Difference between revisions 1396420 and 1396565 on enwikiversity

[[Image:Detectors summary 3.png|thumb|right|200px|This tree diagram shows the relationship between types and classification of most common particle detectors. Credit: [[commons:User:Wdcf|Wdcf]].]]
'''Radiation detectors''' provide a signal that is converted to an electric current. The device is designed so that the current provided is proportional to the characteristics of the incident radiation.

(contracted; show full)|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=May 5,
|year=2013
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadmium_telluride
|accessdate=2013-05-20 }}</ref>

=
Entities[[Radiation astronomy/Entities|Entities]]=

'''Def.''' "the fraction of photoelectric events which end up in the photopeak of the measured energy spectrum"<ref name=Krawczynski>{{ cite book
|author=Henric S. Krawczynski ; Ira Jung ; Jeremy S. Perkins ; Arnold Burger ; Michael Groza
|title=Thick CZT Detectors for Space-Borne X-ray Astronomy, In: ''Hard X-Ray and Gamma-Ray Detector Physics VI, 1''
|publisher=The International Society for Optical Engineering
|location=Denver, Colorado USA
|month=October 21,
|year=20042004
|volume=5540
|issue=
|pages=13
|url=http://proceedings.spiedigitallibrary.org/proceeding.aspx?articleid=849814arxiv.org/pdf/astro-ph/0410077
|arxiv=astro-ph/0410077
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1117/12.558912
|pmid=
|pdf=http://arxiv.org/pdf/astro-ph/0410077⏎
|accessdate=2013-05-20 }}</ref> is called the '''photopeak efficiency''' (ε).

Ending up in the photopeak means within ± 1 full-width at half maximum (FWHM) of the peak of the distribution.<ref name=Krawczynski/>

"The peak to valley ratio is commonly used as a token for ε."<ref name=Krawczynski/>

(contracted; show full)

'''Def.''' "the elastic collisions between the projectile ion and atoms in the sample ... [involving] the interaction of the ion with the ''nuclei'' in the target"<ref name=StoppingPowerParticleRadiation/> is called the '''nuclear stopping power'''.

=
Sources[[Radiation astronomy/Sources|Sources]]=

"[T]he hardware setup also defines key experimental parameters, such as source-detector distance, solid angle and detector shielding."<ref name=NeutronDetection>{{ cite web
|title=Neutron detection, In: ''Wikipedia''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=March 17,
|year=2013
(contracted; show full)|month=May 18,
|year=2013
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiography
|accessdate=2013-05-22 }}</ref>

"While in the past radium and radon have both been used for radiography, they have fallen out of use as they are radiotoxic alpha radiation emitters which are expensive; iridium-192 and cobalt-60 are far better photon sources."<ref name=Radiography/>

=
Objects[[Radiation astronomy/Objects|Objects]]=

"Feature-based object recognizers generally work by pre-capturing a number of fixed views of the object to be recognized, extracting features from these views, and then in the recognition process, matching these features to the scene and enforcing geometric constraints."<ref name=3DSingleObjectRecognition>{{ cite web
|title=3D single-object recognition, In: ''Wikipedia''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=August 22,
(contracted; show full)|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=May 20,
|year=2013
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_band_structure
|accessdate=2013-05-23 }}</ref>

=
Backgrounds[[Astronomy/Backgrounds|Backgrounds]]=

"The main components of background noise in neutron detection are high-energy photons, which aren't easily eliminated by physical barriers."<ref name=NeutronDetection/>

"'''[N]oise''' is a random fluctuation in an electrical signal, a characteristic of all [[w:electronics|electronic]] [[w:electrical circuit|circuits]].<ref name=noise>{{ cite book
|author=C. D. Motchenbacher, J. A. Connelly
|title=Low-noise electronic system design
(contracted; show full)nche diode]], [[w:transient voltage suppression diode|transient voltage suppression diode]], [[w:transil|transil]], [[w:varistor|varistor]], overvoltage [[w:crowbar (circuit)|crowbar]], or a range of other overvoltage protective devices can divert ([[w:shunt (electrical)|shunt]]) this transient current thereby minimizing voltage.<ref>Transient Protection, LearnEMC Online Tutorial.  http://www.learnemc.com/tutorials/Transient_Protection/t-protect.html</ref>"<ref name=VoltageSpike/>

=
Meteors[[Radiation astronomy/Meteors|Meteors]]=
[[Image:Big Meteor Explosion on Moon-19d7f8e05ad0515a229533edae7f1b19.jpeg|thumb|right|200px|The white spot on this image of the Earth side of the Moon is the impact site of a meteor from March 17, 2013. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:Hs-2009-23-crop.jpg|thumb|left|200px|This is a [[w:Hubble Space Telescope|Hubble Space Telescope]] image taken on July 23, 2009, showing a blemish of about 5,000 miles long left by the [[w:2009 Jupiter impact event|2009 Jupiter impact]].<ref name=Overbye>{{ cite web
|author=Dennis Overbye
|title=Hubble Takes Snapshot of Jupiter’s ‘Black Eye’
|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/25/science/space/25hubble.html?ref=science
|date=2009-07-24
|publisher=New York Times
|accessdate=2009-07-25 }}</ref> Credit: NASA, ESA, and H. Hammel (Space Science Institute, Boulder, Colo.), and the Jupiter Impact Team.]]
Usually, a meteor detector is designed for another form of radiation that the meteor may radiate.

In the image at right, a 0.3 m meteor has impacted a ''meteor detector'', in this case the [[Moon]], and created a scintillation event that in turn is detected by a photoelectronic detector system.

In the image at left, a meteor has impacted another detector, here [[Jupiter]], but instead of a scintillation event has created a lowering of albedo as detected by the photoelectronic system, the Hubble Space Telescope.

=Cosmic-[[Radiation astronomy/Cosmic rays|Cosmic rays]]=
[[Image:Cloud chamber bionerd.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Cloud chamber shows visible tracks from α-particles (short, thick) and β-particles (long, thin). Credit: Bionerd.]]
[[Image:Electronic nuclear stopping Al in Al.png|thumb|right|200px|Diagram shows the electronic and nuclear stopping power for aluminum ions in aluminum. Credit: HPaul.]]
[[Image:Ion slowing.png|thumb|right|200px|This is an illustration of the slowing down of a single ion in a solid material. Credit: Kai Nordlund.]]
(contracted; show full)

Fourth right is an illustration of a ''Bragg'' curve. The '''stopping power''' and hence, the density of ionization, usually increases toward the end of range and reaches a maximum, the Bragg peak, shortly before the energy drops to zero.
{{clear}}

=
Neutrons[[Radiation astronomy/Neutrons|Neutrons]]=

“Detection hardware refers to the kind of neutron detector used [such as] the [[w:Scintillation counter|scintillation detector]] and to the electronics used in the detection setup. Further, the hardware setup also defines key experimental parameters, such as source-detector distance, [[w:Solid angle|solid angle]] and detector shielding. Detection software consists of analysis tools that perform tasks such as graphical analysis to measure the number and energies of neutrons striking the detector.”<ref (contracted; show full)attering|elastic scattering]] reactions. Neutron collide with the nucleus of atoms in the detector, transferring energy to that nucleus and creating an ion, which is detected. Since the maximum transfer of energy occurs when the mass of the atom with which the neutron collides is comparable to the neutron mass, hydrogenous [materials with a high hydrogen content such as water or plastic] materials are often the preferred medium for such detectors.<ref name=Tsoul/>”<ref name=NeutronDetector/>

=
Protons[[Radiation astronomy/Protons|Protons]]=
[[Image:MER APXS PIA05113.jpg|thumb|right|200px|This is an image of the alpha particle X-ray spectrometer (APXS). Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech.]]
[[Image:Stopping H in Al.png|thumb|right|200px|The stopping power of aluminum for protons is plotted versus proton energy. Credit: H.Paul.]]
(contracted; show full)|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1016/j.nima.2004.05.071
|pmid=
|accessdate=2013-05-24 }}</ref>
{{clear}}

=
Electrons[[Radiation astronomy/Electrons|Electrons]]=
[[Image:Galileo Energetic Particles Detector.jpg|thumb|right|200px|This is an image of the Energetic Particles Detector (EPD) aboard the Galileo Orbiter. Credit: NASA.]]
(contracted; show full)|location=Greenbelt, Maryland USA
|month=May 14,
|year=2012
|url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/experimentDisplay.do?id=1989-084B-06
|accessdate=2012-08-11 }}</ref>
{{clear}}

=
Positrons[[Radiation astronomy/Positrons|Positrons]]=

"In the first 18 months of operations, AMS-02 [image under Cherenkov detectors] recorded 6.8 million positron (an antimatter particle with the mass of an electron but a positive charge) and electron events produced from cosmic ray collisions with the interstellar medium in the energy range between 0.5 giga-electron volt (GeV) and 350 GeV. These events were used to determine the positron fraction, the ratio of positrons to the total number of electrons and positrons. Below 10 GeV, the positron fraction decreased with increasing energy, as expected. However, the positron fraction increased steadily from 10 GeV to 250 GeV. This increase, seen previously though less precisely by instruments such as the Payload for Matter/antimatter Exploration and Light-nuclei Astrophysics (PAMELA) and the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope, conflicts with the predicted decrease of the positron fraction and indicates the existence of a currently unidentified source of positrons, such as pulsars or the annihilation of dark matter particles. Furthermore, researchers observed an unexpected decrease in slope from 20 GeV to 250 GeV. The measured positron to electron ratio is isotropic, the same in all directions."<ref name=Ting/>

=Muons=⏎
[[Radiation astronomy/Muons|Muons]]=
[[Image:CMScollaborationPoster1.gif|thumb|200px|right|The [[w:Compact Muon Solenoid|Compact Muon Solenoid]] (CMS) is an example of a large particle detector. Notice the person for scale. Credit: CERN.]]
"With γ ray energy 50 times higher than the muon energy and a probability of muon production by the γ's of about 1%, muon detectors can match the detection efficiency of a GeV satellite detector if their effective area is larger by 10<sup>4</sup>."<ref name=Halzen>{{ cite journal
|author=Francis Halzen, Todor Stanev, Gaurang B. Yodh
|title=γ ray astronomy with muons
|journal=Physical Review D Particles, Fields, Gravitation, and Cosmology
|month=April 1,
|year=1997
|volume=55
|issue=7
|pages=4475-9
|url=http://prd.aps.org/abstract/PRD/v55/i7/p4475_1
|arxiv=astro-ph/9608201
|bibcode=1997PhRvD..55.4475H
|doi=10.1103/PhysRevD.55.4475
|pmid=
|accessdate=2013-01-18 }}</ref>
{{clear}}

=Neutrinos[[Radiation astronomy/Neutrinos|Neutrinos]]=
[[Image:Sudbury neutrino observatory.png|thumb|right|200px|The Sudbury Neutrino Observatory, a 12-meter sphere filled with heavy water surrounded by light detectors located 2000 meters below the ground in Sudbury, Ontario, Canada. Credit: NASA.]]
(contracted; show full)|location=San Francisco, California
|month=May 23,
|year=2012
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrino_detector
|accessdate=2012-06-19 }}</ref>
{{clear}}

=
[[Radiation astronomy/Gamma-  rays|Gamma rays]]=
[[Image:HPGe detector90.jpg|thumb|center|250px|High-purity germanium detector (disconnected from liquid nitrogen dewar) is imaged. Credit: [[w:User:Sergio.ballestrero|Sergio.ballestrero]].]]
[[Image:Annihilation Radiation.JPG|thumb|right|200px|A Germanium detector spectrum shows the electron-positron annihilation radiation peak (under the arrow). Note the width of the peak compared to the other gamma rays visible in the spectrum. Credit: Hidesert.]]
(contracted; show full)|location=San Francisco, California
|month=February 26,
|year=2013
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor_detector
|accessdate=2013-05-17 }}</ref>
{{clear}}

=
X-rays[[Radiation astronomy/X-rays|X-rays]]=
[[Image:Proportional Counter Array RXTE.jpg|thumb|right|200px|This is an image of a real X-ray detector. The instrument is called the Proportional Counter Array and it is on the [[w:Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer|Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer]] (RXTE) satellite. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:Suzaku HXD.jpg|thumb|left|200px|The Suzaku Hard X-ray Detector is imaged before installation to the satellite. Credit: NASA.]]
(contracted; show full)

"Aluminum nitride has the widest band-gap of any compound semiconductor and offers the potential of making ‘‘solar-blind’’ X-ray detectors, i.e., detectors insensitive to the solar visible and ultraviolet (UV) radiation."<ref name=Owens/>
{{clear}}

=
Ultraviolets[[Radiation astronomy/Ultraviolets|Ultraviolets]]=

"The dispersed ultraviolet light [from the [[w:Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer|FUSE]] telescope] is detected by two [[w:microchannel plate detector|microchannel plate]] intensified double delay-line detectors, whose surfaces are curved to match the curvature of the focal plane.<ref name=Sahnow>{{ cite web
|url=http://fuse.pha.jhu.edu/papers/technical/aas95/aas95.html
|title=The Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer Mission
|work=JHU.edu
|author=D.J. Sahnow, et al.
|date=1995-07-03
(contracted; show full)|month=May 14,
|year=2013
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photomultiplier
|accessdate=2013-05-24 }}</ref>

"Magnesium fluoride transmits ultraviolet down to 115 nm. [But, it is] [h]ygroscopic, though less than other alkali halides usable for UV windows."<ref name=Photomultiplier/>

=
Opticals[[Radiation astronomy/Opticals|Opticals]]=

"'''Transition radiation''' (TR) is a form of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]] emitted when a [[w:charged particle|charged particle]] passes through [[w:Homogeneity and heterogeneity#Heterogeneity|inhomogeneous]] media, such as a boundary between two different media. This is in contrast to [[w:Cherenkov radiation|Cherenkov radiation]], which occurs when a charged particle passes through a [[w:Homogeneity and heterogeneity#Homogeneity|homogeneous(contracted; show full)
|accessdate=2013-05-20 }}</ref>

"Multialkali (Na-K-Sb-Cs) [photocathode materials have a] wide spectral response from ultraviolet to near-infrared [where] special cathode processing can extend range to 930 nm. [These are] [u]sed in broadband spectrophotometers."<ref name=Photomultiplier/>

"Borosilicate glass [window material] is commonly used for near-infrared to about 300 nm."<ref name=Photomultiplier/>

=
Visuals[[Radiation astronomy/Visuals|Visuals]]=

"[T]he wide-gap II-VI semiconductor ZnO doped with Co<sup>2+</sup> (Zn<sub>1-x</sub>Co<sub>x</sub>O) ... responds to visible light ... Excitation into the intense <sup>4</sup>T<sub>1</sub>(P) ''d-d'' band at ∼2.0 eV (620 nm) leads to Co<sup>2+/3+</sup> ionization [with an] experimental maximum in the external photon-to-current conversion efficiencies at values well below the solid solubility of Co<sup>2+</sup> in ZnO."<ref name=Johnson>{{ cite journal
|author=Claire A. Johnson, Alicia Cohn, Tiffany Kaspar, Scott A. Chambers, G. Mackay Salley, and Daniel R. Gamelin
|title=Visible-light photoconductivity of Zn<sub>1-x</sub>Co<sub>x</sub>O and its dependence on Co<sup>2+</sup> concentration
|journal=Physical Review B
|month=September 6,
|year=2011
|volume=84
|issue=12
|pages=8
|url=http://prb.aps.org/abstract/PRB/v84/i12/e125203
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1103/PhysRevB.84.125203
|pmid=
|accessdate=2013-05-24 }}</ref>

=Violets[[Radiation astronomy/Violets|Violets]]=
[[Image:Voyager - Filters - Violet.png|thumb|right|200px|The image shows the spectral range for the violet filter of Voyager 1 and Voyager 2. Credit: [[commons:User:Xession|Xession]].]]
Most spacecraft designed for [[optical astronomy]] or [[visual astronomy]] carry aboard a violet or blue filter covering the wavelength range from 350-430 nm. The Solid State Imaging camera of the Galileo spacecraft uses a broad-band filter centered at 404 nm for [[violet astronomy]].

(contracted; show full)|location=Washington, DC USA
|month=August 6,
|year=1984
|url=http://history.nasa.gov/SP-474/appa.htm
|accessdate=2013-04-01 }}</ref> on the Imaging Science System aboard the Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 Spacecraft, as defined by the instrument descriptions of the Narrow Angle Camera and Wide Angle Camera.
{{clear}}

=
Blues[[Radiation astronomy/Blues|Blues]]=

In about 1981 "an efficient blue- and violet-sensitive RCA CCD did appear on the market."<ref name=Oke>{{ cite journal
|author=J. B. Oke and J. E. Gunn
|title=An Efficient Low Resolution and Moderate Resolution Spectrograph for the Hale Telescope
|journal=Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific
|month=June
|year=1982
(contracted; show full)|arxiv=
|bibcode=1997hst..prop.7393M
|doi=
|pmid=
|isbn=
|accessdate=2013-05-24 }}</ref>

=
Cyans[[Radiation astronomy/Cyans|Cyans]]=

The Wide Field/Planetary Camera (PC-1) had an F469N, F487N, and F492M cyan filters in the filter wheel.<ref name=Krist/>

The Wide Field Planetary Camera (PC-2) replaced PC-1 on the Hubble Space Telescope and carried the following cyan filters on the same filter wheels: F467M, F469N, F487N.<ref name=Krist>{{ cite web
|author=John Krist and Richard Hook
|title=The Tiny Tim User’s Guide, Version 6.3
|publisher=Space Telescope Science Institute
|location=
|month=June
|year=2004
|url=http://www.stsci.edu/software/tinytim
|accessdate=2013-01-22 }}</ref>

The Advanced Camera for Surveys carried an F475W broadband cyan filter.<ref name=Krist/>

The Faint Object Camera (FOC) carries F470M, F480LP, and F486N cyan filters.<ref name=Krist/>

=Greens[[Radiation astronomy/Greens|Greens]]=

The Wide Field Planetary Camera (PC-1) of the Hubble Space Telescope was in use from about 1990 through 1993. It carried 48 filters on 12 filter wheels of four each. For the green band, these were the F492M, F502N, F517N, F547M, and the F555W. Those ending in 'N' are narrow-band filters.<ref name=Krist>{{ cite web
|author=John Krist and Richard Hook
|title=The Tiny Tim User’s Guide, Version 6.3
|publisher=Space Telescope Science Institute
|location=
|month=June
(contracted; show full)|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=January 15,
|year=2013
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wide_Field_Camera_3
|accessdate=2013-01-22 }}</ref>

=
Yellows[[Radiation astronomy/Yellows|Yellows]]=

"[T]he #8 yellow filter is used to show [[w:Classical albedo features on Mars|Mars's maria]] and [[w:Atmosphere of Jupiter#Zones, belts and jets|Jupiter's belts]].<ref name="lumicon">{{ cite web
|url=http://www.lumicon.com/astronomy-accessories.php?cid=1&cn=Filters
|title=filters - popular and hot telescope filters
|publisher=Lumicon international
|date=
|accessdate=2010-11-22
|url= http://web.archive.org/web/20101125034023/http://lumicon.com/astronomy-accessories.php?cid=1&cn=Filters
| archivedate= 25 November 2010 
| deadurl= no}}</ref>"<ref name=AstronomicalFilter>{{ cite web
|title=Astronomical filter, In: ''Wikipedia''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=25 January
|year=2013
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_filter
|accessdate=2013-01-25 }}</ref>

Initially the Hubble Space Telescope had the Wide Field/Planetary Camera (WF/PC-1) aboard where the F555W, F569W, F588N, and F606W cover the entire yellow portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.

The Hubble's Faint Object Camera (FOC) uses F550M and F600M which cover from either side.

The Wide Field and Planetary Camera (WFPC2) replaced PC-1 and used F555W, F569W, F588N and F606W filters.

=Oranges[[Radiation astronomy/Oranges|Oranges]]=

The WF/PC-1 filters available for [[orange astronomy]] are the F588N, F606W, and F622W. The FOC uses the F600M and F630M. The WFPC2 uses the F588N, F606W, and F622W.

=Reds[[Radiation astronomy/Reds|Reds]]=

The following WF/PC-1 filters are available for [[red astronomy]]: F606W, F622W, F631N, F648M, F656N, F658N, F664N, F673N, F675W, F702W, F718M, and F725LP.

The FOC uses the F630M for the shorter wavelength red rays.

The Hubble WFPC2 uses F606W, F622W, F631N, F656N, F658N, F673N, F675W, F702W, and F775W.

=Infrareds[[Radiation astronomy/Infrareds|Infrareds]]=

"An '''infrared detector''' is [usually one of] two main types ... thermal and photonic ([[w:photodetector|photodetector]]s). The thermal effects of the incident IR radiation can be followed through many temperature dependent phenomena. [[w:Bolometer|Bolometer]]s and  [[w:microbolometer|microbolometer]]s are based on changes in resistance. [[w:Thermocouple|Thermocouple]]s and [[w:thermopile|thermopile]]s use the [[w:thermoelectric effect|thermoelectric effect]]. Golay c(contracted; show full)|month=April 8,
|year=2012
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared_detector
|accessdate=2012-06-19 }}</ref>

The Hubble PC-1 used the F785LP, F791W, F814W, F850LP, F875M, F889N, F1042M, and F1083N filters for [[infrared astronomy]]. The PC-2 used F785LP, F791W, F814W, F850LP, F953N, and F1042M.

=
Submillimeters[[Radiation astronomy/Submillimeters|Submillimeters]]=

"Metal-mesh filters have many applications for use in the far infrared (FIR)<ref name=melo08>{{ cite journal
|doi = 10.1364/AO.47.006064
|author = Arline M. Melo, Mariano A. Kornberg, Pierre Kaufmann, Maria H. Piazzetta,
Emílio C. Bortolucci, Maria B. Zakia, Otto H. Bauer, Albrecht Poglitsch,
and Alexandre M. P. Alves da Silva
|title = Metal mesh resonant filters for terahertz frequencies
(contracted; show full)|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=February 20,
|year=2013
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal-mesh_optical_filters
|accessdate=2013-05-25 }}</ref>

=
Radios[[Radiation astronomy/Radios|Radios]]=
[[Image:Coherer.jpg|right|thumb|A metal filings coherer is imaged. Credit: [[w:User:JA.Davidson|JA.Davidson]].]]
"The '''coherer''' ... consists of a tube or capsule containing two [[w:electrode|electrode]]s spaced a small distance apart, with metal filings in the space between them. When a [[w:radio frequency|radio frequency]] signal is applied to the device, the initial high [[w:resistance (electricity)|resistance]] of the filings reduces, allowing an electric current to flow through it."<ref name=Coherer>{{ cite web
|title=Coherer, In: ''Wikipedia''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=April 22,
|year=2013
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coherer
|accessdate=2013-05-25 }}</ref>
{{clear}}

=Superluminals[[Radiation astronomy/Superluminals|Superluminals]]=
[[Image:Lhcbview.jpg|thumb|left|200px|LHCb detector is diagrammed. Credit: [[w:User:Oswald_le_fort|Oswald_le_fort]].]]
[[Image:Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer - 02.jpg|thumb|right|200px|AMS-02 is a RICH detector for analyzing cosmic rays. Credit: NASA.]]
(contracted; show full)
|title=Performance of the LHCb RICH detector at the LHC
|journal=http://arxiv.org/abs/arXiv:1211.6759
|year=2012 }}</ref>"<ref name=RingImagingCherekovDetector/>

"The [[w:Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer|Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer]] device AMS-02, recently mounted on the [[w:International Space Station|International Space Station]] uses a RICH detector in combination with other devices to analyze cosmic rays."<ref name=RingImagingCherekovDetector/>
{{clear}}

=
[[Plasmas/Plasma objects|Plasma objects]]=
[[Image:faraday cup.jpg|thumb|right|200px|This is a Faraday cup with an electron-suppressor plate in front. Credit: [[commons:User:Angelpeream|Angelpeream]].]]
"A '''Faraday cup''' is a metal (conductive) cup designed to catch [[w:charged particle|charged particle]]s in vacuum. The resulting current can be measured and used to determine the number of ions or electrons hitting the cup.<ref name=Brown>{{ cite journal
(contracted; show full)|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=May 16,
|year=2013
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faraday_cup
|accessdate=2013-05-25 }}</ref>

=
[[Gases/Gaseous objects|Gaseous objects]]=

"A '''gas detector''' is a device which detects the presence of various gases within an area"<ref name=GasDetector>{{ cite web
|title=Gas detector, In: ''Wikipedia''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=May 17,
|year=2013
(contracted; show full)|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=March 16,
|year=2013
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_sensor
|accessdate=2013-05-26 }}</ref>

=
[[Liquids/Liquid objects|Liquid objects]]=
[[Image:Hot and cold water immiscibility thermal image.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Thermal image of a sink full of hot water with cold water being added shows the hot and the cold water flowing into each other. Credit: [[commons:User:Zaereth|Zaereth]].]]
(contracted; show full)|location=San Francisco, California
|month=October 18,
|year=2012
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geophysics
|accessdate=2012-11-16 }}</ref>
{{clear}}

=
[[Rocks/Rocky objects|Rocky objects]]=
[[Image:Venus globe.jpg|thumb|left|200px|This is a false color image of Venus produced from a global [[w:Radar|radar]] view of the surface by the [[w:Magellan probe|Magellan probe]] while radar imaging between 1990-1994. Credit: NASA.]]
Often a rocky object is detected by the observation of impact craters usually using [[visual astronomy]] as part of [[crater astronomy]].

(contracted; show full)
|title=Detection of hydrogen fluoride absorption in diffuse molecular clouds with ''Herschel''/HIFI: a ubiquitous tracer of molecular gas
|journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics
|month=October 1,
|year=2010
|volume=521
|issue=
|pages=5
|url=http://
www.aanda.org/articles/aa/abs/2010/13/aa15082-10/aa15082-10.htmlarxiv.org/pdf/1007.2148.pdf
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1051/0004-6361/201015082
|pmid=
|pdf=http://arxiv.org/pdf/1007.2148.pdf⏎
|accessdate=2013-01-17 }}</ref>

"[A]bsorption features in the submillimeter spectrum of Mars ... are due to the H<sub>2</sub>O (1<sub>10</sub>-1<sub>01</sub>) and <sup>13</sup>CO (5-4) rotational transitions."<ref name=Gurwell>{{ cite journal
(contracted; show full)t would flow in the metal, and the time for the voltage to drop to zero would be increased. These time differences were minute, but the improvement in electronics made it possible to measure them accurately and identify the presence of metal at a reasonable distance. These new machines had one major advantage: they were completely impervious to the effects of mineralization, and rings and other jewelry could now be located even under highly-mineralized black sand."<ref name=MetalDetector/>

=[[S
un (star)tars/Sun|Sun]]=

"A ''sun sensor'' is a device that senses the direction to the [[Sun (star)|Sun]]. This can be as simple as some [[w:solar cell|solar cell]]s and shades, or as complex as a steerable [[w:telescope|telescope]], depending on mission requirements."<ref name=AttitudeControl/>

=[[Earth]]=

"An ''earth sensor'' is a device that senses the direction to the [[Earth]]. It is usually an infrared camera; now the main method to detect attitude is the star tracker, but earth sensors are still integrated in satellites for their low cost and reliability."<ref name=AttitudeControl/>

=[[Stars]]=

"A ''star tracker'' is an optical device that measures the position(s) of [[w:star|star]](s) using [[w:photocell|photocell]](s) or a camera.<ref>{{cite web|title=Star Camera|url=http://nmp.nasa.gov/st6/TECHNOLOGY/star_camera.html|publisher=NASA|accessdate=25 May 2012|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110721054014/http://nmp.nasa.gov/st6/TECHNOLOGY/star_camera.html|archivedate=July 21, 2011|date=05/04}}</ref>"<ref name=AttitudeControl/>

(contracted; show full)[[Category:Original research]]
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