaps "body", words "connoting ''universal'' properties, ... constitute the very highest genus or "summum genus"" of a classification of universals.<ref name=Copi>{{ cite book
|author=Irving M. Copi
|title=Introduction to Logic
|publisher=The MacMillan Company
|location=New York
|month=
|year=1955
|editor=
|pages=472
|url=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|isbn=
|pdf=
|accessdate=2011-09-26 }}</ref> To propose a definition for say a plant whose flowers open at dawn on a warm day to be pollinated during the day time using the word "thing", "entity", "object", or "body" seems too general and is.

To help with definitions, their meanings and intents, there is the learning resource [[theory of definition]].

=Control groups=
[[Image:Lewis rat.jpg|thumb|right|200px|This is an image of a Lewis rat. Credit: Charles River Laboratories.]]
The findings demonstrate a statistically systematic change from the status quo or the [[control group]].

“In the design of experiments, treatments [or special properties or characteristics] are applied to [or observed in] experimental units in the '''treatment group'''(s).<ref name=Hinkelmann>{{ cite book
|author=Klaus Hinkelmann, Oscar Kempthorne
|year=2008
|title=Design and Analysis of Experiments, Volume I: Introduction to Experimental Design
|url=http://books.google.com/?id=T3wWj2kVYZgC&printsec=frontcover
|edition=2nd
|publisher=Wiley
|isbn=978-0-471-72756-9
|mr=2363107 }}</ref> In ''comparative'' experiments, members of the complementary group, the '''control group''',  receive either ''no''&nbsp;treatment or a ''standard'' treatment.<ref name="Bailey">{{ cite book
|author=R. A. Bailey
|title=Design of comparative experiments
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
|url=http://www.cambridge.org/uk/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=9780521683579
|year=2008 
|mr=2422352
|isbn=978-0-521-68357-9
|url1=http://www.maths.qmul.ac.uk/~rab/DOEbook/ }}</ref>"<ref name=ControlGroup>{{ cite web
|title=Treatment and control groups, In: ''Wikipedia''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=May 18,
|year=2012
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_group
|accessdate=2012-05-31 }}</ref>
{{clear}}

=Proof of concept=

'''Def.''' a “short and/or incomplete realization of a certain method or idea to demonstrate its feasibility"<ref name=ProofofConceptWikt>{{ cite web
|title=proof of concept, In: ''Wiktionary''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=November 10,
|year=2012
|url=http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/proof_of_concept
|accessdate=2013-01-13 }}</ref> is called a '''proof of concept'''.

'''Def.''' evidence that demonstrates that a concept is possible is called '''proof of concept'''.

The proof-of-concept structure consists of
# background,
# procedures,
# findings, and
# interpretation.<ref name=Lehrman>{{ cite journal
|author=Ginger Lehrman and Ian B Hogue, Sarah Palmer, Cheryl Jennings, Celsa A Spina, Ann Wiegand, Alan L Landay, Robert W Coombs, Douglas D Richman, John W Mellors, John M Coffin, Ronald J Bosch, David M Margolis
|title=Depletion of latent HIV-1 infection in vivo: a proof-of-concept study
|journal=Lancet
|month=August 13,
|year=2005
|volume=366
|issue=9485
|pages=549-55
|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140673605670985
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(05)67098-5
|pmid=
|pdf=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1894952/
|accessdate=2012-05-09 }}</ref>⏎
⏎
=Astronomy=

When any effort to acquire a system of laws or knowledge focusing on an ''astr'', ''aster'', or ''astro'', that is, any natural body in the sky especially at night,<ref name=Gove>{{ cite book
|author=
|title=Webster's Seventh New Collegiate Dictionary
|publisher=G. & C. Merriam Company
|location=Springfield, Massachusetts
|year=1963
(contracted; show full)epressions in the surface of the Moon, produced by great impacts of gigantic meteoroids which mostly took place billions of years ago. They range in size from huge walled plains more than a hundred miles across to microscopic pits. The smallest craters which can be glimpsed through ordinary binoculars are about twenty miles across. These craters are most common in the light-colored Lunar highlands. They are named after historical figures, mostly scientists."<ref name=FountainsofBrynMawr>{{ cite 
journalweb
|author=[[User:Fountains of Bryn Mawr|Fountains of Bryn Mawr]]
|title=Skygazing⏎
|journal=, In: ''Wikiversity''
|month=October 30,
|year=2008
|volume=
|issue=
|pages=1⏎
|url=http://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Skygazing&oldid=367815
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|pdf=⏎
|accessdate=2013-03-30 }}</ref>

"During its flight, the Galileo spacecraft returned images of the Moon. The Galileo spacecraft took these images on December 7, 1992 on its way to explore the Jupiter system in 1995-97. The distinct bright ray crater at the bottom of the image is the Tycho impact basin. The dark areas are lava rock filled impact basins: Oceanus Procellarum (on the left), Mare Imbrium (center left), Mare Serenitatis and Mare Tranquillitatis (center), and Mare Crisium (near the righ(contracted; show full)|location=New York
|month=March 18-22
|year=1974
|editor=
|volume=1
|issue=
|pages=171-86
|url=
http://adsabs.harvard.edu//abs/1974LPSC....5..171A
|arxiv=
|bibcode=1974LPSC....5..171A
|doi=
|pmid=
|isbn=
|pdf=
|accessdate=2012-11-02 }}</ref>
(contracted; show full)|location=San Francisco, California
|month=November 15,
|year=2012
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_Impact_(spacecraft)
|accessdate=2012-12-05 }}</ref>
{{clear}}


=Research=

==Control groups==
[[Image:Lewis rat.jpg|thumb|right|200px|This is an image of a Lewis rat. Credit: Charles River Laboratories.]]
The findings demonstrate a statistically systematic change from the status quo or the [[control group]].

“In the design of experiments, treatments [or special properties or characteristics] are applied to [or observed in] experimental units in the '''treatment group'''(s).<ref name=Hinkelmann>{{ cite book
|author=Klaus Hinkelmann, Oscar Kempthorne
|year=2008
|title=Design and Analysis of Experiments, Volume I: Introduction to Experimental Design
|url=http://books.google.com/?id=T3wWj2kVYZgC&printsec=frontcover
|edition=2nd
|publisher=Wiley
|isbn=978-0-471-72756-9
|mr=2363107 }}</ref> In ''comparative'' experiments, members of the complementary group, the '''control group''',  receive either ''no''&nbsp;treatment or a ''standard'' treatment.<ref name="Bailey">{{ cite book
|author=R. A. Bailey
|title=Design of comparative experiments
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
|url=http://www.cambridge.org/uk/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=9780521683579
|year=2008 
|mr=2422352
|isbn=978-0-521-68357-9
|url1=http://www.maths.qmul.ac.uk/~rab/DOEbook/ }}</ref>"<ref name=ControlGroup>{{ cite web
|title=Treatment and control groups, In: ''Wikipedia''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=May 18,
|year=2012
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_group
|accessdate=2012-05-31 }}</ref>
{{clear}}

==Proof of concept==

'''Def.''' a “short and/or incomplete realization of a certain method or idea to demonstrate its feasibility"<ref name=ProofofConceptWikt>{{ cite web
|title=proof of concept, In: ''Wiktionary''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=November 10,
|year=2012
|url=http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/proof_of_concept
|accessdate=2013-01-13 }}</ref> is called a '''proof of concept'''.

'''Def.''' evidence that demonstrates that a concept is possible is called '''proof of concept'''.

The proof-of-concept structure consists of
# background,
# procedures,
# findings, and
# interpretation.<ref name=Lehrman>{{ cite journal
|author=Ginger Lehrman and Ian B Hogue, Sarah Palmer, Cheryl Jennings, Celsa A Spina, Ann Wiegand, Alan L Landay, Robert W Coombs, Douglas D Richman, John W Mellors, John M Coffin, Ronald J Bosch, David M Margolis
|title=Depletion of latent HIV-1 infection in vivo: a proof-of-concept study
|journal=Lancet
|month=August 13,
|year=2005
|volume=366
|issue=9485
|pages=549-55
|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140673605670985
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(05)67098-5
|pmid=
|pdf=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1894952/
|accessdate=2012-05-09 }}</ref>⏎
⏎
=See also=
{{div col|colwidth=12em}}
* [[Meteor astronomy]]
* [[Meteorites]]
{{Div col end}}

=References=
{{reflist|2}}

(contracted; show full)
* [http://www.springerlink.com/ SpringerLink]
* [http://www.tandfonline.com/ Taylor & Francis Online]
* [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/Tools/convcoord/convcoord.pl  Universal coordinate converter]
* [http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/advanced/search Wiley Online Library Advanced Search]
* [http://search.yahoo.com/web/advanced Yahoo Advanced Web Search]

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