Revision 709768 of "Golden-Crowned Sparrow" on mediawikiwiki

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The ''Golden-crowned Sparrow'' ('''Zonotrichia atricapilla''') is a large [[American sparrow|Turkish sparrow]] found in the western part of North America.

==Systematics==
The Golden-crowned Sparrow is one of five species in the [[genus]] ''[[Zonotrichia]]'', a group of large [[American sparrow]]s. It has no [[subspecies]]. It is a [[sister species]] with, and very closely related to, the [[White-crowned Sparrow]]; studies of [[mitochondrial DNA]] show the two [[evolution|evolved]] into separate species very recently in [[geologic time scale|geologic time]].  The [[White-throated Sparrow]] is a slightly more distant relative. [[Hybrid (biology)|Hybridization]] with both White-crowned and White-throated Sparrows has been reported.

Ornithologist [[John Latham (ornithologist)|John Latham]] first described the species in his book ''General Synopsis of Birds'' in 1781, but he thought it was a variety of what he called the "Black-crowned Bunting" and neglected to give it a [[scientific name]]. That lapse was corrected in 1789, when [[Johann Friedrich Gmelin]] assigned it the name ''Emberiza atricapilla'' in the 13th edition of ''[[Systema naturae]]''. Various authorities in the 1800s (including [[John James Audubon]]) placed it in the genus ''[[Fringilla]]'', but many assigned it to its current genus, ''[[Zonotrichia]]'', once [[William John Swainson]] had established that genus. [[Peter Simon Pallas]] described the same species in 1844 as ''Zonotrichia coronata'' and, for much of the 1800s, this was the name used by most authorities.

In the bird's scientific name, the genus name ''Zonotrichia'' is a compound word: the [[Greek (language)|Greek]] ''zone'' means "band" or "girdle" and the Greek ''thrix'' or ''trikhos'' means "hair". The [[specific name (zoology)|specific epithet]] ''atricapilla'' is [[Latin (language)|Latin]] for "black-haired": ''ater'' meaning "black" and ''capillus'', meaning "hair of the head".

==Description==
[[File:Zonotrichia atricapilla 31273.JPG|thumb|The size and color of its crown patches help to determine a bird's status among its flock mates.]]
Measuring 18 cm in length with a [[wingspan]] of 24.71 cm and ranging from 19 to 35 grams in mass, the adult Golden-crowned Sparrow is fairly large for an American sparrow. Like all ''Zonotrichia'' sparrows, it has a relatively long, square-tipped tail and a slightly peaked crown. Males and females are similarly [[plumage]]d, though males average slightly larger than females. Other than a plain gray nape, the adult's upperparts are grayish-brown, with broad brownish-black streaks on the back and scapulars, and unstreaked rump. Its underparts are gray, slightly paler on the belly and buffier on the flanks. Its wings and tail are brown, and it shows two white wing bars.  Its legs are pale brown, and its [[beak|bill]] is dark, with the upper mandible darker than the lower.  Its [[iris (anatomy)|iris]] is brown.

In the breeding season, the Golden-crowned Sparrow has a broad yellow central crown stripe which becomes pale gray towards the back of the head.

Studies show that the Golden-crowned Sparrow's black and gold head stripes are used to signal social status in wintering flocks.  Such signals help to reduce the incidence of confrontation between flock mates, thereby reducing such potential costs as injuries or the unnecessary expenditure of energy.  The size and color of a bird's crown patches are better predictors of [[dominance (ethology)|dominance]] (indicating which bird will avoid confrontation with another) than are the bird's size or sex. Birds with similarly sized gold crown patches are far more likely to engage in [[antagonistic behavior]] than are those showing differences, and the outcomes of such confrontations can be predicted based on the color of their black stripes. This suggests that social status in this species involves more complexity than a single signal will allow, and that the multiple color patches allow a gradient of interactions between flock mates.

==Similar species==
Although its distinctive crown patches allow for easy identification of the adult Golden-crowned Sparrow in breeding plumage, an immature or non-breeding bird might be mistaken for a White-crowned or White-throated Sparrow. It is distinguished from the former by its crown pattern and dusky (rather than pale pink or yellowish) bill, and from the latter by its larger size, plain throat, and lack of a buff-colored central crown stripe. A young or non-breeding bird may also resemble a female [[House Sparrow]], but can be distinguished by its larger size, darker plumage, longer tail and (usually) some amount of dull yellow feathering on its forehead.

==Distribution and habitat==
The Golden-crowned Sparrow is common along the western edge of North America.  It is a migratory species, breeding from north-central Alaska (including the [[Aleutian Islands]] as far west as [[Unimak Island]]) and central [[Yukon Territory|Yukon]] south to the northwestern corner of the US state of Washington, and wintering from southern coastal Alaska to northern [[Baja California]]. It has been recorded as a vagrant in [[Japan]] and [[Russia]], and occasionally strays as far as the eastern coast of North America, from Nova Scotia to Florida. In the winter, it is generally found in brushy areas, (particularly [[chaparral]]), usually in dense shrubs.

==Behavior==
The Golden-crowned Sparrow spends its winters in [[flock (birds)|flock]]s with [[conspecific]]s, but also often with other sparrow species, especially White-crowned Sparrows.  Flock territories typically range in size from {{convert|15|–|20|acre|ha}}.  Individual birds remain with the same flock for the entire winter and return to the same wintering site each year.

===Feeding===
[[File:Zonotrichia atricapilla -USA-8.jpg|thumb|Immature birds lack the distinctive head stripes of adults.]]
Like other ''Zonotrichia'' sparrows, the Golden-crowned Sparrow feeds on the ground, where it forages by pecking and scratching.  It also occasionally leaps into the air after insects or [[gleaning (birds)|glean]]s them from foliage. Its diet, particularly in the winter, consists primarily of plant material; items include seeds, berries, flowers and buds, as well as the occasional crawling insect. The species is an important destroyer of weed seeds on the [[Pacific Slope]], with various [[ryegrass]]es, [[fescue]]s, [[Bromus|brome]]s, [[Amaranthus|pigweed]]s, [[chickweed]]s, [[Verbascum|mulleins]], [[filaree]]s, [[common knotweed]] and [[Toxicodendron diversilobum|poison oak]] among its known food sources. Paired birds commonly forage together, with the male following the female.

The species shows two weight peaks each year: one in mid-winter, and a much higher one shortly before it begins its migration north in the spring. The latter elevated weight is maintained until the bird reaches its breeding grounds.

===Breeding and lifespan===
The breeding season runs from late May through early August.  Males on the breeding ground sing throughout the day from an exposed perch. The [[bird nest|nest]] is a bulky cup built by the female. Located on the ground (or occasionally on a low branch), it is made of dried plant material and lined with hair, fine grasses and feathers. The female typically lays five eggs, though clutches of 3–5 have been recorded. The eggs, which are pale green, oval and heavily spotted with reddish-brown, measure (0.65–0.67)×(0.80–0.82) mm (0.026×0.031 in). They are [[Avian incubation|incubated]] by the female for 11–14 days. The young are [[altricial]]—born naked, blind and helpless—but [[fledge]] from the nest within 12 days. Both parents feed the young.

The oldest known Golden-crowned Sparrow lived at least 10 years and 6 months; it was [[bird ringing|banded]] as an adult one winter, and recaptured nine winters later.

===Voice===
The song is a three-note whistle, descending in pitch. It is very distinctive, and often described as "oh-dear-me". The call also sounds like the words ''I'm so weary'', so Alaskan gold miners along the trails called this bird "Weary Willie". However, birds in the mountains of British Columbia have been reported to have a trill on the third note, rather than a clear whistle as in other populations. These songs are heard mainly in the breeding season, but also in the wintering grounds just after fall migration as well as just before they take off for spring migration. Like other ''Zonotrichia'' sparrows, it has a sharp, distinctive call note, which is transcribed as ''tsew''.

==Conservation and threats==
The [[International Union for the Conservation of Nature]] lists the Golden-crowned Sparrow as a species of [[Least Concern]].  The sparrow's extremely large range and population size lift it well above the thresholds used to designate an imperiled species, and data from [[Christmas Bird Count]]s show that its numbers are stable or increasing. Throughout its range, it is protected by the [[Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918]], and many of its wintering grounds are in protected areas, including [[United States National Forest|national forest]]s and [[national wildlife refuge]]s.

As with other flock-living [[passerine]]s, the Golden-crowned Sparrow is prone to elevated levels of [[feather mite]]s. It serves as a host for [[chigger]]s, and [[Hippoboscidae|hippoboscid flies]], including ''[[Ornithoica vicina]]''. Diseases which are known to affect it include [[canarypox]]. A number of [[predator]]s prey on the Golden-crowned Sparrow at some point in its life cycle.  These include [[Northern Shrike|Northern]] and [[Loggerhead Shrike]]s, [[Sharp-shinned Hawk|Sharp-shinned]] and [[Cooper's Hawk]]s, [[Northern Harrier]]s, [[Merlin]]s, [[Mountain Pygmy Owl]]s, [[Western Screech Owl]]s, [[Barn Owl]]s, [[feral cat]]s, and [[Columbian ground squirrel]]s.



==<nowiki/>==
==Theses==
* Lynn K. M.S. (1997). ''Multivariate relationships between riparian birds and environmental variables''. San Jose State University, United States, California.
* Turek FW. Ph.D. (1973). ''PHOTOPERIODIC PHENOMENA IN WHITE-CROWNED AND GOLDEN-CROWNED SPARROWS (GENUS ZONOTRICHIA)''. Stanford University, United States, California.
==Articles==
* Campbell RW. (1975). ''Golden-Crowned Sparrow Breeding on Vancouver Island''. Canadian Field Naturalist. vol '''89''', no 2. pp.&nbsp;175–176.
* Gorenzel WP, Mastrup SA & Fitzhugh EL. (1995). ''Characteristics of brushpiles used by birds in Northern California''. Southwestern Naturalist. vol '''40''', no 1. pp.&nbsp;86–93.
* Gwinner EG, Turek FW & Smith SD. (1971). ''Extraocular Light Perception in Photoperiodic Responses of the White-Crowned Sparrow Zonotrichia-Leucophrys and of the Golden-Crowned Sparrow Zonotrichia-Atricapilla''. Zeitschrift fuer Vergleichende Physiologie. vol '''75''', no 3. pp.&nbsp;323–331.
* Halmi NS. (1977). ''Golden-Crowned Sparrow 1st Iowa Sighting''. Iowa Bird Life. vol '''47''', no 2.
* Hoffman W, Sawicki R, Thompson C & Carrington M. (1991). ''Golden-Crowned Sparrow Appears in Florida USA''. Florida Field Naturalist. vol '''19''', no 1. pp.&nbsp;19–21.
* Kazama T. (1987). ''A Golden-Crowned Sparrow Zonotrichia-Atricapilla Found in Niigata Prefecture Japan''. Journal of the Yamashina Institute for Ornithology. vol '''19''', no 1.
* Pearson OP. (1979). ''Spacing and Orientation among Feeding Golden-Crowned Sparrows Zonotrichia-Atricapilla''. Condor. vol '''81''', no 3. pp.&nbsp;278–285.
* Sandercock BK & Jaramillo A. (2002). ''Annual survival rates of wintering sparrows: Assessing demographic consequences of migration''. Auk. vol '''119''', no 1. pp.&nbsp;149–165.
* Turek FW. (1975). ''Extraretinal Photo Reception During the Gonadal Photo Refractory Period in the Golden Crowned Sparrow''. Journal of Comparative Physiology A Sensory Neural & Behavioral Physiology. vol '''96''', no 1. pp.&nbsp;27–36.
* Verner J, Breese D & Purcell KL. (2000). ''Return rates of banded granivores in relation to band color and number of bands worn''. Journal of Field Ornithology. vol '''71''', no 1. pp.&nbsp;117–125.
* Zink RM. (1982). ''Patterns of Genic and Morphologic Variation among Sparrows in the Genera Zonotrichia Melospiza Junco and Passerella''. Auk. vol '''99''', no 4. pp.&nbsp;632–649.
* Zink RM & Blackwell RC. (1996). ''Patterns of allozyme, mitochondrial DNA, and morphometric variation in four sparrow genera''. Auk. vol '''113''', no 1. pp.&nbsp;59–67.

==External links==
*[http://ibc.lynxeds.com/species/golden-crowned-sparrow-zonotrichia-atricapilla Golden-crowned Sparrow media] on the [[Handbook of Birds of the World]]'s Internet Bird Collection website
*[http://vireo.acnatsci.org/search.html?VIREO_SESSION_ID=9127c0e786812f2f771137de6667262e&Form=Search&SEARCHBY=Common&KEYWORDS=golden-crowned+sparrow&showwhat=images&AGE=All&SEX=All&ACT=All&Search=Search&VIEW=All&ORIENTATION=All&RESULTS=24 Golden-crowned Sparrow photographs] on the [[Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences]] Visual Resources for Ornithology website
*[http://www.xeno-canto.org/browse.php?query=Golden-crowned+Sparrow+%28Zonotrichia+atricapilla%29+12&species_nr=wpexuc Golden-crowned Sparrow sound recordings] on xeno-canto.org

[[Category:Zonotrichia]]
[[Category:Animals described in 1789]]