Difference between revisions 2240146 and 2241195 on enwikiversity

[[Image:Ice cap.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is an aerial image of the ice cap on Ellesmere Island, Canada. Credit: National Snow and Ice Data Center.]]
'''Earth''' is a rocky astronomical object, a liquid object, a gaseous object, and a plasma object.
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==Astronomy==
{{main|Keynote lectures/Astronomy}}
[[Image:Greenland 42.74746W 71.57394N.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Satellite composite image shows the ice sheet of Greenland. Credit: NASA.]]
At the right is a satellite composite image of the ice sheet over Greenland.
{{clear}}

==Radiation astronomy==
{{main|Radiation astronomy}}
[[Image:Earth-moon.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This view of the rising Earth greeted the Apollo 8 astronauts as they came from behind the Moon after the lunar orbit insertion burn. Credit: NASA.]]
"Energetic photons, ions and electrons from the solar wind, together with galactic and extragalactic cosmic rays, constantly bombard surfaces of planets, planetary satellites, dust particles, comets and asteroids."<ref name=Madey>{{ cite journal
|author=Theodore E. Madey, ⏎
|author2=Robert E. Johnson, ⏎
|author3=Thom M. Orlando
|title=Far-out surface science: radiation-induced surface processes in the solar system
|journal=Surface Science
|month=March
|year=2002
|volume=500
|issue=1-3
|pages=838-58
(contracted; show full)d of the fjord, Kuannersuit Sulluat, reaching its maximum extent in summer 1999 before beginning to retreat. Sediment discharge to the fjord increased from 13 x 10<sup>3</sup> t day<sup>-1</sup> in 1997 to 38 x 10<sup>3</sup> t day<sup>-1</sup> in 1999. CTD results, sediment traps and cores from the 2000 melt season document the impact of the surge on the glacimarine environment of the fjord."<ref name=Gilbert>{{ cite journal
|author=Robert Gilbert
, ⏎
|author2=Niels Nielsen, ⏎
|author3=Henrik Möller, ⏎
|author4=Joseph R. Desloges, and ⏎
|author5=Morten Rasch
|title=Glacimarine sedimentation in Kangerdluk (Disko Fjord), West Greenland, in response to a surging glacier
|journal=Marine Geology
|month=
|year=2002
|volume=191
|issue=
|pages=1-18
(contracted; show full)
[[Image:Spectral reflectance curves.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The figure contains spectral reflectance curves for snow and ice in different formation stages. Credit: Jan-Gunnar Winther.]]
"A NASA camera on the Deep Space Climate Observatory (DSCOVR) satellite has returned its first view of the entire sunlit side of Earth [on the right] from one million miles away."<ref name=Cole>{{ cite book
|author=Steve Cole
 and ⏎
|author2=Rob Gutro
|title=NASA Satellite Camera Provides “EPIC” View of Earth
|publisher=NASA
|location=Washington, DC USA
|date=20 July 2015
|url=http://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-satellite-camera-provides-epic-view-of-earth
|accessdate=2015-12-09 }}</ref>

(contracted; show full)

"The search for life on extrasolar planets" requires a test of vegetation detectability from a single dot source.<ref name=Briot>{{ cite book
|author=Danielle Briot
, ⏎
|author2=Jean Schneider, and ⏎
|author3=Luc arnold
|title=The terrestrial vegetation observed in the Earthshine spectrum: a test for the detectability of vegetation on extrasolar planets, In: ''Proceedings of the Conference on Towards Other Earths: DARWIN/TPF and the Search for Extrasolar Terrestrial Planets''
|publisher=European Space agency
|location=Noordwijk, Netherlands
|date=October 2003
|editor=M. Fridlund, T. Henning
|pages=375-8
|url=
(contracted; show full)ght simulators [...] for land-change studies [there] is [...] DEM differencing [...], which compares DEMs over the same region from different time periods [like the 3D image at the right over Bhutan]. This allows quantification of surface elevation changes due to erosion, landslides, earthquakes, melting glaciers, construction of man-made features, and many other factors. It follows that historical DEMs are useful for land-surface change studies."<ref name=Maurer>{{ cite book
|author=Josh Maurer
 and ⏎
|author2=Summer Rupper
|title=A New DEM Extraction Method for Hexagon Spy Imagery and Application to Bhutan Glaciers
|publisher=DigitalCommons
|location=
|date=2014
|url=http://digitalcommons.usu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1360&context=spacegrant&sei-redir=1&referer=http%3A%2F%2Fscholar.google.com%2Fscholar%3Fstart%3D30%26q%3Dcyans%2Bglaciers%2B-acetic%26hl%3Den%26as_sdt%3D0%2C3#search=%22cyans%20glaciers%20-acetic%22
|accessdate=2014-09-25 }}</ref>

(contracted; show full)
"Dusts originating from the Sahara/Sahel region are frequently spread over the Mediterranean Sea [Moulin et al., 1997], sometimes reaching France and even southern England [Bücher and Dessens, 1992]. These dusts can be easily sampled a few times a year in the French mountains – mostly in the Alps and the Pyrénées–where they suddenly cover snow surfaces with thin, red-to-brown blankets."<ref name=Grousset>{{ cite journal
|author=Francis E. Grousset
, ⏎
|author2=Paul Ginoux, Aloys Bory, and ⏎
|author3=Aloys Bory
|author4=Pierre E. Biscaye
|title=Case study of a Chinese dust plume reaching the French Alps
|journal=Geophysical Research Letters
|month=March
|year=2003
|volume=30
|issue=6
|pages=1277
(contracted; show full)
"Active and passive microwave satellite data are used to map snowmelt extent and duration on the Greenland ice sheet. The passive microwave (PM) data reveal the extreme melt extent of 690,000 km<sup>2</sup> in 2002 as compared with an average extent of 455,000 km<sup>2</sup> from 1979–2003."<ref name=Steffen>{{ cite journal
|author=K. Steffen
, ⏎
|author2=S. V. Nghiem, R. Huff, and ⏎
|author3=R. Huff
|author4=G. Neumann
|title=The melt anomaly of 2002 on the Greenland Ice Sheet from active and passive microwave satellite observations
|journal=Geophysical Research Letters
|month=21 October
|year=2004
|volume=21
|issue=20
|pages=
(contracted; show full)

"Paul Lake is located [...] at the border of Wisconsin and the upper peninsula of Michigan, USA [...] The center of the property is positioned at 46°13'N 89°32'E, with an altitude range between 500 and 520 m."<ref name=Lienemann>{{ cite journal
|author=Charles-Philippe Lienemann
, ⏎
|author2=Martial Taillepert, ⏎
|author3=Didier Perret, and ⏎
|author4=Jean-François Gaillard
|title=Association of cobalt and manganese in aquatic systems: Chemical and microscopic evidence
|journal=Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta
|month=
|year=1997
|volume=61
|issue=7
|pages=1437-46
(contracted; show full)otential opportunity to evaluate water quality deterioration related to glacial retreat. [...] In the Cordillera Blanca, the exposure of fresh sulfide-rich lithologies by retreating glaciers (Wilson et al., 1967) is thus integral to the biogeochemistry of proglacial streams. [...] the dry season geochemistry of trace and minor elements was examined in the proglacial Rio Quilcay from within 1 km of its glacier origins to 12 km downstream."<ref name=Fortner>{{ cite journal
|author=Sarah K. Fortner
, ⏎
|author2=Bryan G. Mark, ⏎
|author3=Jeffrey M. McKenzie, ⏎
|author4=Jeffrey Bury, ⏎
|author5=Annette Trierweiler, ⏎
|author6=Michel Baraer, ⏎
|author7=Patrick J. Burns, and ⏎
|author8=LeeAnn Munk
|title=Elevated stream trace and minor element concentrations in the foreland of receding tropical glaciers
|journal=Applied Geochemistry
|month=
|year=2011
|volume=26
|issue=
|pages=1792-1801
(contracted; show full)t;134</sup>Cs, <sup>90</sup>Sr, <sup>238,239+240</sup>Pu, <sup>241</sup>Am, <sup>125</sup>Sb, <sup>154</sup>Eu, <sup>60</sup>Co and <sup>207</sup>Bi [in] combination with the naturally occurring radionuclides <sup>7</sup>Be and <sup>210</sup>Pb and isotopic ratios such as <sup>134</sup>Cs/<sup>137</sup>Cs".<ref name=Lettner>{{ cite book
|author=Herbert Lettner
, ⏎
|author2=T. Wilflinger, ⏎
|author3=A.K. Hubmer, ⏎
|author4=P. Bossew
|title=Extreme radionuclide accumulation on alpine glaciers in cryoconites
|publisher=International Congress of the International Radiation Protection Association
|location=Buenos Aires, Argentina
|date=19 October 2008
|editor=
|pages=1
|url=https://inis.iaea.org/search/search.aspx?orig_q=RN:42103485
(contracted; show full)
"Approximately five million tonnes were mined from native copper deposits in Michigan. Copper masses from the Michigan deposits were transported by the Pleistocene glaciers. Areas on the copper surfaces which appear to represent glacial abrasion show minimal corrosion."<ref name=Johnson1980>{{ cite journal
|author=A.B. Johnson Jr.
 and ⏎
|author2=B. Francis
|title=Durability of metals from archaeological objects, metal meteorites, and native metals
|publisher=Battelle Pacific Northwest Laboratories, Department of Energy
|location=Richland, Washington USA
|month=01 January
|year=1980
|editor=
|volume=PNL-3198
|issue=TRN: 80-007629
|pages=
|url=http://www.osti.gov/scitech/biblio/5406419
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.2172/5406419
|pmid=
|accessdate=2014-10-28 }}</ref>

"A group of pixel areas north of Lake Superior [in the Landsat image on the right] take the form of a linear band which lies along the northern edge of the Port Coldwell Complex (D). [...] there are numerous Cu showings along the northern edge of the Port Coldwell complex (Ontario Division of Mines, 1971)."<ref name=Kettles>{{ cite journal
|author=I.M. Kettles, A.N. Rencz, and ⏎
|author2=A.N. Rencz
|author3=S.D. Bauke
|title=Integrating Landsat, Geologic, and Airborne Gamma Ray Data as an Aid to Surficial Geology Mapping and Mineral Exploration in the Manitouwadge Area, Ontario
|journal=Photogrammetric Engineering & Remote Sensing
|month=April
|year=2000
|volume=66
|issue=4
|pages=437-45
(contracted; show full)

"Ureilites occur about half as often as eucrites (Krot et al. 2003), are relatively friable, have less a wide range of cosmic-ray exposure ages including two less than 1 Myr, and, like the dominant group of MM precursors, contain carbon."<ref name=Taylor>{{ cite journal
|author=Susan Taylor
, ⏎
|author2=Gregory F. Herzog, Gregory, ⏎
|author3=Jeremy S. Delaney,
|title=Crumbs from the crust of Vesta: Achondritic cosmic spherules from the South Pole water well
|journal=Meteoritics & Planetary Science
|month=
|year=2007
|volume=42
|issue=2
|pages=223-33
(contracted; show full)|volume=28
|issue=1
|year=1997
|pages=1–12
|location=Cambridge (UK) 
|bibcode=1997JHA....28....1G }}</ref><ref name=Ptolemy>{{ cite book
|title=Ptolemy's Almagest
|author= Ptolemy
 and ⏎
|author2=Toomer, G. J.⏎
⏎
|publisher=Princeton University Press|date=1998|isbn=9780691002606⏎
⏎
}}</ref>

"And Helios, lord of the sun, sitting Away from the other gods, sitting in his own temple And listening to prayers breathing up from men: he heard."<ref name=Raffel>{{ cite journal
|author=Burton Raffel
|title=Homeric Hymn to Demeter 1-89
|journal=Arion
|month=Winter
|year=1970
(contracted; show full)
|author=US Geological Survey
|title=Iowa Meteorite Crater Confirmed
|url=http://www.usgs.gov/newsroom/article.asp?ID=3521|accessdate=7 March 2013 }}</ref>

At right is a "[r]ecent airborne geophysical surveys near Decorah, Iowa [which is] providing an unprecedented look at a 470- million-year-old meteorite crater concealed beneath bedrock and sediments."<ref name=Koontz>{{ cite book
|author=Heidi Koontz
 and ⏎
|author2=Robert McKay
|title=Iowa Meteorite Crater Confirmed
|publisher=U.S. Geological Survey
|location=12201 Sunrise Valley Dr, MS 119 Reston, Virginia 20192 USA
|date=March 5, 2013
|url=http://www.usgs.gov/newsroom/article.asp?ID=3521#.UVfS467Qorc
|accessdate=2013-03-30 }}</ref>

(contracted; show full)
Most aurorae occur in a band known as the ''auroral zone'',<ref name="feldstein63">{{cite journal
|year=1963
|title=Some problems concerning the morphology of auroras and magnetic disturbances at high latitudes
|journal= Geomagnetism and Aeronomy
|volume=3
|pages= 183–192
|author=Feldstein, Y. I. 
⏎
⏎
}}</ref><ref name="feldstein86">{{cite journal
|bibcode=1986EOSTr..67..761F
|author=Feldstein, Y. I.
|year=1986
|title= A Quarter Century with the Auroral Oval
|journal= EOS
|volume=67
|issue= 40
(contracted; show full)

'''Def.''' the study of the internal dynamics and effects of glaciers is called '''glaciology'''.

"Satellite imagery and data from ground surveys are used to reconstruct the integrated pattern of the principal longitudinal and transverse features produced on a continent-wide scale by the last ice sheets in Europe and North America."<ref name=Boulton>{{ cite journal
|author=G. S. Boulton
, ⏎
|author2=G. D. Smith, ⏎
|author3=A. S. Jones and ⏎
|author4=J. Newsome
|title=Glacial geology and glaciology of the last mid-latitude ice sheets
|journal=Journal of the Geological Society
|month=June
|year=1985
|volume=142
|issue=3
|pages=447-74
(contracted; show full)
[[Image:2007vk184a.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Asteroid 2007 VK184 has been eliminated as Impact Risk to Earth. Credit: Steven Chesley.]]
[[Image:2012 LZ1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image is of asteroid 2012 LZ1 by the Arecibo Observatory in Puerto Rico using the Arecibo Planetary Radar. Credit: Arecibo Observatory.]]
"From the dominant group, the asteroids evolve to intersect the Earth's orbit on a median time scale of about 60 Myr."<ref name=Michel>{{ cite journal
|author=Patrick Michel
, ⏎
|author2=Fabbio Migliorini, ⏎
|author3=Alessandro Morbidelli, ⏎
|author4=Vincenzo Zappalà
|title=The Population of Mars-Crossers: Classification and Dynamical Evolution
|journal=Icarus
|month=June
|year=2000
|volume=145
|issue=2
|pages=332-47
(contracted; show full)
{{clear}}

==Triassic==
{{main|History/Triassic|Triassic}}
[[Image:Triassic Utah.JPG|thumb|right|250px|This middle Triassic marginal marine sequence in southwestern Utah consists of siltstones and sandstones. Credit: [[w:User:Wilson44691|Wilson44691]].]]
The '''Triassic'''/Jurassic boundary occurs at 205.7 ± 4.0 Ma (million years ago).<ref name=Gradstein>{{ cite journal
|author=Felix M. Gradstein
, ⏎
|author2=Frits P. Agterberg, ⏎
|author3=James G. Ogg, ⏎
|author4=Jan Hardenbol, ⏎
|author5=Paul Van Veen, ⏎
|author6=Jacques Thierry, and ⏎
|author7=Zehui Huang
|title=A Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous Time Scale, In: ''Geochronology Time Scales and Global Stratigraphic Correlation''
|volume=SEPM Special Publication No. 54
|publisher=Society for Sedimentary Geology
|location=
|month=
|year=1995
|editor=
(contracted; show full)<!-- footer templates -->
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