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Radiation astronomy/Telescopes
[[Image:Brorfelde Schmidt Telescope.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The Schmidt Telescope at the former Brorfelde Observatory is now used by amateur astronomers. Credit: [[commons:User:Moeng|Mogens Engelund]].]]
A '''radiation telescope''' is an instrument designed to collect and focus radiation so as to make distant sources appear nearer.
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=[[Astronomy]]=
[[Image:Mauna Kea observatory.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Sunset over four telescopes of the [[w:Mauna Kea Observatories|Mauna Kea Observatories]] is pictured, from left to right: the [[w:Subaru Telescope|Subaru Telescope]], the twin [[w:W. M. Keck Observatory|Keck I and II telescope]]s, and the [[w:NASA Infrared Telescope Facility|NASA Infrared Telescope Facility]]. Credit: [http://flickr.com/photos/35188692@N00 Alan L].]]
(contracted; show full)
|title=Mauna Kea Telescopes
|url=http://www.ifa.hawaii.edu/mko/telescope_table.shtml
|publisher=Institute for Astronomy – University of Hawaii
|accessdate=August 29, 2010 }}</ref>"<ref name=MaunaKea/>
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=
[[Radiation]]=

“In physics, radiation is a process in which energetic particles or energetic waves travel through a medium or space.”<ref name=Radiation>{{ cite web
|title=Radiation, In: ''Wikipedia''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=May 31,
|year=2012
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiation
|accessdate=2012-06-02 }}</ref>

'''Def.''' an action or process of throwing or sending out a traveling ray in a line, beam, or stream of small cross section is called '''radiation'''.

'''Def.''' “[t]he shooting forth of anything from a point or surface, like the diverging rays of light; as, the radiation of heat”<ref name=Radiation>{{ cite web
|title=radiation, In: ''Wiktionary''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=June 24,
|year=2012
|url=http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/radiation
|accessdate=2012-07-07 }}</ref> is called '''radiation'''.

Radiation that a particular telescope or a telescope array observes consists of fast moving entities from which information is gathered using spectroscopy, spatial distributions, or temporal distributions. A galaxy cluster that is moving is radiation and an astronomical object to be observed. Entities moving faster than the galaxy such as protons or photons are observables.

=Astrodesy[[Astronomy/Observatories/Astrodesy|Astrodesy]]=

On [[Earth]], telescopes are positioned using [[geodesy]], such fields as surveying, structural geology of the underlying ground, and architecture. The availability of manpower is usually missing for extraterrestrial observatories on the [[Moon]], [[Mars]], or [[Venus]]. On the [[International Space Station]], manpower is often available for instrument control and use.

=Telescopes[[Instruments]]=
[[Image:MENISCAS 180.jpg|thumb|right|200px|This is an optical telescope that may be used for optical and visual astronomy. Credit: .]]
'''Def.''' “[a]ny instrument used in astronomy for observing distant objects”<ref name=TelescopeWikt>{{ cite web
|title=telescope, In: ''Wiktionary''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=December 7,
|year=2013
(contracted; show full)|year=2012
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerial_telescope
|accessdate=2012-10-08 }}</ref>

“After about 1675, therefore, astronomers did away with the telescope tube. The objective was mounted on a building or pole by means of a ball-joint and aimed by means of a string...”<ref name=Rice/>
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=
[[Early telescopes]]=
[[Image:Nimrud lens British Museum.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image is a photo of the [[w:Nimrud lens|Nimrud lens]] in the [[w:British museum|British museum]]. Credit: [[commons:User:Geni|Geni]].]]
"There are indeed ancient tablets that mention astronomers' lenses supported by a golden tube to enlarge the pupil, and in Nineveh a rock crystal [[w:Nimrud lens|lens]] was found (Pettinato 1998). Maybe one day a new archaeological excavation will find a Babylonian telescope for the first time."<ref name=Magli>{{ cite book
|author=Giulio Magli
|title=When the method is lacking, In: ''Mysteries and Discoveries of Archaeoastronomy from Giza to Easter Island''
|publisher=Copernicus Books
|location=Rome, Italy
|month=
|year=2009
|editor=
|pages=97-116
|url=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1007/978-0-387-76566-2_5
|pmid=
|isbn=978-0-387-76564-8
|pdf=http://www.springerlink.com/content/w2q6g0q252221k0u/fulltext.pdf
|accessdate=2011-10-15 }}</ref>
{{clear}}

=Optics[[Physics/Optics|Optics]]=

"'''Optics''' involves the behavior and properties of [[w:light|light]], including its interactions with [[w:matter|matter]] and the construction of [[w:optical instruments|instruments]] that use or [[w:Photodetector|detect]] it.<ref name=McGrawHill>{{ cite book
|title=McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology
|edition=5th
|publisher=McGraw-Hill
|year=1993 }}</ref> Optics usually describes the behavior of [[w:visible light|visible]], [[w:ultraviolet|ultraviolet]], and [[w:infrared|infrared]] light. Because light is an [[w:electromagnetic wave|electromagnetic wave]], other forms of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]] such as [[w:X-ray|X-ray]]s, [[w:microwave|microwave]]s, and [[w:radio wave|radio wave]]s exhibit similar properties.<ref name=McGrawHill />"<ref name=Optics>{{ cite web
|title=Optics, In: ''Wikipedia''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=July 1,
|year=2012
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optics
|accessdate=2012-07-07 }}</ref>

=Colors[[Radiation astronomy/Colors|Colors]]=

"[B]roadband optical photometry of Centaurs and Kuiper Belt objects from the Keck 10 m, the University of Hawaii 2.2 m, and the Cerro Tololo InterAmerican (CTIO) 1.5 m telescopes [shows] a wide dispersion in the optical colors of the objects, indicating nonuniform surface properties. The color dispersion [may] be understood in the context of the expected steady reddening due to bombardment by the ubiquitous flux of cosmic rays."<ref name=Luu>{{ cite journal
|author=Jane Luu and David Jewitt
|title=Color Diversity among the Centaurs and Kuiper Belt Objects
|journal=The Astronomical Journal
|month=November
|year=1996
|volume=112
|issue=5
|pages=2310-8
|url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1996AJ....112.2310L
|arxiv=
|bibcode=1996AJ....112.2310L
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=2013-11-05 }}</ref>

=[[Minerals]]=
[[Image:Transparency.jpg|thumb|right|200px|This shows a colorless and very clean quartz that is transparent. Credit: [[commons:User:Zimbres|Zimbres]].]]
(contracted; show full)|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=April 2,
|year=2013
|url=http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/radiotelescopy
|accessdate=2013-07-21 }}</ref> is called '''radiotelescopy'''.

=
Sources[[Astronomy/Sources|Sources]]=
[[Image:Horizontal cyclotron with glowing beam.jpg|thumb|center|300px|This image shows a beam of accelerated ions (perhaps protons or deuterons) escaping the accelerator and ionizing the surrounding air causing a blue glow. Credit: Lawrence Berkely National Laboratory.]]
[[Image:Synchrotron light.jpeg|thumb|right|200px|The image shows the blue glow given off by the synchrotron beam from the National Synchrotron Light Source. Credit: NSLS, Brookhaven National Laboratory.]]
The image above shows a blue glow in the surrounding air from emitted cyclotron particulate radiation.

At right is an image that shows the blue glow resulting from a beam of relativistic electrons as they slow down. This deceleration produces synchrotron light out of the beam line of the National Synchrotron Light Source.
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=Bands[[Radiation astronomy/Bands|Bands]]=
[[Image:Rosetta.jpg|thumb|right|200px|This is a 3D model of the Rosetta Spacecraft. The individual scientific payloads are highlighted in different colours. Credit: [[w:User:IanShazell|IanShazell]].]]
For elongated dust particles in cometary comas an investigation is performed at 535.0 nm (green) and 627.4 nm (red) peak transmission wavelengths of the [[w:Rosetta (spacecraft)|Rosetta spacecraft]]'s OSIRIS Wide Angle Camera broadband green and red filters, respectively.<ref name=Bertini>{{ cite journal
|author=I. Bertini, N. Thomas, and C. Barbieri
|title=Modeling of the light scattering properties of cometary dust using fractal aggregates
|journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics
|month=January
|year=2007
|volume=461
|issue=1
|pages=351-64
|url=http://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full/2007/01/aa5461-06/aa5461-06.html
|arxiv=
|bibcode=2007A&A...461..351B
|doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20065461
|pmid=
|pdf=http://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/pdf/2007/01/aa5461-06.pdf
|accessdate=2011-12-08 }}</ref>
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=Backgrounds[[Astronomy/Backgrounds|Backgrounds]]=
[[Image:Red-blue-noise.gif|frame|The frame demonstrates an example of visual snow-like noise. Credit: .]]
"In astronomical [[w:Charge-coupled device|CCD]] technology, '''background''' is usually referred to the overall optical "noise" of the system, that is, the incoming light on the CCD sensor in absence of light sources. This background can originate from electronic noise in the CCD, from not-well-masked lights nearby the telescope, and so on. An exposure on an empty patch of the sky is also called a background, and is the sum of the system background level plus the sky's one."<ref name=BackgroundAstronomy/>

"A '''background frame''' is often the first exposure in an astronomical observation with a CCD: the frame will then be subtracted from the actual observation result, leaving in theory only the incoming light from the astronomical object being observed."<ref name=BackgroundAstronomy>{{ cite web
|title=Background (astronomy), In: ''Wikipedia''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=October 7,
|year=2010
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Background_(astronomy)
|accessdate=2013-05-03 }}</ref>
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=[[Instruments/Telescopes/Meteors|Meteor telescopes]]=
[[Image:250mm Rain Gauge.jpg|thumb|upright|left|125 px|The image shows a standard rain gauge. Credit: .]]
Meteor telescopes per se are often other types of telescopes, such as optical telescopes, that happen or are slewed to observe meteors.

At left is a collection device for rain on [[Earth]] as part of [[meteorology]].

There are favorable locations on Earth, Moon and Mars where [[meteorites]] are discovered. These meteorite, or micrometeorite, locations include Antarctica and the equatorial deserts.
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=[[Instruments/Telescopes/Cosmic rays|Cosmic-ray telescopes]]=
[[Image:HEAO-3.gif|thumb|right|200px|This is an image of HEAO 3. Credit: .]]
[[Image:Pioneer 10-11 - P52a - fx.jpg|thumb|left|150px|The charged particle instrument (CPI) is used to detect cosmic rays in the solar system. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:Pioneer 10-11 - P52b - fx.jpg|thumb|left|150px|The cosmic-ray telescope collects data on the composition of the cosmic ray particles and their energy ranges. Credit: NASA.]]
(contracted; show full)|issue=02
|pages=L105-8
|url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1974ApJ...187L.105M
|arxiv=
|bibcode=1974ApJ...187L.105M
|doi=10.1086/181407
|pmid=

|pdf=⏎
|accessdate=2012-12-05 }}</ref>
{{clear}}

=[[Instruments/Telescopes/Neutrons|Neutron telescopes]]=
[[Image:Comptel.png|thumb|left|200px|The Imaging Compton Telescope (COMPTEL) utilizes the Compton Effect and two layers of gamma-ray detectors. Credit: NASA.]]
"In addition to observing gamma rays from a solar flare, [ the Imaging Compton Telescope] COMPTEL is also capable of detecting solar neutrons. Neutron interactions within the instrument occur when an incident solar neutron elastically scatters off a hydrogen nucleus in the liquid scintillator of an upper D1 module. The scattered neutron may then interact and deposit all or a portion of its energy in one of the lower D2 modules, providing the internal trigger signal necessary for a double scatter event. The energy of the scattered neutron is deduced from its time of flight from the upper to lower detector, which is summed with the energy measured for the recoil proton in the upper D1 module to obtain the energy of the incident solar neutron. The computed scatter angle of the neutron, as with gamma rays, yields an event circle on the sky, which can be further constrained since the true source of the detected neutrons is assumed to be the Sun."<ref name=Johnson>{{ cite web
|author=W. N. Johnson
|title=Appendix G to the NASA RESEARCH ANNOUNCEMENT for the COMPTON GAMMA RAY OBSERVATORY GUEST INVESTIGATOR PROGRAM
|publisher=National Aeronautics and Space Administration Goddard Space Flight Center
|location=Greenbelt, Maryland USA
|month=November
|year=1996
|url=http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/cgro/nra/appendix_g.html#III.%20COMPTEL%20GUEST%20INVESTIGATOR%20PROGRAM
|pdf=⏎
|accessdate=2013-04-05 }}</ref>
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=[[Instruments/Telescopes/Electrons|Electron telescopes]]=
[[Image:Galileo Energetic Particles Detector.jpg|thumb|right|200px|This is an image of the Energetic Particles Detector (EPD) aboard the Galileo Orbiter. Credit: NASA.]]
"[The] two bi-directional, solid-state detector telescopes [of the Galileo Orbiter are] mounted on a platform which [is] rotated by a stepper motor into one of eight positions. This rotation of the platform, combined with the spinning of the orbiter in a plane perpendicular to the platform rotation, [permits] a 4-pi [or 4π] steradian coverage of incoming [electrons]. The forward (0 degree) ends of the two telescopes [have] an unobstructed view over the [4π] sphere or [can] be positioned behind a shield which not only [prevents] the entrance of incoming radiation, but [contains] a source, thus allowing background corrections and in-flight calibrations to be made. ... The 0 degree end of the [Low-Energy Magnetospheric Measurements System] LEMMS [uses] magnetic deflection to separate incoming electrons and ions. The 180 degree end [uses] absorbers in combination with the detectors to provide measurements of higher-energy electrons ... The LEMMS [provides] measurements of electrons from 15 keV to greater than 11 MeV ... in 32 rate channels."<ref name=Williams>{{ cite web
|author=Donald J. Williams
|title=Energetic Particles Detector (EPD)
|publisher=NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
|location=Greenbelt, Maryland USA
|month=May 14,
|year=2012
|url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/experimentDisplay.do?id=1989-084B-06
|accessdate=2012-08-11 }}</ref>
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=[[Instruments/Telescopes/Positrons|Positron telescopes]]=
[[Image:509305main GBM positron event 300dpi.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Observation of positrons from a terrestrial gamma ray flash is performed by the Fermi gamma ray telescope. Credit: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center.]]
The image at right contains a picture of the Fermi gamma-ray telescope that performed observations of positrons from their terrestrial gamma-ray flashes.

The positrons are not directly observed by the INTEGRAL space telescope, but "the 511 keV positron annihilation emission is".<ref name= Weidenspointner >{{ cite journal
|author=G. Weidenspointner, G.K. Skinner, P. Jean, J. Knödlseder, P. von Ballmoos, R. Diehl, A. Strong, B. Cordier, S. Schanne, C. Winkler
|title=Positron astronomy with SPI/INTEGRAL
|journal=New Astronomy Reviews
|month=October
|year=2008
|volume=52
|issue=7-10
|pages=454-6
|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1387647308001164
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1016/j.newar.2008.06.019
|pmid=
|pdf=⏎
|accessdate=2011-11-25 }}</ref>
{{clear}}

=Neutrino[[Instruments/Telescopes/Neutrinos|Neutrinos telescopes]]=
[[Image:Antares Neutrinoteleskop.jpg|thumb|right|250px|An artist illustration of the Antares neutrino detector and the [[w:Nautile|Nautile]]. Credit: .]]
[[Image:Icecube-architecture-diagram2009.PNG|thumb|left|200px|This is an architecture diagram of IceCube. Credit: [[w:User:Nasa-verve|Nasa-verve]].]]
(contracted; show full)|location=San Francisco, California
|month=August 10,
|year=2012
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IceCube_Neutrino_Observatory
|accessdate=2012-08-23 }}</ref>
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=
[[Instruments/Telescopes/Gamma rays|Gamma-ray telescopes]]=
[[Image:Comptel.png|thumb|left|200px|The Imaging Compton Telescope (COMPTEL) utilizes the Compton Effect and two layers of gamma-ray detectors. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:GLAST on the payload attach fitting.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope sits on its payload attachment fitting. Credit: NASA/Kim Shiflett.]]
(contracted; show full)
|author=Neil Gehrels
|title=The Imaging Compton Telescope (COMPTEL)
|publisher=NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
|location=Greenbelt, Maryland USA
|month=August 1,
|year=2005
|url=http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/cgro/cgro/comptel.html

|pdf=⏎
|accessdate=2013-04-05 }}</ref>

"The Large Area Telescope (LAT) [of the [[w:Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope|Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope]] ] detects individual gamma rays using technology similar to that used in terrestrial [[w:particle accelerator|particle accelerator]]s.   [[w:Photons|Photons]] hit thin metal sheets, converting to electron-positron pairs, via a process known as [[w:pair production|pair production]]. These charged particles pass through interleaved layers of silicon [[w:microstrip detector|microstrip detector]]s, causing [[w:ionization|ionization]] which produce detectable tiny pulses of electric charge. Researchers can combine information from several layers of this tracker to determine the path of the particles. After passing through the tracker, the partic(contracted; show full)|author=Dietrich Habs
|title=Silicon 'prism' bends gamma rays
|publisher=Institute of Physics
|location=
|month=May 9,
|year=2012
|url=http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/news/2012/may/09/silicon-prism-bends-gamma-rays

|pdf=⏎
|accessdate=2013-05-09 }}</ref>

"The measurements indicate that there exists an index of refraction for gamma-ray energies that is substantially larger than people believed before".<ref name=Pietralla>{{ cite web
|author=Norbert Pietralla
|title=Silicon 'prism' bends gamma rays
|publisher=Institute of Physics
|location=
|month=May 9,
|year=2012
|url=http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/news/2012/may/09/silicon-prism-bends-gamma-rays
|pdf=⏎
|accessdate=2013-05-09 }}</ref>

"Materials with nuclei that have a large positive charge – such as gold – should be ideal for making gamma-ray lenses".<ref name=Wogan/>
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=[[Instruments/Telescopes/X-rays|X-ray telescopes]]=
[[Image:Xrtlayout.gif|thumb|right|200px|The XRT uses a grazing incidence Wolter 1 telescope to focus X-rays onto a state-of-the-art CCD. Credit: .]]
"X-ray telescopes can use a variety of different designs to image X-rays. The most common methods used in X-ray telescopes are grazing incidence mirrors and coded apertures. The limitations of X-ray optics result in much narrower fields of view than visible or UV telescopes."<ref name=Xraytelescope>{{ cite web
(contracted; show full)|title=Wolter telescope, In: ''Wikipedia''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=February 20,
|year=2012
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolter_telescope
|accessdate=2012-06-15 }}</ref>

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={{clear}}

=[[Instruments/Telescopes/Opticals|Optical telescopes]]=
[[Image:HST-SM4.jpeg|thumb|right|200px|The Hubble Space Telescope is seen from the departing Space Shuttle Atlantis, flying Servicing Mission 4 (STS-125), the fifth and final human spaceflight to visit the observatory. Credit: Ruffnax (Crew of STS-125).]]
[[Image:HaleTelescope-MountPalomar.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Mt.Palomar's 200-inch Telescope, pointing to the zenith, is seen from the east side. Note the person standing below the telescope (center-right at the bottom of the image). Credit: NASA.]]
(contracted; show full)|location=San Francisco, California
|month=December 9,
|year=2013
|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maksutov_telescope
|accessdate=2014-01-03 }}</ref>
{{clear}}

=
[[Instruments/Telescopes/Ultraviolets|Ultraviolet telescopes]]=

"The Extreme ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (EIT) is an instrument on the [[w:Solar and Heliospheric Observatory|SOHO]] spacecraft used to obtain high-resolution images of the solar corona in the ultraviolet range. The EIT instrument is sensitive to light of four different wavelengths: 17.1, 19.5, 28.4, and 30.4 nm, corresponding to light produced by highly ionized iron (XI)/(X), (XII), (XV), and helium (II), respectively. EIT is built as a single telescope with a quadrant structure to the entrance m(contracted; show full)

"The multilayer technology allows conventional telescope forms (such as the Cassegrain or Ritchey-Chretien designs) to be used in a novel part of the spectrum."<ref name=ExtremeUltravioletImagingTelescope/>

=
[[Instruments/Telescopes/Visuals|Visual telescopes]]=
[[Image:USNO Refractor 1904.jpg|thumb|right|200px|This image shows the 26-inch Warner & Swasey refracting telescope at the United States Naval Observatory. Credit: Waldon Fawcett.]]
“I think everyone can conjure up a mental image of astronomers at every level and place in history, gazing through the eyepieces of their telescopes at sights far away - true visual astronomy.”<ref name=Cooke>{{ cite book
|author=Antony Cooke
|title=Visual Astronomy Under Dark Skies: A New Approach to Observing Deep Space
|publisher=Springer-Verlag
|location=London
|month=
|year=2005
|editor=
|pages=180
|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=SXmrBfl4H3sC&dq=entity+astronomy&lr=&source=gbs_navlinks_s
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|isbn=1852339012
|pdf=⏎
|accessdate=2011-11-06 }}</ref>
{{clear}}

=[[Filters/Astronomy|Astronomical filters]]=
[[Image:Dichroic filters.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[w:Ultraviolet|Ultraviolet]] filters are used in astronomy for blocking this part of the spectrum, which causes the camera to heat up when photographing without affecting the image. Credit: .]]
(contracted; show full)
|title=Astronomical filter, In: ''Wikipedia''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=July 18,
|year=2012
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_filter
|accessdate=2012-07-29 }}</ref>

⏎
={{clear}}

=[[Instruments/Telescopes/Infrareds|Infrared telescopes]]=
[[Image:Spitzer- Telescopio.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The image shows the Spitzer Space Telescope prior to launch. Credit: NASA/JPL/Caltech.]]
[[Image:Diagram Reflector RitcheyChretien.svg|thumb|right|200px|The diagram is  of a Ritchey-Chrétien reflector telescope. Credit: .]]
[[Image:NOFS 40inch03.jpg|thumb|left|200px|This is an early Ritchey-Chrétien reflector telescope. Credit: P. Shankland.]]
(contracted; show full)

The telescope at left is the early Ritchey–Chrétien 1.0 meter telescope at NOFS at the [[w:United States Naval Observatory Flagstaff Station|United States Naval Observatory Flagstaff Station]].

=
[[Instruments/Telescopes/Submillimeters|Submillimeter telescopes]]=
[[Image:Caltech-Submillimeter-Observatory (straightened).jpg|thumb|right|200px|This photograph shows the 10.4-metre diameter submillimeter wavelength telescope of the Caltech Submillimeter Observatory (CSO). Credit: [http://www.flickr.com/people/62472689@N00 Samuel Bouchard] from Quebec City, Canada; modified by [[commons:User:Huntster|Huntster]].]]
(contracted; show full)|location=San Francisco, California
|month=May 5,
|year=2012
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Hertz_Submillimeter_Telescope
|accessdate=2012-08-04 }}</ref>
{{clear}}

=
[[Instruments/Telescopes/Radios|Radio telescopes]]=
[[Image:parkes.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|200px|This 64 meter radio telescope is at [[w:Parkes Observatory|Parkes Observatory]] Credit: John Sarkissian (CSIRO Parkes Observatory).]]
'''Def.''' “[a] device for observstudying astronomical sources of radio waves”, after Wiktionary [[wikt:radio telescope|radio telescope]],<ref name=RadioTelescopeWikt>{{ cite web
|author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]]
|title=radio telescope, In: ''Wiktionary''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=4 September
|year=2015
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/radio_telescope
|accessdate=2015-09-18 }}</ref> is called a '''radio telescope'''.

“A '''radio telescope''' is a form of [[w:Directional antennae|directional]] [[radio]] [[w:Antenna (radio)|antenna]], [as] used in tracking and collecting data from [[w:satellite|satellite]]s and [[w:space probe|space probe]]s ... that [operates]  in the [[w:radio frequency|radio frequency]] portion of the [[w:electromagnetic spectrum|electromagnetic spectrum]] ... Radio telescopes are typically large [[w:Parabolic antenna|parabolic]] ("dish") antennas used singly or in an array. Radio [[w:observatory|observatories]] are preferentially located far from major centers of population to avoid [[w:electromagnetic interference|electromagnetic interference]] (EMI) from radio, [[w:TV|TV]], [[w:radar|radar]], and other EMI emitting devices.”<ref name=RadioTelescope>{{ cite web
|title=Radio telescope, In: ''Wikipedia''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=29 January
|year=2015
|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_telescope
|accessdate=2015-02-03 }}</ref>
{{clear}}

=[[Instruments/Telescopes/Microwaves|Microwave telescopes]]=
[[Image:RTEmagicC Planck satellite 01.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The Planck telescope was launched in 2009 to observe the Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation. Credit: ESA.]]
"The basic scientific goal of the Planck mission is to measure [cosmic microwave background] CMB anisotropies at all angular scales larger than 10 arcminutes over the entire sky with a precision of ~2 parts per million. The model payload consists of a 1.5 meter off-axis telescope with two focal plane arrays of detectors sharing the focal plane. Low frequencies will be covered by 56 tuned radio receivers sensitive to 30-100 GHz, while high frequencies will be covered by 56 bolometers sensitive to 100-850 GHz."<ref name=Chuss>{{ cite web
|author=David T. Chuss
|title=The Planck Mission
|publisher=Goddard Space Flight Center
|location=Greenbelt, Maryland USA
|month=April 18,
|year=2008
|url=http://lambda.gsfc.nasa.gov/product/space/p_overview.cfm
|accessdate=2013-12-12 }}</ref>
{{clear}}

=[[Instruments/Telescopes/Radars|Radar telescopes]]=
[[Image:ADU-1000-3.jpg|thumb|200px|right|This image shows the early planetary radar at [[w:Pluton (complex)|Pluton]], USSR, 1960. Credit: [[commons:User:Rumlin|Rumlin]].]]
[[Image:Arecibo Observatory Aerial View.jpg|thumb|left|200px|The Arecibo Radio Telescope, Arecibo, Puerto Rico, at 1000 feet (305 m) across, is the largest dish antenna in the world. Credit: H. Schweiker/WIYN and NOAO/AURA/NSF, NOAA.]]
(contracted; show full)|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=December 18,
|year=2011
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Array_of_Low_Energy_X-ray_Imaging_Sensors
|accessdate=2012-12-09 }}</ref>

=
[[Research]]=

==Proof of concept==

'''Def.''' "[a] short and/or incomplete [[wikt:realization|realization]] of a certain [[wikt:method|method]]Hypothesis:

==[[Control groups]]==
[[Image:Lewis rat.jpg|thumb|right|200px|This is an image of a Lewis rat. Credit: Charles River Laboratories.]]
The findings demonstrate a statistically systematic change from the ''status quo'' or the control group.

“In the design of experiments, treatments [or special properties or characteristics] are applied to [or observed in] experimental units in the '''treatment group'''(s).<ref name=Hinkelmann>{{ cite book
|author=Klaus Hinkelmann, Oscar Kempthorne
|year=2008
|title=Design and Analysis of Experiments, Volume I: Introduction to Experimental Design
|url=http://books.google.com/?id=T3wWj2kVYZgC&printsec=frontcover
|edition=2nd
|publisher=Wiley
|isbn=978-0-471-72756-9
|mr=2363107 }}</ref> In ''comparative'' experiments, members of the complementary group, the '''control group''',  receive either ''no''&nbsp;treatment or a ''standard'' treatment.<ref name="Bailey">{{ cite book
|author=R. A. Bailey
|title=Design of comparative experiments
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
|url=http://www.cambridge.org/uk/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=9780521683579
|year=2008 
|mr=2422352
|isbn=978-0-521-68357-9
|url1=http://www.maths.qmul.ac.uk/~rab/DOEbook/ }}</ref>"<ref name=ControlGroup>{{ cite web
|title=Treatment and control groups, In: ''Wikipedia''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=May 18,
|year=2012
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_group
|accessdate=2012-05-31 }}</ref>

A control group for a radiation telescope would contain
# an aperture, or an entry avenue into the instrument,
# collimators, or lenses, to concentrate radiation,
# moderators, to systematically reduce the incoming radiation so as to allow determination of incoming direction,
# detectors, or sensors, to convert the incoming radiation into electrical impulses,
# amplifiers, or processors, and
# supports, to provide orientation and stability of all components.
{{clear}}

==[[Proof of concept]]==

'''Def.''' a “short and/or incomplete realization of a certain method or idea to demonstrate its feasibility"<ref name=ProofofConceptWikt>{{ cite web
|title=proof of concept, In: ''Wiktionary''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=November 10,
|year=2012
|url=http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/proof_of_concept
|accessdate=2013-01-13 }}</ref> is called a '''proof of concept'''.

'''Def.''' evidence that demonstrates that a concept is possible is called '''proof of concept'''.

The proof-of-concept structure consists of
# background,
# procedures,
# findings, and
# interpretation.<ref name=Lehrman>{{ cite journal
|author=Ginger Lehrman and Ian B Hogue, Sarah Palmer, Cheryl Jennings, Celsa A Spina, Ann Wiegand, Alan L Landay, Robert W Coombs, Douglas D Richman, John W Mellors, John M Coffin, Ronald J Bosch, David M Margolis
|title=Depletion of latent HIV-1 infection in vivo: a proof-of-concept study
|journal=Lancet
|month=August 13,
|year=2005
|volume=366
|issue=9485
|pages=549-55
|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140673605670985ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1894952/
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(05)67098-5
|pmid=
|pdf=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1894952/⏎
|accessdate=2012-05-09 }}</ref>

Proof of concept consists of a prototype instrument or device that makes a distant source appear nearer.

==Proof of technology==

"[T]he objective of a proof of technology is to determine the solution to some technical problem, such as how two systems might be integrated or that a certain throughput can be achieved with a given configuration."<ref name=ProofofConceptWikt/>{{ cite web
|title=Proof of concept, In: ''Wikipedia''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=December 27,
|year=2012
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proof_of_concept
|accessdate=2013-01-13 }}</ref>

'''Def.'''⏎
# "[a]n original object or form which is a basis for other objects, forms, or for its models and generalizations",<ref name=PrototypeWikt>{{ cite web
|title=prototype, In: ''Wiktionary''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=December 8,
|year=2013
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/prototype
|accessdate=2014-01-03 }}</ref> is called a '''prototype'''.

'''Def.'''⏎
# "[a]n early sample or model built to test a concept or process",<ref name=PrototypeWikt/> is called a '''prototype'''.

'''Def.'''or
# "[a]n instance of a [[wikt:category|category]] or a [[wikt:concept|concept]] that combines its most representative attributes"<ref name=PrototypeWikt/> is called a '''prototype'''.

'''Def.''' "[t]o test something using the conditions that it was designed to operate under, especially out in the real world instead of in a laboratory or workshop"<ref name=FieldTestWikt>{{ cite web
|title=field-test, In: ''Wiktionary''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=August 5,
|year=2012
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/field-test
|accessdate=20143-01-013 }}</ref> is called "field-test", or a '''field test'''.

A "proof-of-technology prototype ... typically implements one critical scenario to exercise or stress the highest-priority requirements."<ref name=Liu>{{ cite journal
|author=A. Liu; I. Gorton
|title=Accelerating COTS middleware acquisition: the i-Mate process
|journal=Software, IEEE
|month=March/April
|year=2003
|volume=20
|issue=2
|pages=72-9
|url=http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/abs_all.jsp?arnumber=1184171
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1109/MS.2003.1184171
|pmid=
|pdf=http://cin.ufpe.br/~redis/intranet/bibliography/middleware/liu-cots03.pdf
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1109/MS.2003.1184171
|pmid=⏎
|accessdate=2012-02-15 }}</ref>

"[A] proof-of-technology test demonstrates the system can be used"<ref name=Wessel>{{ cite journal
|author=Rhea Wessel
|title=Cargo-Tracking System Combines RFID, Sensors, GSM and Satellite
|journal=RFID Journal
|month=January 25,
|year=2008
|volume=
|issue=
|pages=1-2
|url=http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/pdf/3870/1/1/rfidjournal-article3870.PDF
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|pdf=⏎
|accessdate=2012-02-15 }}</ref>.

"The strongest proof of technology performance is based on consistency among multiple lines of evidence, all pointing to similar levels of risk reduction."<ref name=Rao>{{ cite book
|author=P. Suresh, C. Rao, M.D. Annable and J.W. Jawitz
|title=''In Situ'' Flushing for Enhanced  NAPL Site Remediation: 
Metrics for Performance Assessment, In: ''Abiotic ''In Situ'' Technologies for Groundwater Remediation Conference''
|publisher=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
|location=Cincinnati, Ohio
|month=August
|year=2000
|editor=E. Timothy Oppelt
|pages=105
|url=⏎
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|pdf=http://www.afcee.af.mil/shared/media/document/AFD-071003-081.pdf#page=108
|accessdate=2012-02-15 }}</ref>

==Control groups==

The findings demonstrate a statistically systematic change from the status quo or the [[control group]].

A control group for a radiation telescope would contain
# an aperture, or an entry avenue into the instrument,
# collimators, or lenses, to concentrate radiation,
# moderators, to systematically reduce the incoming radiation so as to allow determination of incoming direction,
# detectors, or sensors, to convert the incoming radiation into electrical impulses,
# amplifiers, or processors, and
# supports, to provide orientation and stability of all components.rxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=2012-02-15 }}</ref>

=See also=
{{div col|colwidth=12em}}
* [[w:List of telescope parts and construction|List of telescope parts]]
* [[Radiation]]	
* [[Radiation astronomy]]
* [[Radiation detectors]]
(contracted; show full)
* [http://cas.sdss.org/astrodr6/en/tools/quicklook/quickobj.asp SDSS Quick Look tool: SkyServer]
* [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/ SIMBAD Astronomical Database]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/SpacecraftQuery.jsp Spacecraft Query at NASA.]
* [http://www.springerlink.com/ SpringerLink]
* [http://www.tandfonline.com/ Taylor & Francis Online]
* [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/Tools/convcoord/convcoord.pl 
  Universal coordinate converter]
* [http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/advanced/search Wiley Online Library Advanced Search]
* [http://search.yahoo.com/web/advanced Yahoo Advanced Web Search]

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