Difference between revisions 2290301 and 2290302 on enwikiversity

[[Image:Skylab-73-HC-440HR.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Saturn V SA-513 lifts off to boost the Skylab Orbital Workshop into Earth orbit on March 14, 1973. Credit: NASA.]]
Astronomy is performed by location and is subject to local conditions. The shapes and sizes of observatories have changed over time, as have their altitude. The motivations for putting an observatory manned or unmanned at different altitudes has led to a great variety in '''lofting technology'''.
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==Technology==

'''Def.''' an "organization of knowledge for practical purposes"<ref name=TechnologyWikt>{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:193.219.157.22|193.219.157.22]]
|title=technology
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=5 December 2014
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/technology
|accessdate=2015-01-01 }}</ref> is called a '''technology'''.

"Usage notes

* Adjectives often applied to "technology": assistive, automotive, biological, chemical, domestic, educational, environmental, geospatial, industrial, instructional, medical, microbial, military, nuclear, visual, advanced, sophisticated, high, modern, outdated, obsolete, simple, complex, medieval, ancient, safe, secure, effective, efficient, mechanical, electrical, electronic, emerging, alternative, appropriate, clean, disruptive."<ref name=TechnologyWikt/>

==Lofting==

'''Def.''' propelling "high into the air"<ref name=LoftWikt>{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:20.133.0.13|20.133.0.13]]
|title=loft
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=16 May 2005
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/loft
|accessdate=2015-01-01 }}</ref> is called '''lofting'''.

==Lofting technology theory==

Here's a [[Definitions/Theory#Theoretical definition|theoretical definition]]:

'''Def.''' an organization of knowledge for the practical purpose of propelling high into the air or above the air is called '''lofting technology'''.

==Observatories==
{{main|Observatories}}
'''Def.''' "[a] place where stars, planets and other [[wikt:celestial body|celestial bodies]] are observed"<ref name=ObservatoryWikt>{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:Paul G|Paul G]]
|title=observatory
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=19 March 2004
|url=http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/observatory
|accessdate=2012-12-05 }}</ref> is called an '''observatory'''.

==Horizontal coordinate system==
{{main|Coordinates/Horizontals|Horizontal coordinate systems}}
[[Image:Horizontal coordinate system 2.svg|thumb|right|250px|This diagram describes altitude and azimuth. Credit: Francisco Javier Blanco González.]]
The altitude of an entity in the sky is given by the angle of the arc from the local horizon to the entity.

The horizontal coordinate system is a [[w:celestial coordinate system|celestial coordinate system]] that uses the observer's local [[w:horizon|horizon]] as the [[w:Fundamental plane (spherical coordinates)|fundamental plane]]. This coordinate system divides the sky into the upper [[w:sphere|hemisphere]] where objects are visible, and the lower hemisphere where objects cannot be seen since the earth is in the way. The [[w:Great circle|great circle]] separating hemispheres [is] called [the] celestial horizon or rational horizon. The pole of the upper hemisphere is called the [[w:Zenith|zenith]]. The pole of the lower hemisphere is called the [[w:Nadir|nadir]].<ref name=Schombert>{{ cite book
|url=http://abyss.uoregon.edu/~js/ast121/lectures/lec03.html
|title=Earth Coordinate System
|author=James Schombert
|publisher=University of Oregon Department of Physics
|accessdate=19 March 2011 }}</ref>

The horizontal coordinates are:
* '''Altitude (Alt)''', sometimes referred to as [[w:elevation (disambiguation) | elevation]], is the angle between the object and the observer's local horizon. It is expressed as an angle between 0 degrees to 90 degrees.
* '''[[w:Azimuth|Azimuth]] (Az)''', that is the angle of the object around the horizon, usually measured from the north increasing towards the east. 
* '''Zenith distance''', the distance from directly overhead (i.e. the zenith) is sometimes used instead of altitude in some calculations using these coordinates. The zenith distance is the [[w:complementary angles|complement]] of altitude (i.e. 90°-altitude).
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==Altitudes==
{{main|Distances/Altitudes|Altitudes}}
[[Image:Vertical distances.svg|thumb|right|250px|This diagram shows the different types of vertical flight distances an aircraft may have. Credit: Dr. Wessmann and  [[w:User:AronRubin|AronRubin]].]]
As a general definition, altitude is a distance measurement, usually in the vertical or "up" direction, between a reference datum and a point or object. Although the term altitude is commonly used to mean the height above sea level of a location, in geography the term elevation is often preferred for this usage. Vertical distance measurements in the "down" direction are commonly referred to as depth.

*'''Indicated altitude''' -- the [[w:altimeter|altimeter]] reading
*'''Absolute altitude''' -- altitude in terms of the distance above the ground directly below it
*'''True altitude''' -- altitude in terms of elevation above sea level
*'''[[w:Height|Height]]''' -- altitude in terms of the distance above a certain point
*'''[[w:Pressure altitude|Pressure altitude]]''' -- altitude in terms of the [[w:air pressure|air pressure]]
*'''[[w:Density altitude|Density altitude]]''' -- altitude in terms of the density of the air.
{{clear}}

==Altitude regions==
{{main|Locations/Earth/Altitudes|Altitudes}}
The [[w:Earth's atmosphere|Earth's atmosphere]] is divided into altitude regions:<ref name=NWS>{{ cite book
| title=Layers of the Atmosphere, In: ''JetStream, the National Weather Service Online Weather School''
| publisher=National Weather Service
| url=http://www.srh.noaa.gov/srh/jetstream/atmos/layers.htm
| accessdate=22 December 2005 }}</ref>
* [[w:Troposphere|Troposphere]] &mdash; surface to 8,000 m at the poles &ndash; 18,000 m at the [[w:equator|equator]], ending at the Tropopause.
* [[w:Stratosphere|Stratosphere]] &mdash; Troposphere to 50 km
* [[w:Mesosphere|Mesosphere]] &mdash; Stratosphere to 85 km
* [[w:Thermosphere|Thermosphere]] &mdash; Mesosphere to 675 km
* [[w:Exosphere|Exosphere]] &mdash; Thermosphere to 10,000 km.

==Earth radius==
{{main|Distances/Radius/Earth|Earth radius}}
[[Image:Lowresgeoidheight.jpg|thumb|right|400px|The diagram shows variation from the ellipsoid and sea level. Credit: .]]
Because the Earth is not perfectly spherical, no single value serves as its natural radius. Distances from points on the surface to the center range from 6,353 km to 6,384 km. ''Earth radius'' is also used as a unit of distance, especially in astronomy and [[geology]]. It is usually denoted by <math>R_\oplus</math>. Earth's rotation, internal density variations, and external tidal forces cause it to deviate systematically from a perfect sphere.<ref>For details see [[w:Figure of the Earth|Figure of the Earth]], [[w:Geoid|Geoid]], and [[w:Earth tide|Earth tide]].</ref> Local [[w:topography|topography]] increases the variance, resulting in a surface of unlimited complexity. Any radius falls between the polar minimum of about 6,357&nbsp;km and the equatorial maximum of about 6,378&nbsp;km (≈3,950 – 3,963&nbsp;mi). The bulge at the equator shows slow variations. The bulge had been declining, but since 1998 the bulge has increased, possibly due to redistribution of ocean mass via currents.<ref>[http://www.gsfc.nasa.gov/topstory/20020801gravityfield.html Satellites Reveal A Mystery Of Large Change In Earth's Gravity Field], Aug. 1, 2002, Goddard Space Flight Center.</ref>

The variation in [[w:density|density]] and [[w:Crust (geology)|crustal]] thickness causes gravity to vary on the surface, so that the mean sea level will differ from the ellipsoid. This difference is the ''[[w:geoid|geoid]] height'', positive above or outside the ellipsoid, negative below or inside. The geoid height variation is under 110 m on Earth. The geoid height can change abruptly due to earthquakes (such as the [[w:2004 Indian Ocean earthquake|Sumatra-Andaman earthquake]]) or reduction in ice masses (such as [[Greenland]]).<ref name=Grace>{{ cite book
|url=http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewpr.html?pid=18567
|title=NASA's Grace Finds Greenland Melting Faster, 'Sees' Sumatra Quake
|date=20 December 2005
|publisher=Goddard Space Flight Center }}</ref>

The delta of the [[w:Mississippi river|Mississippi river]] is further from the center of the Earth than the river’s origin in the state of Minnesota. As the river flows uphill, how is this possible?
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==Sea levels==
{{main|Distances/Sea levels|Sea levels}}
'''Mean sea level''' (MSL) is a measure of the average height of the ocean's surface (such as the halfway point between the mean high tide and the mean low tide); used as a standard in reckoning land elevation.<ref name=Proudman>{{ cite book
|url=http://www.straightdope.com/columns/read/148/what-is-sea-level#1
|title=''What is "Mean Sea Level"?''
|publisher=Proudman Oceanographic Laboratory }}</ref> MSL also plays an extremely important role in [[w:aviation|aviation]], where standard sea level pressure is used as the measurement datum of altitude at [[w:flight level|flight level]]s.

==Atmospheres==
{{main|Atmospheres|Atmospheric astronomy}}
[[Image:Atmospheric window EN.svg|thumb|450px|right|Absorption spectrum during atmospheric transition of electromagnetic radiation. An atmospheric transmission 'window' can be seen between 8-14 µm. Credit: .]]
'''Def.''' a layer of [[w:Gas|gases]] that may surround a material body of sufficient [[w:Mass|mass]],<ref name=Ontario>{{ cite book
|url=http://www.ontariosciencecentre.ca/school/clc/visits/glossary.asp
|title=Ontario Science Centre website }}</ref> and that is held in place by the [[w:gravity|gravity]] of the body is called an '''atmosphere'''.

'''Def.''' "[t]he [[wikt:gas|gases]] surrounding the [[Earth]] or any [[wikt:astronomical|astronomical]] body"<ref name=AtmosphereWikt>{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:212.159.113.112|212.159.113.112]]
|title=atmosphere
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=6 May 2003
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/atmosphere
|accessdate=2016-02-06 }}</ref> is called an '''atmosphere'''.

To overcome the limitations of observing in portions on either side of the visual, telescopes and spectrometers are lofted above the atmosphere for short times on board [[w:sounding rocket|sounding rocket]]s and balloons. Longer observing times are available with satellites placed into orbit around the Earth, the Sun, or other [[w:solar system|solar system]] bodies.

Absorption spectrum during atmospheric transition of electromagnetic radiation. An atmospheric transmission 'window' can be seen between 8-14 µm.
{{clear}}

==Natural electric fields of the Earth==
{{main|Charges/Interactions/Electromagnetics/Electric fields/Earth|Natural electric field of the Earth}}
The '''natural electric field of the Earth''' refers to the planet Earth having a natural [[w:direct current|direct current]] (DC) [[w:Electric field|electric field]] or potential gradient from the ground upwards to the [[w:Ionosphere|ionosphere]]. The static fair-weather electric field in the atmosphere is ~150 volts per meter (V/m) near the Earth's surface, but it drops exponentially with height to under 1 V/m at 30 km altitude, as the conductivity of the atmosphere increases.

The Earth is negatively charged, carrying 500,000 Coulombs (C) of electric charge (500 kC), and is at 300,000 volts (V), 300 kV,<ref name=Polk>{{ cite book
|author=C. Polk
|title=Relation of ELF Noise and Schumann Resonances to Thunderstorm Activity, In: ''Planetary Electrodynamics''
|publisher=Gordon & Breach
|location=
|date=1969
|editor=Coroniti SC, Hughes J.
|pages=55-83
|url=https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=wDXzhyskXOgC&oi=fnd&pg=PA55&ots=WeVGMuJPyf&sig=oy6kFVKrttABgfZ99meyM6rbXgg
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|isbn=
|accessdate=2012-12-08 }}</ref><ref name=Hill>{{ cite journal
|author=RD Hill
|title=Spherical capacitor hypothesis of the Earth's electric field
|journal=Pure and Applied Geophysics
|month=November-December
|year=1971
|volume=84
|issue=1
|pages=67-74
|url=http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00875454
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1007/BF00875454
|pmid=
|accessdate=2012-12-08 }}</ref> relative to the positively charged ionosphere. There is a constant flow of electricity, at around 1350 amperes (A), and resistance of the Earth's atmosphere is around 220 Ohms.<ref name=Farrell>{{ cite journal
|author=WM Farrell, MD Desch
|title=Is there a Martian atmospheric electric circuit?
|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research
|month=April
|year=2001
|volume=106
|issue=E4
|pages=7591-5
|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2000JE001271/full
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1029/2000JE001271
|pmid=
|accessdate=2012-12-08 }}</ref> This gives a power output of around 400 megawatts (MW), which is ultimately regenerated by the power of the Sun that affects the ionosphere, as well as the troposphere, causing thunderstorms. The electrical energy stored in the Earth's atmosphere is around 150 gigajoules (GJ).

The Earth-ionosphere system acts as a giant capacitor, of capacity 1.8 Farads.

The Earth's surface carries around -1 nC of electric charge per square meter.

==Stonehenge==
[[Image:Stonehenge.jpg|thumb|left|250px|[[w:Stonehenge|Stonehenge]] is a [[w:Neolithic|Neolithic]] monument that may have functioned as a celestial observatory. 102.8 masl. Credit: [[commons:User:Wigulf|Wigulf]].]]
Whatever religious, mystical or spiritual elements were central to Stonehenge, its design includes a celestial observatory function, which might have allowed prediction of eclipse, solstice, equinox and other celestial events important to a contemporary religion.<ref name=Hawkins>{{ cite book
| author=GS Hawkins
| date=1966
| title = Stonehenge Decoded
|url=https://www.biblio.com/stonehenge-decoded-by-hawkins-gerald-s/work/59753
|publisher=Souvenir Press
|location=Cambridge
| isbn= 978-0880291477 }}</ref>

“Stonehenge does not occupy a topographic high, but rather a site of intermediate elevation, such that the natural horizon, when viewed from the heel stone, is remarkably even and is sufficiently far away that its elevation above the astronomical horizon is a small angle.”<ref name=Robinson>{{ cite journal
|author=J. H. Robinson
|title=Evidence Concerning Stonehenge as an “Observatory”
|journal=Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society
|month=March
|year=1984
|volume=16
|issue=3
|pages=449
|url=
|arxiv=
|bibcode=1984BAAS...16..449R
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=2012-02-07 }}</ref>

“All results were registered by Professor Gowland in relation to a datum line [102.8 m] 337.4 feet above sea level.”<ref name=Lockyer>{{ cite book
|author=Morman Lockyer
|title=Stonehenge and Other British Stone Monuments Astronomically Considered
|publisher=Kessinger Publishing
|location=
|date=2003
|editor=
|pages=516
|url=https://archive.org/details/stonehengeandot00lockgoog
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|isbn=
|accessdate=2012-02-07 }}</ref>
{{clear}}

==Giza Pyramids==
[[Image:All Gizah Pyramids.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The pyramids of Giza. Credit: [http://liberato.org Ricardo Liberato].]]
“The Great Pyramid stands on the northern edge of the Giza Plateau, [60.4 m] 198 feet above sea level”.<ref name=Nikolic>{{ cite book
|author=Petko Vidusa Nikolic, Petko Nikolic Vidusa
|title=The Great Pyramid and the Bible : Earth's Measurements
|publisher=Mystik Book
|location=Kitchener, Canada
|date=2005
|editor=
|pages=65
|url=https://www.amazon.com/Great-Pyramid-Bible-Earths-Measurements/dp/0973237147
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|isbn=0973237147
|accessdate=2012-02-08 }}</ref>

Since the first modern measurements of the precise cardinal orientations of the pyramids by [[w:Flinders Petrie|Flinders Petrie]], various astronomical methods have been proposed for the original establishment of these orientations.<ref name=Belmonte>{{cite journal
|author=Belmonte, J. A.
|date=2001
|title= On the Orientation of Old Kingdom Egyptian Pyramids
|journal= Archaeoastronomy: Supplement to the Journal for the History of Astronomy
|volume=32
| issue = 26
|pages=S1–S20
|bibcode = 2001JHAS...32....1B
}}</ref><ref name=Neugebauer>{{cite journal
|last= Neugebauer
|first= Otto
| authorlink= Otto Neugebauer
|title= On the Orientation of Pyramids
|journal=Centaurus
| volume= 24
| pages= 1–3
| date= 1980
|doi= 10.1111/j.1600-0498.1980.tb00362.x
|bibcode = 1980Cent...24....1N
}}</ref> It was recently proposed that this was done by observing the positions of two stars in [[w:Ursa Major|the Plough / Big Dipper]] which was known to Egyptians as the thigh. It is thought that a vertical alignment between these two stars checked with a [[w:plumb bob|plumb bob]] was used to ascertain where North lay. The deviations from true North using this model reflect the accepted dates of construction.<ref name=Spence>{{cite journal
|author=Spence, K
|date=16 November 2000
|title=Ancient Egyptian Chronoology and the astronomical orientation of the pyramids
|journal=Nature
|volume= 408
|pages=320–324
|doi=10.1038/35042510
|pmid=11099032
|issue=6810
|bibcode = 2000Natur.408..320S
}}</ref> Some have argued that the pyramids were laid out as [[w:Graham Hancock#Orion Correlation Theory|a map of the three stars]] in the belt of Orion,<ref name=Hancock>{{cite book
|author=Hancock, G
|date=1996
|title=Fingerprints of the Gods
|publisher=New York: Three Rivers Press
|isbn=0-517-88729-0
}}</ref> although this theory has been criticized by reputable astronomers.<ref name="Fairall">{{cite journal|author=Anthony Patrick Fairall |date=1999 
|title=Precession and the layout of the Ancient Egyptian pyramids |journal=Astronomy & Geophysics |publisher=The Royal Astronomical Society |volume=40 |issue=4 |accessdate=2008-03-22 |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080228144915/http://www.antiquityofman.com/Orion_Fairall.html }}</ref><ref name="Krupp">{{cite journal|author=Krupp, Ed C.
|title=Rambling Through the Skies: Pyramid Marketing Schemes |journal=Sky and Telescope |date=February 1997 |url=http://www.antiquityofman.com/Krupp_pyramid_marketing_schemes.html |volume=94 |issue=2 |pages=64}}</ref>
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==Aldershot Observatory==
[[Image:Aldershot observatory 01.JPG|thumb|right|250px|This is an external photograph of the telescope housing. Credit: [[commons:User:Gaius Cornelius|Gaius Cornelius]].]]
The town is generally between 70 m and 100 m above sea level.

The location of the observatory can hardly be considered ideal for astronomical observations, even at the time of its construction. It is at a low elevation in an essentially urban setting of an army town with many nearby buildings that date from the time of its construction.[2] It is very near a road that is lit by streetlights, although this was somewhat ameliorated by a clockwork switch inside the observatory that would turn off the nearest streetlights for about 20 minutes. This clockwork system was upgraded in 1987. As the electricity supply has been removed in 2006, this facility is no longer available. ... In its current location, the observatory will be an island in a sea of houses and some people fear that it will be targeted by vandals or, perhaps, will have to be protected with high, unsightly fences.
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==Tuorla Observatory==
[[Image:Tuorla observatory tower.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This image shows the tower lofting technology of the Tuorla observatory. Credit: Xepheid.]]
Tuorla is located about 12 kilometres from Turku in the direction of Helsinki. The observatory is at an altitude of 60.6 m above sea level (asl).

A new observatory was needed because the old [[w:Iso-Heikkilä Observatory|Iso-Heikkilä Observatory]] close to the centre of Turku started suffering heavy [[w:light pollution|light pollution]] from nearby city and especially industrial areas to the south of the observatory. A new place was found in Tuorla, which is one of the small villages in (former) [[w:Piikkiö|Piikkiö]] municipality.

The observatory has several telescopes located around the main buildings and also international telescopes like the [[w:Nordic Optical Telescope|Nordic Optical Telescope]] are in use. The one meter [[w:Dall-Kirkham reflector|Dall-Kirkham reflector]] ([http://www.astro.utu.fi/research/telescopes/metri.htm]) is the largest optical telescope in Finland.

The main area of research in Tuorla is active galactic nuclei; about half of the researchers are working on the topic. Other areas are dark matter, cosmology, astrodynamics, binary stars, solar neighborhood, solar physics and astrobiology. The optical laboratory produces high quality optics for telescopes.
{{clear}}

==Arecibo Observatory==
[[Image:Arecibo Observatory Aerial View2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Arecibo Radio Telescope, Arecibo, Puerto Rico, at 1000 feet (305 m) across, is the largest dish antenna in the world. Credit: Michael D. Bicay.]]
The '''Arecibo Observatory''' is a [[w:radio telescope|radio telescope]] in the municipality of [[w:Arecibo, Puerto Rico|Arecibo]], [[w:Puerto Rico|Puerto Rico]]. The {{convert|1000|ft|m|abbr=on|sigfig=3}} radio telescope is the world's largest single-aperture telescope. It is used in three major areas of research: [[radio astronomy]], [[w:aeronomy|aeronomy]], and [[radio astronomy|radar astronomy]] observations of the larger objects of the Solar System. The main collecting dish is {{convert|1000|ft|m|abbr=on|sigfig=3}} in diameter, constructed inside the depression left by a karst sinkhole.<ref name=Brand>{{ cite book
| url=http://www.news.cornell.edu/releases/Jan03/NAIC.director.deb.html
| title=Astrophysicist Robert Brown, leader in telescope development, named to head NAIC and its main facility, Arecibo Observatory
| author=David Brand
| publisher=Cornell University
| date=21 January 2003
| accessdate=2008-09-02 }}</ref> It contains the largest curved focusing dish on Earth, giving Arecibo the largest electromagnetic-wave-gathering capacity.<ref name=Castel>{{ cite book
| url=http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/astronomy/arecibo_profile_000508.html
| title=Arecibo: Celestial Eavesdropper
| author=Frederic Castel
| publisher=Space.com
| date=8 May 2000
| accessdate=2008-09-02 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20000619110005/http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/astronomy/arecibo_profile_000508.html|archivedate=2000-06-19}}</ref> The dish surface is made of 38,778 perforated aluminum panels, each measuring about 3 by 6 feet (1 by 2 m), supported by a mesh of steel cables.

The telescope has three radar transmitters, with [[w:EIRP|effective isotropic radiated powers]] of 20 TW at 2380&nbsp;MHz, 2.5 TW (pulse peak) at 430&nbsp;MHz, and 300 MW at 47&nbsp;MHz. The telescope is a [[w:spherical reflector|spherical reflector]], not a [[w:parabolic reflector|parabolic reflector]]. To aim the telescope, the receiver is moved to intercept signals reflected from different directions by the spherical dish surface. A parabolic mirror would induce a varying [[w:astigmatism|astigmatism]] when the receiver is in different positions off the focal point, but the [[w:spherical aberration|error of a spherical mirror]] is the same in every direction.

The receiver is located on a 900-ton platform which is suspended 150&nbsp;m (500&nbsp;ft) in the air above the dish by 18 cables running from three [[w:Reinforced concrete|reinforced concrete]] towers, one of which is 110&nbsp;m (365&nbsp;ft) high and the other two of which are 80&nbsp;m (265&nbsp;ft) high (the tops of the three towers are at the same elevation). The platform has a 93-meter-long rotating bow-shaped track called the azimuth arm on which receiving antennas, secondary and tertiary reflectors are mounted. This allows the telescope to observe any region of the sky within a forty-degree cone of visibility about the local zenith (between −1 and 38 degrees of declination). Puerto Rico's location near the equator allows Arecibo to view all of the planets in the Solar System, though the round trip light time to objects beyond [[Saturn]] is longer than the time the telescope can track it, preventing radar observations of more distant objects.
{{clear}}

==National Observatory of Athens==
[[Image:Obser.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image shows the setting for the National Observatory of Athens. Credit: [[w:User:Dimboukas|Dimboukas]].]]
The National Observatory of Athens is 107 m asl.

The new 63 cm telescope in Penteli is used extensively by the astronomers of the Institute.

"Research areas of the [Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics] IAA range from Solar Physics to Cosmology. The IAA also runs the 2.3 m Aristarchos telescope at [[w:Chelmos Observatory|Helmos Observatory]] and the 1.2 m telescope at Kryoneri Observatory."<ref name=IAASARS>{{ cite book
|author=
|title=The Institute for Astronomy, Astrophysics, Space Applications and Remote Sensing
|publisher=
|location=
|date=
|url=http://www.astro.noa.gr/
|accessdate=2012-12-05 }}</ref>
{{clear}}

==High altitude deserts==
{{main|Locations/Earth/Altitudes/Deserts/High altitude deserts|High altitude deserts}}
[[Image:Atacama Submillimeter Telescope Experiment 01.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image shows the Atacama submillimeter telescope experiment. Credit: [[commons:User:Denys|Denys]].]]
"Bolometers are currently the best choice for sensitive direct detection of radiation at wavelengths between 200 μm and 2 mm (e.g., Refs. 1 and 2). [...] a bolometer operates by measuring the heating due to absorbed energy [... It] is sensitive to any type of energy reaching the absorber. [... Filtering does] not prevent cosmic, gamma, and x rays from reaching a bolometer."<ref name=Woodcraft>{{ cite journal
|author=Adam L. Woodcraft
|author2=Rashmi V. Sudiwala
|author3=Peter A. R. Ade
|author4=Matthew J. Griffin
|author5=Elley Wakui
|author6=Ravinder S. Bhatia
|author7=Andrew E. Lange
|author8=James J. Bock
|author9=Anthony D. Turner
|author10=Minhee H. Yun
|author11=Jeffrey W. Beeman
|title=Predicting the response of a submillimeter bolometer to cosmic rays
|journal=Applied Optics
|month=September 1,
|year=2003
|volume=42
|issue=25
|pages=5009-16
|url=http://www.opticsinfobase.org/abstract.cfm?id=74103
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=2013-10-22 }}</ref>

At right is the Atacama Submillimeter Telescope Experiment (ASTE). It "is a joint project between Japan and Chile to install and operate a high-precision, 10 m telescope in the Atacama desert for exploration of the southern sky in the sub-millimeter."<ref name=Kohno>{{ cite journal
|author=Kotaro Kohno
|title=The Atacama Submillimeter Telescope Experiment, In: ''The Cool Universe: Observing Cosmic Dawn''
|volume=344
|publisher=Astronomical Society of the Pacific
|location=San Francisco, California USA
|month=December
|year=2005
|editor=Chris Lidman and Danielle Alloin
|pages=242
|url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005ASPC..344..242K
|arxiv=
|bibcode=2005ASPC..344..242K
|doi=
|pmid=
|isbn=
|accessdate=2014-03-12 }}</ref> ASTE has a main reflector surface accuracy of 19 µm (RMS) and a pointing accuracy of 1.2" (RMS) [for both azimuth and elevation]."<ref name=Kohno/>

ASTE is located at Pampa la Bola (4860 masl) "in the Atacama desert of Northern Chile."<ref name=Kohno/>
{{clear}}

==Mountain tops==
{{main|Locations/Earth/Mountain tops|Mountain tops}}
[[Image:Grantelescopio.jpg|left|thumb|250px|The dome of the Grand Telescope is shown at sunset. Credit: [[commons:User:Pachango|Pachango]].]]
[[Image:Kitt Peak McMath-Pierce Solar Telescope.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This view is of the McMath-Pierce Solar Telescope at Kitt Peak National Observatory, near Tucson, Arizona. Credit: [http://www.flickr.com/photos/oceanyamaha/ ocean yamaha].]]
[[Image:Gornergrat -Switzerland -observatories-29Dec2009b.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Kölner Observatorium für SubMillimeter Astronomie (KOSMA) is a 3-m radio telescope located at 3,135 m on Gornergrat near Zermatt (Switzerland) in the southern tower (nearest to the camera). Credit: [http://flickr.com/photos/52614599@N00 Doc Searls].]]
[[Image:Kosma 3m breithorn small.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This is the KOSMA 3m submillimeter telescope on Gornergrat near Zermatt in Switzerland. Credit: Fachgruppe Physik.]]
[[Image:Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope with moon.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope is located at the Mauna Kea Observatory in Hawai'i. Credit: [[commons:User:Fabian_RRRR|Fabian_RRRR]].]]
The '''Gran Telescopio Canarias''' (meaning "Canaries Great Telescope"), also known as '''GranTeCan''' or '''GTC''', is a {{convert|10.4|m|in|abbr=on}} reflecting telescope at the Roque de los Muchachos Observatory on the island of La Palma, in the Canary Islands of Spain, as of July 2009. The telescope [is] sited on a volcanic peak {{convert|2267|m}} above sea level. As of 2009, it is the world's largest single-aperture optical telescope.<ref>
{{ cite book
| title = New telescope is world’s largest ... for now
| url = http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/32114355/ns/technology_and_science-space/
| author = Irene Klotz
| date = 2009-07-24 }}</ref>

The GTC began its preliminary observations on 13 July 2007, using 12 segments of its primary mirror, made of Zerodur glass-ceramic by the German company Schott AG. Later the number of segments was increased to a total of 36 hexagonal segments fully controlled by an active optics control system, working together as a reflective unit.<ref name=Tests>{{ cite book
| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/6897293.stm
| title = Tests begin on Canaries telescope
| publisher = BBC
| date = 14 July 2007 }}</ref><ref name=Giant>{{ cite book
|url=http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20070714/ap_on_sc/giant_telescope
|title=Giant telescope begins scouring space
|date= July 14, 2007 }}</ref> Its Day One instrumentation [is the Optical System for Imaging and low Resolution Integrated Spectroscopy] OSIRIS. Scientific observations began properly in May 2009.<ref name=IAC>{{ cite book
|url=http://www.iac.es/divulgacion.php?op1=16&id=588
|title=El Gran Telescopio CANARIAS comienza a producir sus primeros datos científicos
|publisher=IAC Press release
|date=June 16, 2009 }}</ref>

The '''McMath-Pierce Solar Telescope''' is a 1.6-m [[w:F-number|f/]]54 [[w:reflecting telescope|reflecting]] solar telescope at [[w:Kitt Peak National Observatory|Kitt Peak National Observatory]] in [[w:Arizona|Arizona]], USA. It is the largest telescope of its kind in the world and is named for astronomers [[w:Robert Raynolds McMath|Robert McMath]] and Keith Pierce.

The Kulmhotel Gornergrat, atop Gorgergrat, which is both mountain and ski slope, is also home to two observatories. The Kölner Observatorium für SubMillimeter Astronomie (KOSMA) [at second right] is a 3-m radio telescope located at 3,135 m on Gornergrat near Zermatt (Switzerland) in the southern tower (nearest to the camera).

"Because of the good climatic conditions at the altitude of 3135 m (10285 ft), astronomical observatories have been located in both towers of the “Kulmhotel” at Gornergrat since 1967. In 1985, the KOSMA telescope was installed in the southern tower by the Universität zu Köln and, in the course of 1995, replaced by a new dish and mount."<ref name=FachgruppePhysik>{{ cite book
|author=Fachgruppe Physik
|title=KOSMA
|publisher=Universität zu Köln
|location=Köln, Deutschland
|date=June 2, 2010
|url=http://www.astro.uni-koeln.de/kosma/
|accessdate=2014-03-12 }}</ref>

"The KOSMA telescope with its receivers and spectrometers was dedicated to observe interstellar and atmospheric molecular lines in the millimeter and submillimeter wavelength range. After 25 years of a successful era came to an end (June 2nd, 2010). The 3m KOSMA Radio Telescope left the Gornergrat and joined his long journey to Yangbajing / Lhasa / Tibet."<ref name=FachgruppePhysik/>

"Chinese and German scientists are establishing an astronomical observatory in a Tibetan county 4,300 meters above sea level."<ref name=Junjie>{{ cite book
|author=Wang Junjie
|title=China, Germany Build Astronomical Observatory in Tibet
|publisher=Chinese Academy of Sciences
|location=People's Republic of China
|date=October 2010
|url=http://english.cas.cn/highlight/200910/t20091014_45147.shtml
|accessdate=2014-03-12 }}</ref>

"Tibet is an ideal location because the water deficit in its air ensures superb atmospheric transparency and creates a comparatively stable environment for research in the areas of astrophysics, high-energy and atmospheric physics."<ref name=Jun>{{ cite book
|author=Yan Jun
|title=China, Germany Build Astronomical Observatory in Tibet
|publisher=Chinese Academy of Sciences
|location=People's Republic of China
|date=October 2010
|url=http://english.cas.cn/highlight/200910/t20091014_45147.shtml
|accessdate=2014-03-12 }}</ref>

"The observatory would house a KOSMA 3-meter sub-millimeter-wave telescope, the first of its kind to be used in general astronomical observation in China."<ref name=Jun/>

"It will boost China's research capacity in sub-millimeter astronomy and will hopefully provide a platform for astronomical experiments and training on the plateau and in the polar regions."<ref name=Jun/>

"Sub-millimeter astronomy refers to astronomical observations carried out in the region of the electromagnetic spectrum with wavelengths from approximately 0.3 to 1 millimeter."<ref name=Junjie/>

The Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope (CFHT) is a 3.6 m optical-infrared telescope located on 
the summit of Mauna Kea on the island of Hawaii."<ref name=Murdin>{{ cite book
|author=Paul Murdin
|title=Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope, In: ''Encyclopedia of Astronomy and Astrophysics''
|publisher=Institute of Physics 
|location=Bristol
|date=2000
|editor=Paul Murdin
|pages=
|url=
|bibcode=2000eaa..bookE4166.
|doi=10.1888/0333750888/4166
|pmid=
|isbn=
}}</ref> The CFHT is at an altitude of 4,204 meters [[w:Mauna Kea|Mauna Kea]] last erupted 4,000 to 6,000 years ago [~7,000 b2k]. The Mauna Kea Observatories are used for scientific research across the electromagnetic spectrum from visible light to radio, and comprise the largest such facility in the world.
{{clear}}

==Balloons==
{{main|Balloons}}
[[Image:Wallops Balloon With BESS Payload DSC00088.JPG|thumb|left|250px|A research balloon is readied for launch. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:Maxislaunch.jpg|thumb|right|150px|The MeV Auroral X-ray Imaging and Spectroscopy experiment (MAXIS) is carried aloft by a balloon. Credit: Michael McCarthy and NASA.]]
[[Image:BLAST on flightline kiruna 2005.jpeg|thumb|right|250px|BLAST is hanging from the launch vehicle in [[w:Esrange|Esrange]] near [[w:Kiruna|Kiruna]], [[w:Sweden|Sweden]] before launch June 2005. Credit: [[commons:User:Mtruch|Mtruch]].]]
[[Image:NASA Launches Telescope-Toting Balloon from-c3425de80831dab2a243aae9e0372fe7.jpeg|thumb|left|250px|NASA's balloon-carried BLAST sub-millimeter telescope is hoisted into launch position on Dec. 25, 2012, at McMurdo Station in Antarctica. Credit: NASA/Wallops Flight Facility.]]
Balloons provide a long-duration platform to study any atmosphere, the universe, the [[Stars/Sun|Sun]], and the near-Earth and space environment above as much as 99.7 % of the Earth's atmosphere. Unlike a rocket where data are collected during a brief few minutes, balloons are able to stay aloft for much longer. Balloons offer a low-cost, quick-response method for conducting scientific investigations. They are mobile, meaning they can be launched where the scientist needs to conduct the experiment, in as little as six months.

'''Research balloons''' are [[w:balloon|balloon]]s that are used for scientific research. They are usually (though not always) unmanned, filled with a lighter-than-air gas like [[w:helium|helium]], and fly at [[w:high altitude balloon|high altitudes]].

The Ultra Long Duration Balloon (ULDB) Project is developing new composite materials and a new balloon design, a standard gondola including power, global telemetry/command and an altitude control system. The ULDB is seeking to improve mission control and operations and the integration of scientific instruments. It is the potential for longer duration flights that has been the driver for the resurgence of interest in balloons by the scientific community. In recent years, the manned global ballooning attempts have called attention to the difficulty of achieving “longer”.

The MeV Auroral X-ray Imaging and Spectroscopy experiment (MAXIS) is carried aloft by a balloon for a 450 h flight from McMurdo Station, Antarctica. The MAXIS flight detected an auroral X-ray event possibly associated with the solar wind as it interacted with the upper atmosphere between January 22nd and 26th, 2000.<ref name= Millan >{{ cite journal
|author=R. M. Millan
|author2=R. P. Lin
|author3=D. M. Smith
|author4=K. R. Lorentzen
|author5=M. P. McCarthy
|title=X-ray observations of MeV electron precipitation with a balloon-borne germanium spectrometer
|journal=Geophysical Research Letters
|month=December
|year=2002
|volume=29
|issue=24
|pages=2194-7
|url=http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/2002.../2002GL015922.shtml
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1029/2002GL015922
|pmid=
|accessdate=2011-10-26 }}</ref>

The '''Balloon-borne Large Aperture Submillimeter Telescope''' ('''BLAST''') is a [[w:Submillimetre astronomy|submillimeter]] [[w:telescope|telescope]] that hangs from a [[w:high altitude balloon|high altitude balloon]]. It has a 2 meter primary mirror that directs light into [[w:bolometer|bolometer]] arrays operating at 250, 350, and 500&nbsp;µm.

The Columbia Scientific Balloon Facility operates and launches balloons from its remote site in Fort Sumner, New Mexico, USA. The Columbia Scientific Balloon Facility (CSBF) itself is located in Palestine, Texas, from which earlier balloon launches took place.

The various background effects [[w:OSO 1|OSO 1]] encountered prompted the flight of similar detectors on a balloon to determine the cosmic-ray effects in the materials surrounding the detectors.

It is discovered in an early balloon flight by experimenters in the 1960s that passive collimators or shields, made of materials such as lead, actually increase the undesired background rate, due to the intense showers of secondary particles and photons produced by the extremely high energy (GeV) particles characteristic of the space radiation environment.

At second left "NASA's balloon-carried BLAST sub-millimeter telescope is hoisted into launch position on Dec. 25, 2012, at McMurdo Station in Antarctica on a mission to peer into the cosmos."<ref name=SpaceDotCom>{{ cite book
|author=SPACE.com
|title=NASA Launches Telescope-Toting Balloon from Antarctica on Christmas
|publisher=SPACE.com
|location=
|date=December 25, 2012
|url=http://news.yahoo.com/photos/nasa-launches-telescope-toting-balloon-antarctica-christmas-photo-164200244.html;_ylt=AoHsK.HbhPGTU8L1bT1.REEbANEA;_ylu=X3oDMTRramh0MW1uBG1pdANBcnRpY2xlIFJlbGF0ZWQgQ2Fyb3VzZWwEcGtnA2IyNDU3MjZmLTQ0NjQtMzJjMC05NGY2LTM5MGUxYTdkMjhkMgRwb3MDMQRzZWMDTWVkaWFBcnRpY2xlUmVsYXRlZENhcm91c2VsBHZlcgMwNzE3Yjc3MC00ZjdjLTExZTItYWQ1ZC05ODBjY2Q0Njg5OGQ-;_ylg=X3oDMTNhNjM2ZDhuBGludGwDdXMEbGFuZwNlbi11cwRwc3RhaWQDOWMzMDIyNDctMWM5NS0zMGYwLWIzNGItNDZjMjJkMjY0MmUyBHBzdGNhdANzY2llbmNlfHNwYWNlLWFzdHJvbm9teQRwdANzdG9yeXBhZ2U-;_ylv=3
|accessdate=2012-12-26 }}</ref> The giant helium-filled balloon is slowly drifting about 36 km above Antarctica. It was "[l]aunched on Tuesday (Dec. 25) from the National Science Foundation's Long Duration Balloon (LDB) facility ... This is the fifth and final mission for BLAST, short for the Balloon-borne Large-Aperture Submillimeter Telescope. ... "BLAST found lots of so-called dark cores in our own Milky Way — dense clouds of cold dust that are supposed to be stars-in-the-making. Based on the number of dark cores, you would expect our galaxy to spawn dozens of new stars each year on average. Yet, the galactic star formation rate is only some four solar masses per year." So why is the stellar birth rate in our Milky Way so low? Astronomers can think of two ways in which a dense cloud of dust is prevented from further contracting into a star: turbulence in the dust, or the collapse-impeding effects of magnetic fields. On its new mission, BLAST should find out which process is to blame. ... [The 1800-kilogram] stratospheric telescope will observe selected [[star-forming region]]s in the constellations Vela and Lupus."<ref name=Schilling>{{ cite book
|author=Govert Schilling
|title=NASA Launches Telescope-Toting Balloon from Antarctica on Christmas
|publisher=SPACE.com
|location=McMurdo Station
|date=December 26, 2012
|url=http://news.yahoo.com/nasa-launches-telescope-toting-balloon-antarctica-christmas-164200686.html
|accessdate=2012-12-26 }}</ref>
{{clear}}

==Aircraft==
{{main|Airborne|Aircraft}}
[[Image:NASA C-141A KAO.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The telescope is within the rectangular black hole on the side of the C-141A KAO aircraft. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:446826main ED10-0080-03c 946-710.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The SOFIA observatory is flying with 100% open telescope door. Credit: NASA.]]
An airborne observatory is an airplane or balloon with an astronomical telescope. By carrying the telescope high, the telescope can avoid cloud cover, pollution, and carry out observations in the infrared spectrum, above water vapor in the atmosphere which absorbs infrared radiation.

The Gerard P. Kuiper Airborne Observatory (KAO) was a national facility operated by NASA to support research in infrared astronomy. The observation platform was a highly modified C-141A jet transport aircraft with a range of 6,000 nautical miles (11,000 km), capable of conducting research operations up to 48,000 feet (14 km). The KAO was based at the Ames Research Center, NAS Moffett Field, in Sunnyvale, California. It began operation in 1974 as a replacement for an earlier aircraft, the Galileo Observatory, a converted Convair CV-990 (N711NA).

The Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA) is based on a Boeing 747SP wide-body aircraft that has been modified to include a large door in the aft fuselage that can be opened in flight to allow a 2.5 meter diameter reflecting telescope access to the sky. This telescope is designed for infrared astronomy observations in the stratosphere at altitudes of about 41,000 feet (about 12 km). SOFIA's flight capability allows it to rise above almost all of the water vapor in the Earth's atmosphere, which blocks some infrared wavelengths from reaching the ground. At the aircraft's cruising altitude, 85% of the full infrared range will be available.<ref name=krabbe>{{ cite book
| author=Alfred Krabbe
| title=SOFIA telescope, In: ‘’Proceedings of SPIE: Astronomical Telescopes and Instrumentation’’
| pages=276–281
| date=March 2007
| publisher=SPIE — The International Society for Optical Engineering
| location=Munich, Germany
|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0004253
| arxiv=astro-ph/0004253 }}</ref> The aircraft can also travel to almost any point on the Earth's surface, allowing observation from the northern and southern hemispheres.
{{clear}}

==Space cannons==
{{main|Space cannons}}
[[Image:Project Harp.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image shows the High Altitude Research Project (HARP) 16 inch (406 mm) gun. Credit: [[w:User:Noahcs|Noahcs]].]]
Bull's ultimate goal was to fire a payload into space from a gun, and many have suggested that the ballistics study was offered simply to gain funding. While the speed was not nearly enough to reach orbit (less than half of the 9000 m/s delta-v required to reach Low Earth Orbit), it was a major achievement at much lower cost than most ballistic missile programs.

The '''Super High Altitude Research Project''' (Super HARP, SHARP) was a U.S. government project conducting research into the firing of high-velocity projectiles high into the [[w:Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] using a two stage [[w:light gas gun|light gas gun]], with the ultimate goal of propelling satellites into [[w:Earth orbit|Earth orbit]]. Design work on the prototype [[w:space gun|space gun]] began as early as 1985 at the [[w:Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory|Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory]] in California and became operational in December 1992.<ref name="astronautix">{{ cite book
|url=http://www.astronautix.com/lvs/sharp.htm
|title=SHARP at Encyclopedia Astronautica
|author=Mark Wade
|accessdate=2009-09-03}}</ref> It is the largest gas gun in the world.<ref name=Gourley>{{ cite journal
|author=Scott R. Gourley
|title=The Jules Verne Gun
|journal=Popular Mechanics
|month=December
|year=1996
|volume=
|issue=
|pages=
|url=http://www.dodtechmatch.com/DOD/Opportunities/PrintSBIR.aspx?id=SB112-002
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=2012-03-26 }}</ref>

The large g-force experienced by a ballistic projectile would likely mean that a space gun would be incapable of safely launching humans or delicate instruments, rather being restricted to freight or ruggedized satellites.

Atmospheric drag also makes it more difficult to control the trajectory of any projectile launched, subjects the projectile to extremely high forces, and causes severe energy losses that may not be easily overcome.

The lower troposphere is the densest layer of the atmosphere, and some of these issues may be mitigated by using a space gun with a "gun barrel" reaching above it (e.g. a gun emplacement on a mountaintop).

A space gun, by itself, is generally not capable of placing objects into stable orbit around the planet, unless the objects are able to perform course corrections after launch.
{{clear}}

==Sounding rockets==
[[Image:Nike-Black Brant VC XQC launch.gif|thumb|left|250px|Carried aloft on a Nike-Black Brant VC sounding rocket, the microcalorimeter arrays observed the diffuse soft X-ray emission from a large solid angle at high galactic latitude. Credit: NASA/Wallops.]]
[[Image:V2Sep1949.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The [[w:NRL|NRL]] Ionosphere 1 solar X-ray, ionosphere, and meteorite mission launches on a V-2 on September 29, 1949, from [[w:White Sands Proving Ground|White Sands]] at 16:58 GMT and reached 151.1 km. Credit: Naval Research Laboratory.]]
[[Image:VertikalNB-1.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Vertikal 1 is launched on November 28, 1970, at about 06:30 local time from Kapustin Yar. Credit: Norbert Brügge.]]
Additional technology used to benefit astronomy includes [[w:Sounding rockets|sounding rockets]] which may carry gamma-ray, X-ray, ultraviolet, and infrared detectors to high altitude to view individual sources and the background for each wavelength band observed.

A '''sounding rocket''', sometimes called a '''research rocket''', is an instrument-carrying [[w:rocket|rocket]] designed to take measurements and perform scientific experiments during its [[w:sub-orbital spaceflight| sub-orbital]] flight.

''Sounding'' in the rocket context is equivalent to ''taking a measurement''.<ref name=Marconi>{{ cite book
|last=Elaine Marconi
|date =12 April 2004
|url=http://www.nasa.gov/missions/research/f_sounding.html
|title=What is a Sounding Rocket?
|work=Research Aircraft
|publisher=NASA
|accessdate=10 October 2006 }}</ref>

The rockets are used to carry instruments from {{convert|50|to|1500|km}}<ref>[http://www.sites.wff.nasa.gov/code810/files/SRHB.pdf nasa.gov] NASA Sounding Rocket Program Handbook, June 2005, p. 1</ref> above the surface of the [[Earth]], the altitude generally between [[w:weather balloon|weather balloon]]s and [[w:satellite|satellite]]s (the maximum altitude for balloons is about {{convert|40|km}} and the minimum for satellites is approximately {{convert|120|km}}).<ref name=overview>{{ cite book
|date=24 July 2006
|url=http://rscience.gsfc.nasa.gov/srrov.html
|title=NASA Sounding Rocket Program Overview
|publisher=NASA
|accessdate=10 October 2006 }}</ref> Certain sounding rockets, such as the [[w:Black Brant rocket|Black Brant X and XII]], have an [[w:apogee|apogee]] between {{convert|1000|and|1500|km}}; the maximum apogee of their class. ... [[NASA]] routinely flies the [[w:RIM-2 Terrier|Terrier]] Mk 70 boosted [[w:Improved Orion|Improved Orion]] lifting {{convert|270|-|450|kg}} payloads into the [[wiktionary:exoatmospheric|exoatmospheric]] region between {{convert|100|and|200|km}}.<ref>''NASA Sounding Rocket Handbook''</ref>

A common sounding rocket consists of a [[w:solid-fuel rocket|solid-fuel rocket]] motor and a science [[w:Payload (air and space craft)|payload]].<ref name=Marconi/> The [[w:freefall|freefall]] part of the flight is an [[w:elliptic orbit|elliptic trajectory]] with vertical [[w:Semi-major axis|major axis]] allowing the payload to appear to hover near its apogee.<ref name=overview/> The average flight time is less than 30 minutes, usually between five and 20 minutes.<ref name=overview/> The rocket consumes its fuel on the first stage of the rising part of the flight, then separates and falls away, leaving the payload to complete the arc and return to the ground under a [[w:parachute|parachute]].<ref name=Marconi/>

Sounding rockets are advantageous for some research due to their low cost,<ref name=overview/> short lead time (sometimes less than six months)<ref name=Marconi/> and their ability to conduct research in areas inaccessible to either balloons or satellites. They are also used as test beds for equipment that will be used in more expensive and risky [[w:orbital spaceflight|orbital spaceflight]] missions.<ref name=overview/> The smaller size of a sounding rocket also makes launching from temporary sites possible allowing for field studies at remote locations, even in the middle of the ocean, if fired from a ship.<ref>{{ cite book
|url=http://www.pha.jhu.edu/groups/rocket/general.html
|title=General Description of Sounding Rockets
|accessdate=10 October 2006 }}</ref>

The '''Vertikal''' sounding rocket is one of many sounding rockets used by Russia and formerly by the Soviet Union, in addition to satellites, as part of an extensive solar ultraviolet and X-ray astronomy research effort. Vertikal 1 carried a Polish instrument for X-ray examinations of the Sun.<ref name=Hlond>{{ cite journal
|author=M. Hlond
|title=Technical details of the Polish experiment with the geophysical rocket Vertikal-1 and Vertikal-2
|journal=Pomiary, Automat. Kontr. (Warsaw)
|month=May
|year=1973
|volume=19
|issue=5
|pages=205-6
|url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1974STIN...7513787H
|arxiv=
|bibcode=1974STIN...7513787H
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=2012-12-09 }}</ref> Vertikal 1 and 2 studied solar radiation in the wavelength range 0.1 nm to 150.0 nm with regard to X-ray emission of the quiet Sun and solar X-ray bursts.
{{clear}}

==Aircraft assisted launches==
[[Image:Lockheed_TriStar_launches_Pegasus_with_Space_Technology_5.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Orbital Sciences' L-1011 jet aircraft releases the Pegasus rocket carrying the Space Technology 5 spacecraft with its trio of micro-satellites. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:Pegasus Carried by B-52 - GPN-2003-00044.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This image shows a Pegasus being carried to altitude by B-52. Credit: NASA.]]
The Pegasus is carried aloft below a carrier aircraft and launched at approximately 40,000 ft (12,000 m). The carrier aircraft provides flexibility to launch the rocket from anywhere rather than just a fixed pad. A high-altitude, winged flight launch also allows the rocket to avoid flight in the densest part of the atmosphere where a larger launch vehicle, carrying much more fuel, would be needed to overcome air friction and gravity.

The '''Galaxy Evolution Explorer''' ('''GALEX''') is an orbiting [[Ultraviolet astronomy|ultraviolet]] [[w:space telescope|space telescope]] launched on April 28, 2003 [at 12:00 UTC]. A [[w:Pegasus rocket|Pegasus rocket]] placed the craft into a nearly circular orbit at an altitude of {{convert|697|km}} and an [[w:inclination|inclination]] to the [[Earth]]'s equator of 29 degrees.

The '''Array of Low Energy X-ray Imaging Sensors''' ('''ALEXIS''') [[X-ray astronomy|X-ray]] telescopes feature curved mirrors whose multilayer coatings reflect and focus low-energy X-rays or extreme ultraviolet light the way [[w:optical telescope|optical telescope]]s focus visible light. ... The Launch was provided by the [[w:United States Air Force|United States Air Force]] Space Test Program on a [[w:Pegasus rocket|Pegasus]] Booster on April 25, 1993.<ref name=ALEXIA>{{ cite book
|title=ALEXIS satellite marks fifth anniversary of launch
|url=http://www.fas.org/spp/military/program/masint/98-062.html
|accessdate=17 August 2011
|publisher=Los Alamos National Laboratory
|date=23 April 1998 }}</ref>
{{clear}}

==Orbital rocketry==
[[Image:TRACE in cleanroom during assembly.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The TRACE spacecraft is imaged in its cleanroom during assembly. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:Atlas IIAS launch with SOHO.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The Solar Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) is launched atop an ATLAS-IIAS expendable launch vehicle. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:Thor Able Star with Transit 4A, Solrad 3 and Injun 1 (Jun. 29, 1961).jpg|thumb|right|80px|Lift-off of the Thor Able Star launch vehicle. Credit: US Air Force/Navy.]]
[[Image:Transit-4A Injun-1 Solrad-3.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Pictured here is the Solrad 3 X-ray astronomy observatory atop the satellite stack being fitted with a nose cone. Credit: US Navy.]]
[[Image:Explorer 11 ground.gif|thumb|right|250px|This photograph shows Explorer 11 with its orbital rocket. Credit: HEASARC GSFC NASA.]]
[[Image:Juno II rocket.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This image shows a Juno II launch vehicle like the one used to put Explorer 11 into Earth orbit. Credit: NASA.]]
With the advent of lofting technology comes the possibility of placing an observatory as a free floating yet when necessary either a geostationary, rotating, or fixed form in orbit. The TRACE spacecraft imaged at above right is in its cleanroom during assembly prior to launch.

The Solar Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) is launched at top left atop an ATLAS-IIAS expendable launch vehicle. The early Atlas is a development (an Intercontinental Ballistic Missile, ICBM) for defense as part of the [[w:Mutual assured destruction|mutual assured destruction]] (MAD) effort which helped to end the [[w:Cold War|Cold War]].

Lofting an observing system into an orbit around the Earth requires designing and testing for survival of the rocket trip upward and the orbiting technique (usually a second stage for orbital insertion). At left is an early X-ray observatory (Solrad 3), the spherical silver ball with antenna, atop a stack of satellites, being fitted with a nose cone to reduce atmospheric drag and to protect the satellites.

Once the satellite stack for Solrad 3 is securely aboard the second stage, the lofting rocket is fueled (when liquid fuel is used), and the launch commences. At right is the Thor Able Star rocket being launched by the US Air Force from Cape Canaveral, Florida, USA.

Solrad 3 is operated by the US Naval Research Laboratory beginning with its launch on June 29, 1961, through to the end of its mission on March 6, 1963. Although Solrad 3 did not successfully separate from the satellite immediately below it in the stack (Injun 1), it successfully returned solar X-ray data until late in 1961. It is not expected to re-enter the Earth's atmosphere for ~900 years.

'''Explorer 11''' (also known as '''S15''') was an American Earth-[[w:orbital spaceflight|orbital]] satellite that carried the first space-borne gamma-ray telescope. This was the earliest beginning of space [[gamma-ray astronomy]]. Launched on April 27, 1961 by a [[w:Juno II|Juno II rocket]] the satellite returned data until November 17, when power supply problems ended the science mission. During the spacecraft's seven month lifespan it detected twenty-two events from gamma-rays and approximately 22,000 events from cosmic radiation.
{{clear}}

==Sun-synchronous orbital rocketry==
{{main|Rocketry/Sun-synchronous|Sun-synchronous orbital rocketry}}⏎
[[Image:Heliosynchronous Orbit.png|thumb|right|250px|Diagram shows the orientation of a Sun-synchronous orbit (green) in four points of the year. A non-sun-synchronous orbit (magenta) is also shown for reference. Credit: [[commons:User:Brandir|Brandir]].]]
[[Image:ERS 2.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The photograph shows a full-size model of ERS-2. Credit:Poppy.]]
[[Image:Ariane42P rocket.png|thumb|right|250px|The ERS-2 is carried into a sun-synchronous polar orbit by an Ariane 4 similar to the one imaged. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:Launch of ESSA 9 Spac0044.jpg|left|thumb|250px|A night launch of meteorological satellite ESSA 9 is imaged on a Delta E1. Credit: [http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/ NOAA Photo Library].{{tlx|free media}}]]
A '''Sun-synchronous orbit''' (sometimes called a heliosynchronous orbit<ref name="shcherbakova">Shcherbakova, N. N.; Beletskij, V. V.; Sazonov, V. V. - Kosmicheskie Issledovaniia, Tom 37, No. 4, p. 417 - 427,
|url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999KosIs..37..417S</ref>) is a [[w:geocentric orbit|geocentric orbit]] which combines [[w:altitude|altitude]] and [[w:inclination|inclination]] in such a way that an object on that orbit ascends or descends over any given Earth latitude at the same local [[w:mean solar time|mean solar time]]. The surface [[w:illumination angle|illumination angle]] will be nearly the same every time. This consistent lighting is a useful characteristic for satellites that image the Earth's surface in visible or infrared wavelengths (e.g. weather and spy satellites) and for other remote sensing satellites (e.g. those carrying ocean and atmospheric remote sensing instruments that require sunlight).  For example, a satellite in sun-synchronous orbit might ascend across the equator twelve times a day each time at approximately 15:00 mean local time. This is achieved by having the [[w:Osculating orbit|osculating]] orbital plane [[w:precess|precess]] (rotate) approximately one degree each day with respect to the [[w:celestial sphere|celestial sphere]], eastward, to keep pace with the Earth's movement around the [[Sun (star)|Sun]].<ref name="me">M. Rosengren: ERS-1 - An Earth Observer that exactly follows its Chosen Path, ESA Bulletin number 72, November 1992</ref>

The uniformity of Sun angle is achieved by tuning the inclination to the altitude of the orbit such that the [[w:Equatorial bulge|extra mass near the equator]] causes the orbital plane of the spacecraft to precess with the desired rate: the plane of the orbit is not fixed in space relative to the distant stars, but rotates slowly about the Earth's axis. Typical sun-synchronous orbits are about 600–800&nbsp;km in altitude, with periods in the 96–100 minute range, and inclinations of around 98[[w:degree (angle)|°]] (i.e. slightly [[w:retrograde motion|retrograde]] compared to the direction of Earth's rotation: 0° represents an equatorial orbit and 90° represents a polar orbit).<ref name="me"/>

'''European [[w:remote sensing|remote sensing]] satellite''' ('''ERS''') was the [[w:European Space Agency|European Space Agency]]'s first [[w:Earth observation satellite|Earth-observing satellite]]. It was launched on July 17, 1991 into a Sun-synchronous polar orbit at a height of 782&ndash;785&nbsp;km.

ERS-1 carried an array of earth-observation instruments that gathered information about the Earth (land, water, ice and atmosphere) using a variety of measurement principles. These included:
* RA (Radar Altimeter) is a single frequency [[w:nadir|nadir]]-pointing radar altimeter operating in the [[w:Ku band|K<sub>u</sub> band]].
* ATSR-1 ([[w:AATSR|Along-Track Scanning Radiometer]]) is a 4 channel infrared radiometer and microwave sounder for measuring temperatures at the sea-surface and the top of clouds.
* SAR ([[w:synthetic aperture radar|synthetic aperture radar]]) operating in C band can detect changes in surface heights with sub-millimeter precision.
* Wind Scatterometer used to calculate information on wind speed and direction.
* MWR is a [[w:Microwave radiometer|Microwave Radiometer]] used in measuring atmospheric water, as well as providing a correction for the atmospheric water for the altimeter.

To accurately determine its orbit, the satellite included a Laser [[w:Retroreflector|Retroreflector]]. The Retroreflector was used for calibrating the Radar Altimeter to within 10&nbsp;cm.

Its successor, ERS-2, was launched on April 21, 1995, on an [[w:Ariane 4|Ariane 4]], from ESA's [[w:Guiana Space Centre|Guiana Space Centre]] near [[w:Kourou|Kourou]], [[w:French Guiana|French Guiana]]. Largely identical to ERS-1, it added additional instruments and included improvements to existing instruments including:
* GOME (Global Ozone Monitoring Experiment) is a nadir scanning ultraviolet and visible spectrometer.
* ATSR-2 included 3 visible spectrum bands specialized for [[w:Chlorophyll|Chlorophyll]] and [[w:Vegetation|Vegetation]]

The second image down on the left is a night launch of ESSA 9 aboard a Delta E1 rocket from Cape Canaveral, Florida. The launch occurred at 07:47 UTC (02:47 EDT) on February 26, 1969. The spacecraft was placed in a sun-synchronous orbit of 101.4° inclination. Immediately after launch ESSA-9 had a perigee of 1,427.0 kilometers (886.7 mi) and an apogee of 1,508.0 kilometers (937.0 mi), giving it an orbital period of 115.2 minutes, or a mean motion of 12.5 orbits per day.<ref name="Launch">[http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftOrbit.do?id=1969-016A Launch info]</ref> ESSA-9 operated for 1,726 days before it was deactivated in November 1972.
{{clear}}

==Shuttle payloads==
{{main|Rocketry/Orbitals/Shuttles|Shuttle payloads}}
[[Image:Onboard_Photo_-_Astro-1_Ultraviolet_Telescope_in_Cargo_Bay.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The ASTRO-1 observatory's suite of four telescopes points skyward from the payload bay of Columbia, STS-35. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:STS-45 payload.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The image provides a view of Atlantis's payload bay for the Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and Science (ATLAS-1). Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:STS-103 Reflection on astronaut's visor.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The Space Shuttle Discovery's Cargo Bay and Crew Module, and the Earth's horizon are reflected in the helmet visor of one of the space walking astronauts on STS-103. Credit: NASA]]
[[Image:Srtm 1.jpg|thumb|left|200px|The SRTM is flown on an 11-day mission of the [[w:Space Shuttle Endeavour|Space Shuttle Endeavour]] in February 2000.<ref name="NASA SRTM site">{{ cite book
|url=http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/srtm/
|title=Shuttle Radar Topography Mission: Mission to Map the World
|accessdate=2009-04-26 }}</ref> Credit: .]]
The primary payload of mission STS-35 [December 1990] was ASTRO-1 ... The primary objectives were round-the-clock observations of the celestial sphere in ultraviolet and X-ray spectral wavelengths with the ASTRO-1 observatory, consisting of four telescopes: [[w:Hopkins Ultraviolet Telescope|Hopkins Ultraviolet Telescope]] (HUT); Wisconsin Ultraviolet Photo-Polarimeter Experiment (WUPPE); Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (UIT), mounted on the Instrument Pointing System (IPS). The Instrument Pointing System consisted of a three-axis gimbal system mounted on a gimbal support structure connected to a Spacelab pallet at one end and the aft end of the payload at the other, a payload clamping system for support of the mounted experiment during launch and landing and a control system based on the inertial reference of a three-axis gyro package and operated by a gimbal-mounted microcomputer.<ref>STS-35 Press Kit,p.31,PAO,1990</ref> The Broad Band X-Ray Telescope (BBXRT) and its Two-Axis Pointing System (TAPS) rounded out the instrument complement in the aft payload bay.

The Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and Science (ATLAS-1) [(April 2, 1992) is] on Spacelab pallets mounted in orbiter's cargo bay. The non-deployable payload, equipped with 12 instruments from the United States, France, Germany, Belgium, Switzerland, The Netherlands and Japan, conducted studies in atmospheric chemistry, solar radiation, space plasma physics and ultraviolet astronomy. ATLAS-1 instruments were: Atmospheric Trace Molecule Spectroscopy (ATMOS); Grille Spectrometer; Millimeter Wave Atmospheric Sounder (MAS); Imaging Spectrometric Observatory (ISO); Atmospheric Lyman-Alpha Emissions (ALAE); Atmospheric Emissions Photometric Imager (AEPI); Space Experiments with Particle Accelerators (SEPAC); Active Cavity Radiometer (ACR); Measurement of Solar Constant (SOLCON); Solar Spectrum ([http://www.aerov.jussieu.fr/projet/SOLSPEC SOLSPEC]); Solar Ultraviolet Spectral Irradiance Monitor (SUSIM); and Far Ultraviolet Space Telescope (FAUST). Other payloads [aboard] included [the] Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV) experiment.

The '''Shuttle Radar Topography Mission''' ('''SRTM''') is an international research effort that obtained [[w:digital elevation model|digital elevation model]]s on a near-global scale from 56°&nbsp;S to 60°&nbsp;N,<ref name=NikP2>{{cite journal
|last1=Nikolakopoulos
|first1=K. G.
|last2=Kamaratakis
|first2=E. K
|last3=Chrysoulakis
|first3=N.
|date=10 November 2006
|title=SRTM vs ASTER elevation products. Comparison for two regions in Crete, Greece
|journal=International Journal of Remote Sensing
|volume=27
|issue=21
|issn=0143-1161
|accessdate=March 10, 2010
|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721081314/http://www.iacm.forth.gr/_docs/pubs/4/Nikolakopoulos_et_al_2006.pdf
}}</ref> to generate the most complete high-resolution digital topographic database of Earth prior to the release of the [[w:ASTER GDEM|ASTER GDEM]] in 2009. SRTM consisted of a specially modified radar system that flew on board the [[w:Space Shuttle|Space Shuttle]] [[w:Space Shuttle Endeavour|Endeavour]] during the 11-day [[w:STS-99|STS-99]] mission in February 2000, based on the older ''Spaceborne Imaging Radar-C/X-band Synthetic Aperture Radar'' (SIR-C/X-SAR), previously used on the Shuttle in 1994. To acquire [[w:Topography|topographic]] (elevation) data, the SRTM payload was outfitted with two radar antennas.<ref name=NikP2/> One antenna was located in the Shuttle's payload bay, the other &ndash; a critical change from the SIR-C/X-SAR, allowing single-pass interferometry &ndash; on the end of a 60-meter (200-foot) mast<ref name=NikP2/> that extended from the payload bay once the Shuttle was in space. The technique employed is known as [[w:Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar|Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar]].

"Spacelab 1 was the first Spacelab mission in orbit in the payload bay of the Space Shuttle (STS-9) between November 28 and December 8, 1983. An X-ray spectrometer, measuring 2-30 keV photons (although 2-80 keV was possible), was on the pallet. The primary science objective was to study detailed spectral features in cosmic sources and their temporal changes. The instrument was a gas scintillation proportional counter (GSPC) with ~ 180 cm<sup>2</sup> area and energy resolution of 9% at 7 keV. The detector was collimated to a 4.5° (FWHM) FOV. There were 512 energy channels.

Spartan 1 was deployed from the Space Shuttle Discovery (STS-51G) on June 20, 1985, and retrieved 45.5 hours later. The X-ray detectors aboard the Spartan platform were sensitive to the energy range 1-12 keV. The instrument scanned its target with narrowly collimated (5' x 3°) GSPCs. There were 2 identical sets of counters, each having ~ 660 cm<sup>2</sup> effective area. Counts were accumulated for 0.812 s into 128 energy channels. The energy resolution was 16% at 6 keV. During its 2 days of flight, Spartan-1 observed the Perseus cluster of galaxies and our galactic center region.
{{clear}}

==Orbital platforms==
{{main|Rocketry/Orbitals/Platforms|Orbital platforms}}
[[Image:Salyut7 with docked spacecraft.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This view of the Soviet orbital station Salyut 7 follows the docking of a spacecraft to the space station. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:Skylab and Earth Limb - GPN-2000-001055.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is an example of a manned observatory in orbit. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:STS-134 International Space Station after undocking.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The [[w:International Space Station|International Space Station]] is featured in this image photographed by an STS-134 crew member on the space shuttle Endeavour after the station and shuttle began their post-undocking relative separation. Credit: .]]
Skylab included an Apollo Telescope Mount, which was a multi-spectral solar observatory, ... Numerous scientific experiments were conducted aboard Skylab during its operational life, and crews were able to confirm the existence of coronal holes in the Sun. The Earth Resources Experiment Package (EREP), was used to view the Earth with sensors that recorded data in the visible, infrared, and microwave spectral regions.
{{clear}}

==Heliocentric rocketry==
{{main|Rocketry/Heliocentrics|Heliocentric rocketry}}
[[Image:Spitzer- Telescopio.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The image shows the Spitzer Space Telescope prior to launch. Credit: NASA/JPL/Caltech.]]
[[Image:300th Delta launches with Spitzer.jpg|thumb|left|250px|NASA's Space Infrared Telescope Facility (SIRTF, now Spitzer) lifts off from Launch Pad 17-B, Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, aboard a Delta rocket, on August 25, 2003 at 1:35:39 a.m. EDT. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:04-2530 ETSO Spitzer-3.png|thumb|right|200px|Spitzer's Earth-trailing solar orbit (ETSO) for a 62-month mission lifetime. Credit: Premkumar R. Menon, JPL/NASA.]]
[[Image:STS-41 Ulysses deployment.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Ulysses is photographed after deployment from [[w:STS-41|STS-41]]. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:Ulysses 2 orbit.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Ulysses' second orbit (1999–2004) included a swing-by Jupiter. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:Helios - testing.png|thumb|250px|right|A technician stands next to one of the twin Helios spacecraft during testing. Credit: NASA/Max Planck.]]
[[Image:Titan 3E Centaur with Helios 1.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Shown is Helios 1 sitting atop the [[w:Titan III|Titan IIIE]] / [[w:Centaur (rocket stage)|Centaur]] launch vehicle. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:Helios - Trajectory.png|250px|thumb|left|Trajectory of the Helio space probes is diagrammed. Credit: NASA.]]
The '''Spitzer Space Telescope''' ('''SST'''), formerly the '''Space Infrared Telescope Facility''' ('''SIRTF''') is an infrared space observatory launched from [[w:Cape Canaveral Air Force Station|Cape Canaveral Air Force Station]],  on a [[w:Delta II rocket|Delta II]] 7920H ELV rocket,  Monday, 25 August 2003 at 13:35:39 [[w:UTC-5|UTC-5]] ([[w:Eastern Daylight Time|EDT]]).<ref name=Harwood>{{ cite book
| author=William Harwood
| work=Spaceflight Now
| title=First images from Spitzer Space Telescope unveiled
| url=http://www.spaceflightnow.com/news/n0312/17sstresults/
| date= December 18, 2003
| accessdate=2008-08-23 }}</ref>

Cryogenic satellites that require liquid helium (LHe, T ≈ 4 K) temperatures in near-Earth orbit are typically exposed to a large heat load from the Earth, and consequently entail large usage of LHe coolant, which then tends to dominate the total payload mass and limits mission life. Placing the satellite in solar orbit far from Earth allowed innovative passive cooling such as the sun shield, against the single remaining major heat source to drastically reduce the total mass of helium needed, resulting in an overall smaller lighter payload, with major cost savings. This orbit also simplifies telescope pointing, but does require the [[w:Deep Space Network|Deep Space Network]] for communications.

"An Earth Trailing Solar Orbit (ETSO)" causes Spitzer "to drift from Earth at a rate of about 0.1 AU per year."<ref name=Johnson>{{ cite book
|author=Wyatt R. Johnson
|title=SIM Trajectory Design
|publisher=NASA
|location=Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, California, USA
|date=
|url=http://trs-new.jpl.nasa.gov/dspace/bitstream/2014/38850/1/04-2535.pdf
|accessdate=2012-12-09 }}</ref>

The figure at right shows the Earth-trailing solar orbit (ETSO) for Spitzer with the Earth at the origin and the Sun at left in the rotating coordinate frame "for an 8/25/03 launch projected onto the Ecliptic plane during the 62-month mission lifetime".<ref name=Menon>{{ cite book
|author=Premkumar R. Menon
|title=Spitzer Orbit Determination during In-Orbit Checkout Phase
|publisher=NASA
|location=Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, California, USA
|date=
|url=http://trs-new.jpl.nasa.gov/dspace/bitstream/2014/40027/1/04-2530.pdf
|accessdate=2012-12-09 }}</ref>

'''Ulysses''' is a robotic space probe designed to study the [[Stars/Sun|Sun]] as a joint venture of NASA and the European Space Agency (ESA). To obtain an Out-Of-The-Ecliptic (OOE) heliocentric orbit Ulysses swung by Jupiter. Between 1994 and 1995 it explored both the southern (June - October 1994) and northern (June - September 1995) solar polar regions. Between 2000 and 2001 it explored the southern solar polar regions, which gave many unexpected results. In particular the southern magnetic pole was found to be much more dynamic than the north pole and without any fixed clear location. It operates over the Sun's poles for the third and last time in 2007 and 2008. "After it became clear that the power output from the spacecraft's RTG would be insufficient to operate science instruments and keep the attitude control fuel, hydrazine, from freezing, instrument power sharing was initiated. Up until then, the most important instruments had been kept online constantly, whilst others were deactivated. When the probe neared the Sun, its power-hungry heaters were turned off and all instruments were turned on.<ref name=esaCP>{{ cite book
|url=http://www.esa.int/esaCP/SEMUHTN2UXE_index_0.html
|title=ESA Portal{{spaced ndash}}Ulysses scores a hat-trick }}</ref>

'''Helios 1''' and '''Helios 2''' are a pair of probes launched into heliocentric orbit for the purpose of studying solar processes. ... The probes are notable for having set a maximum speed record among spacecraft at 252,792 km/h<ref name=wilkinson2012>{{ cite book
| author=John Wilkinson
| title=New Eyes on the Sun: A Guide to Satellite Images and Amateur Observation
| series=Astronomers' Universe Series
| publisher=Springer
| date=2012
| isbn=3-642-22838-0
| page=37
| url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Ud2icgujz0wC&pg=PA37 }}</ref> (157,078 mi/h or 43.63 mi/s or 70.22 km/s or 0.000234c). Helios 2 flew three million kilometers closer to the Sun than Helios 1, achieving perihelion on 17 April 1976 at a record distance of 0.29 AU (or 43.432 million kilometers),<ref name=Helios>{{ cite book
|url=http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/profile.cfm?MCode=Helios_02&Display=ReadMore
|title=Solar System Exploration: Missions: By Target: Our Solar System: Past: Helios 2
|date= }}</ref> slightly inside the orbit of [[Mercury]]. Helios 2 was sent into orbit 13 months after the launch of Helios 1. The probes are no longer functional but still remain in their elliptical orbit around the Sun." On board, each probe carried an instrument for cosmic radiation investigation (the CRI) for measuring protons, electrons, and X-rays "to determine the distribution of cosmic rays.
{{clear}}

==Exploratory rocketry==
{{main|Rocketry/Exploratory|Exploratory rocketry}}
[[Image:72410main ACD97-0036-2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This diagram shows each of Pioneer 10's systems. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:Launch of Pioneer 10-2.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The launch of Pioneer 10 aboard an [[w:Atlas-Centaur|Atlas/Centaur]] vehicle. Credit: NASA Ames Resarch Center (NASA-ARC).]]
[[Image:Pioneer 10 mission jupiter.png|thumb|right|250px|This diagram shows the interplanetary trajectory for Pioneer 10. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:ISEE3-ICE-trajectory.gif|thumb|left|250px|ISEE-3 is inserted into a "halo" orbit on June 10, 1982. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:Titan 3E with Voyager 1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Voyager 1 lifts off on a [[w:Titan IIIE|Titan IIIE]]-[[w:Centaur (rocket stage)|Centaur]]. Credit: .]]
[[Image:Tour-v1-2.svg|thumb|left|250px|The primary mission trajectory of Voyager 1 is shown in the figure. Credit: .]]
'''''Pioneer 10''''' is a 258-kilogram [[w:Robotic spacecraft|robotic]] [[w:space probe|space probe]] that completed the first mission to the planet [[Jupiter/Keynote lecture|Jupiter]]<ref name=Fimmel>{{ cite book
|title=SP-349/396 PIONEER ODYSSEY
|author=R. O. Fimmel
|author2=W. Swindell
|author3=E. Burgess
|date=1974
|publisher=NASA-Ames Research Center
|url=http://history.nasa.gov/SP-349/ch8.htm
|accessdate=2011-01-09
}}</ref> and became the first spacecraft to achieve [[w:escape velocity|escape velocity]] from the [[w:Solar System|Solar System]].

Pioneer 10 was launched on March 2, 1972 by an [[w:Atlas-Centaur|Atlas-Centaur]] expendable vehicle from [[w:Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Space Launch Complex 36|Cape Canaveral]], [[w:Florida|Florida]]. Between July 15, 1972, and February 15, 1973, it became the first spacecraft to traverse the [[w:Asteroid belt#Exploration|asteroid belt]].

The '''International Cometary Explorer''' ('''ICE''') spacecraft was originally known as the '''International Sun/Earth Explorer 3''' ('''ISEE-3''') satellite.

ISEE-3 was launched on August 12, 1978. It was inserted into a "halo" orbit about the libration point some 240 Earth radii upstream between the Earth and Sun. ISEE-3 was renamed ICE (International Cometary Explorer) when, after completing its original mission in 1982, it was gravitationally maneuvered to intercept the comet P/Giacobini-Zinner. On September 11, 1985, the veteran NASA spacecraft flew through the tail of the comet. The X-ray spectrometer aboard ISEE-3 was designed to study both solar flares and cosmic gamma-ray bursts over the energy range 5-228 keV.

The instruments aboard ISEE-3 are designed to detect
# protons in the energy range 150 eV - 7 keV and electrons in the 10 eV - 1 keV range (Solar wind plasma experiment),
# Low, Medium and High-Energy Cosmic Rays (1-500 MeV/n, Z = 1-28, electrons 2-10 MeV, for Medium Energy; H to Ni, 20-500 MeV/n for High-energy),
# H-Fe 30 MeV/n - 15 GeV/n and electrons 5-400 MeV for the Cosmic-Ray Energy Spectrum experiment,
# 17 Hz - 100 kHz magnetic and electric field wave levels (Plasma Waves Spectrum Analyzer),
# low-energy solar proton acceleration and propagation processes in interplanetary space, Energetic Particle Anisotropy Spectrometer (EPAS),
# 2 keV to > 1 MeV interplanetary and solar electrons,
# radio mapping of solar wind disturbances (type III bursts) in 3-D, 30 kHz - 2 MHz,
# solar wind ion composition, 300-600 km/s, 840 eV/Q to 11.7 keV/Q, M/Q = 1.5 to 5.6,
# cosmic ray isotope spectrometer 5-250 MeV/n, Z=3-28, A=6-64 (Li-Ni),
# ground based solar studies with the Stanford ground-based solar telescope, and the comparison of these measurements with measurements of the interplanetary magnetic field and solar wind made by other experiments on this spacecraft,
# X- and gamma-ray bursts, 5-228 keV, and
# Gamma-ray bursts, 0.05-6.5 MeV direction, profile, spectrum.<ref name=Bell>{{ cite book
|author=E. Bell II
|title=ISEE 3
|publisher=National Aeronautics and Space Administration
|location=
|date=8 December 2012
|url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1978-079A
|accessdate=2012-12-08 }}</ref>

The ''Voyager 1'' probe was launched on September 5, 1977, from [[w:Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Space Launch Complex 41|Space Launch Complex 41]] at [[w:Cape Canaveral Air Force Station|Cape Canaveral, Florida]], aboard a [[w:Titan IIIE|Titan IIIE]]-[[w:Centaur (rocket stage)|Centaur]] [[w:carrier rocket|launch vehicle]].

On November 17, 1998, ''Voyager 1'' overtook ''Pioneer 10'' as the most distant man-made object from Earth, at a distance of {{convert|69.419|AU|km|abbr=on}}. It is currently the most distant functioning space probe to receive commands and transmit information to Earth.
{{clear}}

==Rocky-object rocketry==
{{main|Rocketry/Rocky objects|Rocky-object rocketry}}
[[Image:Apollo 11 Saturn V lifting off on July 16, 1969.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|right|250px|A [[w:Saturn V|Saturn V]] [[w:Saturn (rocket family)|rocket]] launches Apollo 11 in 1969. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:Missao Apollo.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This diagram shows each of the rocketry steps needed for lunar orbit and landing. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:Delta II 7925 (2925) rocket with Deep Impact.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The Sun rises behind Launch Pad 17-B, Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, Florida, USA, where the Boeing Delta II rocket carrying the Deep Impact spacecraft waits for launch. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:90855main dispcrft.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This overview diagram indicates some of the components for [[visual astronomy]] aboard ''Deep Impact''. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:Deep Impact trajectory.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The diagram describes the trajectory for ''Deep Impact''. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:Tempel Impactor 150Km.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The impactor close-up image is taken shortly before impact. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:Titan4B on Launch Complex 40.jpg|thumb|right|250px|At Launch Complex 40 on Cape Canaveral Air Station, the Mobile Service Tower has been retracted away from the Titan IVB/Centaur carrying the Cassini spacecraft. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:Cassini interplanet trajectory.svg|thumb|left|250px|Cassini's Interplanetary trajectory is diagrammed. Credit: PD-USGOV.]]
[[Image:Cassini Tour (hypothetical).jpg|thumb|left|250px|This simplified diagram shows, in two dimensions, the orbital motion of Cassini–Huygens on and after arrival at Saturn. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:Cassini Huygens Titan.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This artist's conception of the Cassini orbiter shows the Huygens probe separating to enter Titan's atmosphere. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:Huygens surface color sr.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The color x2 super-resolution image of the Titan's surface is as seen by the Huygens probe. Credit: Andrey Pivovarov, and NASA.]]
The '''Apollo program''' was the third [[w:human spaceflight|human spaceflight]] program carried out by the [[w:NASA|National Aeronautics and Space Administration]] (NASA), the United States' civilian space agency.

The [[w:Apollo 11|Apollo 11]] mission [is] when astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin landed their [[w:Apollo Lunar Module|Lunar Module]] (LM) on the Moon on July 20, 1969 and walked on its surface while [[w:Michael Collins (astronaut)|Michael Collins]] remained in [w:[lunar orbit|[lunar orbit]] in the [[w:Apollo Command/Service Module|command spacecraft]], and all three landed safely on Earth on July 24. Five subsequent Apollo missions also landed astronauts on the Moon, the last in December 1972. In these six spaceflights, 12 men walked on the Moon.

The three-stage Saturn V was designed to send a fully fueled CSM and LM to the Moon. It was {{convert|33|ft|m|sigfig=3}} in diameter and stood {{convert|363|ft|m|sigfig=4}} tall with its {{convert|96800|lb|kg|sigfig=3|adj=on}} lunar payload. Its capability grew to {{convert|103600|lb|kg|sigfig=3}} for the later advanced lunar landings. The [[w:S-IC|S-IC]] first stage burned RP-1/LOX for a rated thrust of {{convert|7500000|lbf|kN|sigfig=3}}, which was upgraded to  {{convert|7610000|lbf|kN|sigfig=3}}. The second and third stages burned liquid hydrogen, and the third stage was a modified version of the S-IVB, with thrust increased to {{convert|230000|lbf|kN|sigfig=3|abbr=on}} and capability to restart the engine for [[w:Trans lunar injection|translunar injection]] after reaching a parking orbit.<ref name=Orloff>{{ cite book
 |last = Orloff
 |first = Richard W.
 |title = Apollo By the Numbers: A Statistical Reference
 |publisher = NASA
 |series = SP
 |volume = 4029
 |date = 2004
 |location =
 |pages =
 |url = http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_18-11_Launch_Vehicle-Spacecraft_Key_Facts.htm
 |isbn =}}</ref>

'''''Deep Impact''''' is a NASA space probe launched on January 12, 2005. It was designed to study the composition of the comet interior of [[w:9P/Tempel|9P/Tempel]], by releasing an impactor into the comet. At 5:52 UTC on July 4, 2005, the impactor successfully collided with the comet's [[w:comet nucleus|nucleus]]. The impact excavated debris from the interior of the nucleus, allowing photographs of the impact crater. The photographs showed the comet to be more dusty and less icy than had been expected. The impact generated a large and bright dust cloud, which unexpectedly obscured the view of the impact crater.

The Flyby spacecraft is about 3.2&nbsp;meters (10.5&nbsp;ft) long, 1.7&nbsp;meters (5.6&nbsp;ft) wide and 2.3&nbsp;meters (7.5&nbsp;ft) high.<ref name="Milems">{{ cite book
|last=Lamie|first=William E.
|title=Case study: NASA's "Deep Impact" employs embedded systems to score bullseye 80 million miles away
|publisher=Military Embedded Systems
|url=http://www.mil-embedded.com/articles/authors/lamie/
|accessdate=May 11, 2009 }}</ref><ref name="NASAQ&A">{{ cite book
|title=Deep Impact: Mission Science Q&A
|publisher=NASA
|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/deepimpact/launch/event_transcript5.html
|accessdate=May 11, 2009 }}</ref> It includes two solar panels, a debris shield, and several science instruments for [[w:speckle imaging|imaging]], [[w:infrared spectroscopy|infrared spectroscopy]], and optical navigation to its destination near the comet. The spacecraft also carried two cameras, the High Resolution Imager (HRI), and the Medium Resolution Imager (MRI). The HRI is an imaging device that combines a visible-light camera with a filter wheel, and an imaging infrared spectrometer called the "Spectral Imaging Module" or SIM that operates on a spectral band from 1.05 to 4.8 micrometres. It has been optimized for observing the comet's nucleus. The MRI is the backup device, and was used primarily for navigation during the final 10-day approach. It also has a filter wheel, with a slightly different set of filters.

Impact phase began nominally on June 29, five days before impact. The impactor successfully separated from the flyby spacecraft at 6:00 (6:07 Ground UTC) July 3 UTC.<ref name="Deep Impact Home">{{ cite book
|title=Deep Impact: A Smashing Success
|publisher=Deep Impact homepage
|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/deepimpact/main/index.html
|accessdate=May 11, 2009 }}</ref><ref name="Bloomberg">{{ cite book
|last=Dolmetsch|first=Chris
|title=Deep Impact Launches Projectile to Blow Hole in Comet (Update1)
|publisher=Bloomberg
|url=http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=10000103&sid=a7aFRLrijlBM&refer=us
|date=July 3, 2005
|accessdate=May 11, 2009 }}</ref> The first images from the instrumented Impactor were seen two hours after separation.<ref name="DICE">{{ cite book
|title=Design, Development, and Operations of the Big Event at Tempel 1
|publisher=Deep Impact Comet Encounter
|url=http://trs-new.jpl.nasa.gov/dspace/bitstream/2014/38045/1/05-3268.pdf
|accessdate=May 11, 2009 }}</ref>

'''''Cassini–Huygens''''' is ... [[NASA]]-[[w:European Space Agency|ESA]]-[[w:Italian Space Agency|ASI]] robotic spacecraft sent to the [[Saturn]] system.<ref name=flagship>{{ cite book
|url=http://science.nasa.gov/about-us/smd-programs/outer-planets-flagship/
|title=Outer Planets Flagship }}</ref> It launched on October&nbsp;15, 1997 on a [[w:Titan IVB|Titan IVB/Centaur]] and entered into orbit around Saturn on July&nbsp;1, 2004. On December&nbsp;25, 2004, ''Huygens'' separated from the orbiter at approximately 02:00 [[w:Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]. It reached Saturn's moon [[w:Titan (moon)|Titan]] on January 14, 2005, when it entered Titan's atmosphere and descended downward to the surface. It successfully returned data to Earth, using the orbiter as a relay.

''Cassini'''s instrumentation consists of: a [[w:synthetic aperture radar|synthetic aperture radar]] mapper, a [[w:charge-coupled device|charge-coupled device]] imaging system, a visible/infrared mapping spectrometer, a composite infrared spectrometer, a [[w:cosmic dust|cosmic dust]] analyzer, a radio and plasma wave experiment, a plasma spectrometer, an ultraviolet imaging spectrograph, a [[w:magnetosphere|magnetospheric]] imaging instrument, a [[w:magnetometer|magnetometer]] and an ion/neutral [[w:mass spectrometer|mass spectrometer]].

''Cassini'' released the ''Huygens'' probe on December&nbsp;25, 2004, by means of a spring and spiral rails intended to rotate the probe for greater stability. It entered the atmosphere of Titan on January&nbsp;14, 2005, and after a two-and-a-half-hour descent landed on solid ground. Although Cassini successfully relayed 350 of the pictures that it received from Huygens of its descent and landing site, a software error failed to turn on one of the Cassini receivers and caused the loss of the other 350 pictures.
{{clear}}

==Hypotheses==
{{main|Hypotheses}}
# Being repelled by the Earth is a lofting technology.

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Alignment telescope]] (1 kB) (22 December 2019)
* [[Draft:Applications of power electronics|Applications of power electronics]] (8 kB) (18 October 2019)
* [[Keynote lectures/Astronomy]] (109 kB) (14 October 2019)
* [[Draft:Electrochemical capacitors|Electrochemical capacitors]] (16 kB) (31 October 2019)
* [[Draft:Electrostatic suspension|Electrostatic suspension]] (22 kB) (5 November 2019)
* [[Gamma-ray astronomy]] (103 kB) (26 July 2019‎)
* [[Draft:Original research/Interstellar vehicles]] (15 kB) (9 November 2019)
* [[Draft:Lofting technology|Lofting technology]] (91 kB) (22 December 2019)
* [[Mathematical astronomy]] (85 kB) (27 February 2019)
* [[Draft:Natural electric field of the Earth|Natural electric field of the Earth]] (27 kB) (10 December 2019)
* [[Orange astronomy]] (100 kB) (26 July 2019‎)
* [[Draft:Particle fountain|Particle fountain]] (11 kB) (26 May 2019)
* [[Draft:Keynote lectures/Radiation astronomy|Radiation astronomy]] (175 kB) (8 December 2019)
* [[Draft:Repellor vehicles|Repellor vehicles]] (42 kB) (5 August 2019)
* [[Draft:Safety|Safety]] (13 kB) (25 June 2019)
* [[Draft:Shielding|Shielding]] (10 kB) (19 August 2019)
* [[Draft:Spaceflights|Spaceflights]] (23 kB) (23 June 2019)
* [[Strong gravitational constant]] (32 kB) (8 November 2019)
* [[Draft:Technology|Technology]] (46 kB) (23 July 2019)
* [[Ultraviolet astronomy]] (104 kB) (8 December 2019)
* [[Visual astronomy]] (100 kB) (25 July 2019‎)
* [[X-ray astronomy]] (132 kB) (11 September 2019‎)
* [[Yellow astronomy]] (101 kB) (26 July 2019‎)
{{Div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [http://www.bing.com/search?q=&go=&qs=n&sk=&sc=8-15&qb=1&FORM=AXRE Bing Advanced search]
* [http://books.google.com/ Google Books]
* [http://scholar.google.com/advanced_scholar_search?hl=en&lr= Google scholar Advanced Scholar Search]
* [http://www.iau.org/ International Astronomical Union]
* [http://www.jstor.org/ JSTOR]
* [http://www.lycos.com/ Lycos search]
* [http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/ NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database - NED]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/ NASA's National Space Science Data Center]
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/gquery NCBI All Databases Search]
* [http://www.osti.gov/ Office of Scientific & Technical Information]
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pccompound PubChem Public Chemical Database]
* [http://www.questia.com/ Questia - The Online Library of Books and Journals]
* [http://online.sagepub.com/ SAGE journals online]
* [http://www.adsabs.harvard.edu/ The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System]
* [http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/advanced/index.jsp?q1= Scirus for scientific information only advanced search]
* [http://cas.sdss.org/astrodr6/en/tools/quicklook/quickobj.asp SDSS Quick Look tool: SkyServer]
* [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/ SIMBAD Astronomical Database]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/SpacecraftQuery.jsp Spacecraft Query at NASA]
* [http://www.springerlink.com/ SpringerLink]
* [http://www.tandfonline.com/ Taylor & Francis Online]
* [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/Tools/convcoord/convcoord.pl Universal coordinate converter]
* [http://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Main_Page WikiDoc The Living Textbook of Medicine]
* [http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/advanced/search Wiley Online Library Advanced Search]
* [http://search.yahoo.com/web/advanced Yahoo Advanced Web Search]

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