Difference between revisions 4570850 and 4570851 on mswiki

[[File:Selimiye Mosque, Dome.jpg|300px|thumb|Pemandangan tepi bahagian dalam kubah utama [[Masjid Selimiye]] di [[Edirne]], [[Turki]] yang dibina dalam [[#Seni bina Uthmaniyyah|gaya Uthmaniyyah]]]]
[[File:Fuente de los Leones en la Alhambra de Granada, España. - panoramio.jpg|300px|thumb|[[Bangsal Singa]], sebuah karya agung [[Seni bina Moor|Moor]], di istana [[Alhambra]]([[Granada]], Sepanyol)]]

'''Seni bina Islam''' adalah rangkaian gaya [[seni bina]] yang berkaitan dengan [[bangunan]] yang berkaitan dengan [[Islam]]. Ia merangkumi kedua-dua gaya sekular dan agama dari awal [[sejarah Islam]] hingga ke hari ini. Senibina Islam awal dipengaruhi oleh [[Seni bina Romawi|Romawi]], [[Seni bina Byzantine|Byzantine]], [[Seni bina Persia|Persia]], Mesopotamia dan semua tanah yang ditakluki umat Islam pada abad ke-7 dan ke-8.<ref name="Krautheimer">Krautheimer, Richard. [https://books.google.com/books?id=WXwX7fQ2DkUC&printsec=frontcover&dq=byzantine+architecture&hl=en&sa=X&ei=V27kUa7mKKbvygG0zoDQCA&ved=0CDQQ6AEwAQ#v=snippet&q=islam&f=false Early Christian and Byzantine Architecture] Yale University Press Pelican History of Art, Penguin Books Ltd., 1965, p. 285.</ref><ref>Fletcher, Banister [https://books.google.com/books?id=ULcsAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Banister+Fletcher,+A+History+of+Architecture+on+the+Comparative+Method.&hl=en&sa=X&ei=4xT7UdqUDoHaqwHnqIDQAQ&ved=0CDQQ6AEwAQ#v=snippet&q=islam&f=false A History of Architecture on the Comparative Method] 4th Edition, London, p. 476.</ref>  Di sebelah timur, ia juga dipengaruhi oleh [[Seni bina Cina|Cina]] dan [[Senibina India]] apabila Islam menyebar ke [[Asia Tenggara]]. Kemudian ia mengembangkan ciri-ciri yang berbeza dalam bentuk bangunan, dan hiasan permukaan dengan [[kaligrafi Islam]] dan ornamen corak geometri dan interlace. Jenis-jenis seni bina utama bagi gedung-gedung besar atau awam ialah: [[Masjid]], [[Makam]], [[Istana]] dan [[Kubu]]. Daripada empat jenis ini, perbendaharaan kata seni bina Islam diperoleh dan digunakan untuk bangunan lain seperti [[mandi awam]], [[air pancut]] dan seni bina dalam negeri.<ref name="Cop149">Copplestone, p.149</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.islamonline.net/servlet/Satellite?c=Article_C&cid=1158658332974&pagename=Zone-English-ArtCulture%2FACELayout |title=A Tour of Architecture in Islamic Cities |access-date=2018-12-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070317015153/http://www.islamonline.net/servlet/Satellite?c=Article_C&cid=1158658332974&pagename=Zone-English-ArtCulture%2FACELayout |archive-date=2007-03-17 |dead-url=yes |df= }}</ref>

Banyak bangunan yang disebutkan dalam artikel ini disenaraikan sebagai [[Situs Warisan Dunia]]. Sebahagian daripada mereka, seperti [[Benteng Aleppo]], telah mengalami kerosakan yang ketara dalam [[Perang Saudara Syria]] yang sedang berlangsung.<ref name="unesco 20/6/13">[http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1038 UNESCO: Syria's Six World Heritage sites placed on List of World Heritage in Danger". 20 June 2013, accessed 1 February 2016]</ref>

== Pengaruh ==
Bangunan paling terkini yang boleh dikenali sebagai contoh seni moden Islam yang sebenar ialah Imam Sadiq University, bangunan ini adalah pemenang dana Aga Khan juga. Bangunan ini direka oleh Nader Ardalan yang mengajar arkitek Iran di Universiti Harvard.<ref>Hamid Aghaei Rad author. ; Nader Ardalan; Laleh Bakhtiar Second Version., Sydney Built Environment Publishing, 2016</ref>
[[Dome of the Rock]] ({{lang-ar|قُـبَّـة ٱلـصَّـخْـرَة|Qubbat aṣ-Ṣakhrah}}) di [[Jerusalem]] (691) adalah salah satu bangunan paling penting dalam semua seni bina Islam. Ia dipengaruhi oleh [[Gereja Holy Sepulcher]]<ref>Avner, Rina [https://books.google.com/books?id=hs1YQ-RO7lwC&pg=PA44&dq=Origin+of+the+plan+of+the+Dome+of+the+Rock&hl=en&sa=X&ei=zaboUcTqCej8yAGH_4C4Ag&ved=0CDwQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Origin%20of%20the%20plan%20of%20the%20Dome%20of%20the%20Rock&f=false "The Dome of the Rock in Light of the development of Concentric Martyria in Jerusalem"] article in "Muqarnas: An annual on the visual cultures of the Islamic World" Vol 27, Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands, 2010, p. 43–44</ref> dan artis [[Byzantine]] [[Kristian | Kristian]] bekerja untuk mencipta [[mosaik]] dengan latar belakang keemasan.<ref name="Krautheimer" /><ref>The Church of the Holy Sepulchre, Martin Biddle. p.68</ref> Buah anggur epigrafik yang hebat telah diadaptasi daripada gaya pra-Islam [[Syria]].<ref>Flood, Finbarr Barry [https://books.google.com/books?id=r5f8kxIyykQC&pg=PA67&dq=%22dome+of+the+rock%22+epigraphic+frieze&hl=en&sa=X&ei=IgcLUv_gDqGs2gW-ooCIAQ&ved=0CDwQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22dome%20of%20the%20rock%22%20epigraphic%20frieze&f=false The Great Mosque of Damascus: Studies on the Makings of an Umayyad Visual Culture] Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands, 2000, p. 67–68. "The vine frieze finds various counterparts in the decoration of pre-Islamic Syrian temples and churches&nbsp;..."</ref> [[Dome of the Rock]] menampilkan ruang berkubah dalaman, kubah bulat, dan penggunaan corak hiasan [[Arabesque (seni Islam) | arabesque]. Istana gurun di [[Jordan]] dan [[Syria]] (misalnya, [[Mshatta facade | Mshatta]], [[Qasr Amra]], dan [[Khirbat al-Mafjar]] berkhidmat sebagai khalifah sebagai tempat tinggal , dewan penerimaan, dan bilik mandi, dan dihiasi untuk mempromosikan imej mewah kerajaan.

[[Gerbang kuda]] menjadi ciri popular dalam struktur Islam. Ada yang mencadangkan umat Islam memperolehnya dari seni dan seni Visigothik Visigoths di Sepanyol tetapi mereka mungkin memperolehnya dari Syria dan Persia di mana gerbang kuda telah digunakan oleh seni Bizantium Byzantine ]]. Dalam seni bina Moor, kelengkungan gerbang ladang kuda lebih menonjol. Selain itu, warna bingkai telah ditambah untuk menyerlahkan kesan bentuknya. Ini dapat dilihat pada skala besar dalam kerja utama mereka, [[Masjid Agung Córdoba]].<ref name="GM">{{cite web|url=http://www.green-man-of-cercles.org/articles/the_horseshoe_arch.pdf|title=Green-man-of-cercles.org|publisher=|accessdate=30 December 2017}}</ref>

Masjid [[Umayyad | Masjid Besar]] dari [[Damaskus]] (disempurnakan pada 715 oleh khalifah Al-Walid I),<ref>Hillenbrand, Robert. Islamic Art and Architecture, Thames & Hudson World of Art series; 1999, London. {{ISBN|978-0-500-20305-7}}</ref> Dibina di atas tapak [[basilica]] dari [[John the Baptist]] selepas pencerobohan Islam di [[Damaskus]], masih banyak menyerupai keaslian Kristian [[basilika]] abad ke-6 dan ke-7. Pengubahsuaian tertentu telah dilaksanakan, termasuk mengembangkan struktur sepanjang paksi transversal yang lebih sesuai dengan gaya doa Islam.

[[Abbasid dinasti]] (750 [[AD]]<nowiki>-</nowiki> 1258<ref>Gruber, World of Art</ref>) menyaksikan pergerakan ibu kota dari [[Damaskus]] ke [[Baghdad]], dan kemudian dari Baghdad ke [[Samarra]]. Peralihan ke Baghdad memengaruhi politik, budaya, dan seni. [[Masjid Agung Samarra]], sekali yang terbesar di dunia, dibina untuk modal baru. Masjid-masjid utama lain yang dibina di Dinasti Abbasid termasuk [[Masjid Ibnu Tulun]] di Kaherah, [[Abu Dalaf]] di Iraq, masjid besar di [[Tunis]]. Seni bina Abbasid di [[Iraq]] yang dicontohkan di [[Kubu Al-Ukhaidir]] (c.775-6) memperlihatkan watak "penghinaan dan penghormatan yang dinikmati oleh penguasa" dalam saiznya yang besar tetapi sempit tempat tinggal .<ref>Hillenbrand (1999).</ref>

[[Masjid Uqba|Masjid Agung Kairouan]] (di [[Tunisia]]) dianggap sebagai nenek moyang semua masjid di dunia Islam barat. Lajur dan patung marmar asalnya berasal dari [[Carthage]] dan elemen lain menyerupai bentuk Rom.<ref>Petrie, Graham [https://books.google.com/books?id=5sYRAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Kairouan&hl=en&sa=X&ei=bgEMUs_MIIS72wWHyIHgBQ&ved=0CDkQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=mosque&f=false Tunis, Kairouan & Carthage: described and illustrated with forty-eight paintings] William Heinemann, London, 1908, p. 199.</ref><ref>S. Kleiner, Fred and Helen Gardner [https://books.google.com/books?id=vIGkQy7aGHkC&pg=PT38&dq=Kairouan+mosque&hl=en&sa=X&ei=lwEMUpK6JfD8yAHi_oCQCA&ved=0CEMQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=Kairouan&f=false Gardner's Art through the Ages: Backpack Edition, Volume C, 14th ed., Book 3] Wadsworth, Cengage Learning, Boston, MA, 2005, p. 89.</ref> Ia adalah salah satu contoh terbaik masjid awal yang dipelihara dan paling penting, yang diasaskan pada tahun 670 AD dan bertarikh dalam bentuknya sekarang dari zaman [[Aghlabid]] (abad ke-9).<ref>[http://www.qantara-med.org/qantara4/public/show_document.php?do_id=399&lang=en Great Mosque of Kairouan (Qantara mediterranean heritage)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150209081557/http://www.qantara-med.org/qantara4/public/show_document.php?do_id=399&lang=en |date=2015-02-09 }}</ref> Masjid Besar Kairouan terdiri daripada menara persegi besar, sebuah halaman besar yang dikelilingi oleh portico dan dewan sembahyang hypostyle besar yang ditutupi dengan paksinya dengan dua cupolas. [[Masjid Besar Samarra]] di [[Iraq]], disiapkan pada tahun 847 AD, menggabungkan arsitektur baris [[hypostyle]] yang menyokong dasar yang rata di atasnya [[minaret]] yang dibina.

[[Hagia Sophia]] di [[Istanbul]] juga mempengaruhi seni bina Islam. Apabila [[Empayar Uthmaniyyah|Uthmaniyyah]] menangkap bandar dari [[Byzantine]], mereka menukar [[basilica]] ke sebuah masjid (sekarang sebuah muzium) dan menggabungkan [[Byzantine architecture] Elemen seni bina Byzantine] ke dalam karya mereka sendiri (misalnya [[kubah]]). Hagia Sophia juga berfungsi sebagai model bagi masjid-masjid Uthmaniyyah seperti Masjid Shehzade, Masjid [[Suleiman]], dan [[Rüstem Pasha Mosque]]. Kubah adalah ciri struktur utama seni bina Islam. Kubah pertama kali muncul dalam seni bina Islam pada tahun 691 dengan pembinaan [[Dome of the Rock]], sebuah replika dari [[Gereja Holy Sepulcher]] dan [[Seni bina Kristian] [basilica]] terletak berhampiran. Kubah terus digunakan, menjadi ciri penting dari banyak masjid dan Taj Mahal pada abad ke-17. Kubah-kubah khas seni bina Islam yang tersendiri kekal sebagai ciri khas masjid-masjid ke abad ke-21.<ref>Grabar, O. (2006) p.87</ref><ref>Ettinghausen (2003), p.87</ref> Influenced by [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] and [[Sassanian Empire|Persian]] architecture,<ref>Stewart, Charles Anthony [http://www.sas.upenn.edu/ancient/masons/Stweart-Flying_Buttresses.pdf Flying Buttress and Pointed Arch in Byzantine Cyprus] Accessed August 2013.</ref><ref>Lihat [[Karamagara Bridge]] dan [[Byzantine architecture]] dan [[Taq-i-Kisra]].</ref> [[gerbang tajam]] sebagai prinsip arsitetik pertama kali ditubuhkan dengan jelas dalam seni bina Islam; sebagai prinsip seni bina, gerbang tajam adalah sepenuhnya asing kepada dunia pra-Islam.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=VgwkDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP69|title=Early Islamic Art and Architecture|last=Bloom|first=Jonathan M.|date=2017-05-15|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=9781351942584|page=69}}</ref>

Memperkenal [[Motif (seni) | motif]] seni bina Islam sentiasa menjadi [[matematik dan seni bina | tema matematik]] pengulangan memerintahkan, struktur radiasi, dan pola metrik berirama. Dalam hal ini, [[geometri fraktal]] menjadi utiliti utama, terutamanya untuk masjid dan istana. Ciri-ciri penting lain yang digunakan sebagai motif termasuk lajur, tiang dan lengkungan, yang dianjurkan dan digabungkan dengan urutan gantian niche dan kolon.<ref>Tonna (1990), pp.182–197</ref>

<gallery widths="180px" heights="180px">
File:110409 042.jpg|[[Dome of the Rock]], [[Jerusalem]]
File:Al-Masjid al-Nabawi 06.jpg|Inside the [[Al-Masjid al-Nabawi|Prophet's Mosque]], [[Medina]], [[Hejaz]], [[Saudi Arabia]]
File:Yazd Jameh Mosque interior.jpg|Inside the [[Jame Mosque of Yazd]], [[Iran]]
File:Masjed-e Imam (Imam Mosque), Isfahan, Iran (1267873532).jpg|[[Shah Mosque]], [[Isfahan]]
File:Rome Masjid.jpg|The [[Mosque of Rome]], [[Italy]]
File:Aerial view of East London Mosque complex - Feb 2014.jpg|[[East London Mosque]], [[England]]
File:Closeup of Mir-i-Arab Madrasa.jpg|A view of intricate tile-work on the Mir-i-Arab Madrasa in [[Bukhara]], [[Uzbekistan]] ([[#Persian architecture|Persian style]])
File:Night View of Badshahi Mosque (King’s Mosque).jpg|A view of the [[Badshahi Mosque]] in [[Lahore]], [[Pakistan]], which was commissioned by the Mughal Emperor [[Aurangzeb]] in 1671 CE ([[Mughal architecture]])
File:Mecca Masjid front view, Hyderabad.JPG|[[Makkah Masjid, Hyderabad|Makkah Masjid in Hyderabad]] is one of the largest and oldest mosques in India ([[Indo-Islamic architecture]])
File:TUNISIE KAIROUAN 04.jpg|Dome of the mihrab (9th century) in the [[Mosque of Uqba|Great Mosque of Kairouan]], [[Tunisia]]
File:Great Mosque of Kairouan, prayer hall.jpg|The large Hypostyle prayer hall in the [[Great Mosque of Kairouan]], dating in its present form from the 9th century, in [[Kairouan]], Tunisia
File:Djenne great mud mosque.jpg|[[Masjid Agung Djenné]] di negara [[Mali]] di [[Afrika barat]]
</gallery>

== Ciri ==

=== Asimilasi tradisi sebelumnya ===
[[File:Ardeshir Palace, Firoozabad, Fars (کاخ اردشیر ساسانی، فیروزآباد، فارس) - panoramio (2).jpg|thumb|Bahagian dalam [[Istana Ardashir]] Persia pra-Islam. Penggunaan [[susunan pelangi]] untuk meletakkan kubah di atas struktur persegi dianggap sebagai sumbangan yang paling penting [[Seni bina Sasanian|Sasanian]] kepada seni bina Islam<ref>{{cite web |last1=Huff |first1=D. |title=ARCHITECTURE iii. Sasanian Period – Encyclopaedia Iranica |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/architecture-iii |website=www.iranicaonline.org |publisher=[[Encyclopaedia Iranica]] |accessdate=16 March 2019}}</ref>]]

Dari abad kelapan hingga abad kesebelas, gaya seni bina Islam dipengaruhi oleh dua tradisi purba yang berbeza:

# '''Tradisi Greco-Roman:''' Khususnya, wilayah-wilayah yang baru ditawan [[Emapayar Byzantine]] (Anatolia Barat Daya, Syria, Mesir dan [[Maghreb]] yang dibekalkan arkitek, tukang batu, tukang kepada pemerintah Islam yang baru. Pengrajin-pengrajin ini dilatih dalam seni bina dan seni hiasan, dan bangunan dan dekorasi yang berterusan dalam gaya Byzantine, yang telah berkembang dari seni Hellenistik dan seni bina Romawi kuno.
# '''Tradisi Timur:''' [[Mesopotamia]] dan [[Persia]], walaupun menggunakan unsur gaya Yunani Helenistik dan Romawi, mengekalkan tradisi seni bina mereka yang bebas, yang berasal dari seni bina Sasan dan para pendahulunya.<ref name="Hoag_p7_9">{{cite book|last1=Hoag|first1=John D.|title=Islamic architecture|date=2004|publisher=Electaarchitecture|location=Milan|isbn=978-1-904313-29-8|pages=7–9}}</ref>

Proses peralihan antara zaman purbakala, atau pasca klasik dan seni bina Islam dicontohkan oleh penemuan arkeologi di Syria Utara dan Palestin, [[Bilad al-Sham]] dari dinasti Umayyad dan Abbasid. Di rantau ini, lewat tradisi seni bina antik, atau Kristian, bergabung dengan warisan Arab pra-Islam para penakluk. Penyelidikan terkini mengenai sejarah [[seni Islam]] dan seni bina telah mengubah beberapa idea [[penjajahan kolonialisme]]. Khususnya, soalan-soalan berikut kini tertakluk kepada perbincangan baru-baru ini berdasarkan penemuan baru-baru ini dan konsep baru sejarah kebudayaan:
# Kewujudan perkembangan linier dalam seni bina Islam;
# kewujudan hierarki gaya inter-dan intracultural;
# soalan keaslian budaya dan garis panduannya.<ref>{{cite book| editor1=Karin Bartl |editor2=Abd al-Razzaq Moaz | title=Residences, castles, settlements. Transformation processes from late antiquity to early Islam in Bilad al-Sham| year=2009| publisher=Marie Leidorf GmbH| location=Rahden/Germany| isbn=978-3-89646-654-9| page=XV}}</ref>

Berbanding dengan penyelidikan terdahulu, asimilasi dan transformasi tradisi seni bina yang sedia ada telah disiasat di bawah aspek pertukaran idea, teknologi dan gaya bersama dan antara artis, arkitek dan bahan. Dalam bidang seni dan seni bina, [[Kebangkitan Islam]] dilihat sebagai proses transformasi yang berterusan dari zaman purba ke zaman Islam. Penyelidikan awal ke kawasan ini menganggap seni bina Islam awal semata-mata sebagai rehat dengan masa lalu, yang mula-mula muncul bentuk seni yang menyimpang dan kurang ekspresif,<ref>{{cite book| last=Bourgoin| first=Jules| title=Les arts Arabes| year=1867| publisher=A. Morel| location=Paris}}</ref> or a degenerate imitation of the post-classical architectural forms.<ref>{{cite book| author=Giovanni Theresia Rivoira, Gordon M. Rushforth (Transl.)| title=Moslem (!) architecture. Its origin and development| year=1918| publisher=Oxford University Press}} [https://archive.org/details/moslemarchitect00rushgoog online], accessed 26 January 2016</ref> Konsep moden cenderung untuk menganggap peralihan antara budaya dan bukan sebagai proses terpilih bagi pengagihan dan transformasi yang dimaklumkan. Umayyad memainkan peranan penting dalam proses mengubah dan dengan itu memperkayakan tradisi seni bina yang sedia ada, atau, dalam arti yang lebih umum, budaya visual masyarakat Islam yang baru lahir.<ref>{{cite book| last=Flood| first=Finbarr B.| title=The great mosque of Damascus. Studies on the makings of an Umayyad visual culture| year=2001| publisher=Brill| location=Leiden| isbn=978-90-04-11638-2| pages=10–12; 203–206}}</ref>

=== Paradise garden ===
[[File:Afif abad.jpg|thumb|[[Afif-Abad Garden]], [[Shiraz]]]]
{{Main|Paradise garden}}

Gardens and water have for many centuries played an essential role in Islamic culture, and are often compared to the garden of [[Paradise]]. The comparison originates from the [[Achaemenid Empire]]. In his dialogue "[[Oeconomicus]]", [[Xenophon]] has [[Socrates]] relate the story of the Spartan general [[Lysander]]'s visit to the [[Persian Empire|Persian]] prince [[Cyrus the Younger]], who shows the Greek his "Paradise at Sardis".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Xenephon |title=Oeconomicus |url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/1173/1173-h/1173-h.htm |website=Gutenberg Press |accessdate=11 June 2015|date=January 1998 }}</ref> Bentuk klasik [[taman syurga]] Parsi, atau ''[[Charbagh]]'', terdiri daripada ruang pengairan segi empat tepat dengan jalur tinggi, yang membahagi taman menjadi empat bahagian saiz yang sama:

<blockquote>Salah satu ciri taman Parsi adalah taman empat bahagian yang diletakkan dengan laluan paksi yang berpotongan di pusat taman. Skim geometri yang sangat berstruktur, yang dipanggil chahar bagh, menjadi metafora yang kuat untuk organisasi dan pembahagian landskap, sendiri sebagai lambang wilayah politik.<ref>[[D. Fairchild Ruggles]], ''Islamic Gardens and Landscapes'', University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008, p.39</ref></blockquote>

Sebuah charbagh dari masa Achaemenid telah dikenalpasti dalam penggalian arkeologi di [[Pasargadae]]. Kebun-kebun Chehel Sotoun]], [[Isfahan]], [[Fin Garden]] ([[Kashan]]), [[Eram Garden]] ([[Shiraz]]) [[Abbasabad Garden]], [[Abbasabad, Mazandaran|Abbasabad]]), [[Akbarieh Garden]], ([[Wilayah Khorasan Selatan]]), [[Pahlevanpour Garden]], semuanya di [[Iran]], merupakan sebahagian daripada [[Situs Warisan Dunia | UNESCO World Heritage]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1372|title=The Persian Garden|first=UNESCO World Heritage|last=Centre|website=Whc.unesco.org|accessdate=30 December 2017}}</ref> Taman-taman Paradise besar juga terdapat di [[Taj Mahal]] ([[Agra]]), dan di [[Humayun's Tomb]] ([[New Delhi]]), di India; [[Taman Shalimar (Lahore)|Shalimar Gardens]] ([[Lahore]], [[Pakistan]]) atau di [[Alhambra]] dan [[Generalife]] di Granada, ]].<ref name="Hoag_p7_9" />

=== Courtyard (Sehan) ===
[[File:Great Mosque of Kairouan Panorama - Grande Mosquée de Kairouan Panorama.jpg|thumb|[[Masjid Uqba|Masjid Agung Kairouan]], dengan sebuah halaman besar (''[[sahn|sehan]]'') yang dikelilingi oleh [[Arked (arked)|arked]], [[Kairouan]], Tunisia.]]
Halaman Islam tradisional [[halaman]], ''[[sahn|sehan]]'' ({{lang-ar|صحن}}), terdapat dalam struktur sekular dan agama.
# Apabila dalam kediaman atau bangunan sekular lain adalah halaman peribadi dan taman berdinding. Ia digunakan untuk: estetika tumbuhan, air, elemen seni bina, dan cahaya semula jadi; untuk ruang yang lebih sejuk dengan air pancut dan naungan, dan sumber angin ke dalam struktur, semasa musim panas; dan tempat yang dilindungi dan diharamkan di mana wanita rumah tidak perlu dilindungi oleh pakaian [[hijab]] yang secara tradisinya perlu di khalayak ramai.
#A '' sehan '' - halaman berada dalam hampir setiap masjid dalam seni bina Islam. Halaman-halaman terbuka ke langit dan dikelilingi oleh semua pihak dengan struktur dengan ruang dan bilik, dan seringkali arked semi-terbuka berbayang. Sehans biasanya memaparkan kolam pembersihan ritel berpusat di bawah di bawah pavilion kubah terbuka yang dipanggil '''''[[howz]]'''''. Sebuah halaman masjid digunakan untuk melakukan pembersihan, dan 'teras' untuk berehat atau berkumpul.

=== Halla hypostyle ===
Sebuah [[Hypostyle]], iaitu sebuah dewan terbuka yang disokong oleh tiang-tiang yang digabungkan dengan dewan penerimaan yang ditetapkan pada sudut kanan ke dewan utama, dianggap berasal dari tradisi seni bina zaman [[Achaemenids | Achaemenid] ''"[[apadana]]"''). Binaan ini berasal dari gaya [[basilika]] [[Seni bina Rom|Rom]] dengan halaman bersebelahan yang dikelilingi oleh [[colonnade]], seperti [[Trajan's Forum]] di Rom. Jenis bangunan Rom telah berkembang dari seni bina [[Yunani]] [[agora]]. Dalam seni bina Islam, dewan hypostyle adalah ciri utama mesjid hypostyle. Salah satu masjid hipostyle terawal ialah [[Kuil Tarikhaneh|Masjid Tarikhaneh]] di Iran, sejak abad ke-8.<ref name="Hoag_p7_9" />

=== Kekubah ===
Dalam bangunan Islam, [[kekubah]] mengikuti dua gaya seni bina yang berbeza: Sementara [[seni bina Umayyad]] meneruskan tradisi Syria pada abad ke 6 dan 7, seni bina Islam Timur terutama dipengaruhi oleh [[Seni bina Sasan|Sasan]] dan gaya.

==== Umayyad diafragma gerbang dan kekubah laras ====
[[File:Qasr Amra 21.jpg|thumb|Qusair 'Amra]]

Dalam struktur berkubahnya, bangunan zaman Umayyad menunjukkan campuran tradisi senibina Roman dan Parsi kuno. [[Diafragma gerbang]] dengan siling-siling yang dibuat dari kayu atau tiang batu, atau, secara alternatif, dengan peti besi setong dikenal di Levant sejak zaman klasik dan [[Nabataeans | Nabatean]]. Mereka kebanyakannya digunakan untuk menampung rumah dan kolam. Bentuk seni bina yang meliputi gerbang diafragma dengan peti besi setong, bagaimanapun, mungkin baru diperkenalkan dari seni bina Iran, kerana kubah yang serupa tidak diketahui di [[Bilad al-Sham]] sebelum ketibaan Umayyad. Walau bagaimanapun, bentuk ini terkenal di Iran sejak zaman [[Empayar Parthia|Parthia]], seperti yang dicontohkan dalam bangunan Parthia [[Assur|Aššur]]. Contoh yang paling awal untuk peti besi setong yang terletak di gerbang diafragma dari arsitektur Umayyad dikenali dari Qasr Harane di Syria. Semasa tempoh awal, gerbang diafragma dibina dari papak batu kapur yang dipotong kasar, tanpa menggunakan [[falsework]] yang disambungkan oleh [[gypsum]] [[Mortar (batu)|mortar]]. Kubah masa kemudiannya didirikan menggunakan tulang rusuk yang terbentuk sebelum ini yang terbentuk dari gypsum, yang berfungsi sebagai bentuk temporal untuk membimbing dan memusatkan peti besi. Rusuk-rusuk ini, yang tersisa dalam struktur selepas itu, tidak membawa apa-apa beban. Rusuk dibuang terlebih dahulu pada jalur kain, kesannya masih dapat dilihat di tulang rusuk hari ini. Struktur serupa diketahui dari seni bina Sasanian, contohnya dari istana [[Firuzabad, Fars|Firuzabad]]. Kubah zaman Umayyad jenis ini ditemui di [[Amman Citadel]] dan di [[Qasr Amra]].<ref>Ignacio Arce (2006): ''Umayyad arches, vaults & domes: Merging and re-creation. Contributions to early Islamic construction history.'' In: Proceedings of the second international congress on construction history Vol. I. Queen's College, Cambridge University 29.03.–02.04.2006, S. 195–220 [http://www.arct.cam.ac.uk/Downloads/ichs/vol-1-195-220-arce.pdf PDF], accessed 1 February 2016</ref>

==== Iberian Peninsula ====
The double-arched system of [[Arcade (architecture)|arcades]] of the [[Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba]] is generally considered to be derived from [[Roman Architecture|Roman]] [[Aqueduct (bridge)|aqueducts]] like the nearby [[Acueducto de los Milagros|aqueduct of Los Milagros]]. Columns are connected by [[horseshoe arch]]es, and support pillars of [[brickwork]], which are in turn interconnected by semicircular arches supporting the flat timberwork ceiling.

<center>
<gallery widths="180px" heights="180px">
File:Córdoba 2014.25.jpg|Arcades of the Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba
File:Aljaferia - Portique nord.JPG|Arcades of the [[Aljafería]] of Zaragoza
</gallery>
</center>

In later-period additions to the Mosque of Córdoba, the basic architectural design was changed: Horseshoe arches were now used for the upper row of arcades, which is now supported by five-pass arches. In sections which now supported [[dome]]s, additional supporting structures were needed to bear the [[thrust]] of the cupolas. The architects solved this problem by the construction of intersecting three- or five-pass arches. The three domes spanning the vaults above the [[mihrab]] wall are constructed as [[ribbed vault]]s. Rather than meeting in the center of the dome, the ribs intersect one another off-center, forming an eight-pointed star in the center which is superseded by a [[pendentive]] dome.<ref name=Giese-Vogeli>{{cite book|last1=Giese-Vögeli |first1=Francine|title=Das islamische Rippengewölbe : Ursprung, Form, Verbreitung |trans-title=Islamic rib vaults: Origins, form, spread|date=2007|publisher=Gebr. Mann|location=Berlin|isbn=978-3-7861-2550-1}}</ref>

The ribbed vaults of the mosque-cathedral of Córdoba served as models for later mosque buildings in the Islamic West of [[al-Andaluz]] and the [[Maghreb]]. At around 1000 AD, the ''Mezquita de Bab al Mardum'' (today: [[Mosque of Cristo de la Luz]]) in [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]] was constructed with a similar, eight-ribbed dome. Similar domes are also seen in the mosque building of the [[Aljafería]] of [[Zaragoza]]. The architectural form of the ribbed dome was further developed in the Maghreb: The central dome of the Great Mosque of [[Tlemcen]], a masterpiece of the [[Almoravids]] built in 1082, has twelve slender ribs, the shell between the ribs is filled with filigree stucco work.<ref name="Giese-Vogeli" />

==== Iran (Persia) ====
Because of its long history of building and re-building, spanning the time from the [[Abbasids]] to the [[Qajar dynasty]], and its excellent state of conservation, the [[Jameh Mosque of Isfahan]] provides an overview over the experiments Islamic architects conducted with complicated vaulting structures.<ref name=Giese-Vogeli/>{{rp|66–88}}

The system of [[squinch]]es, which is a construction filling in the upper angles of a square room so as to form a base to receive an [[octagon]]al or [[sphere|spherical]] [[dome]], was already known in [[Sasanian architecture]].<ref>{{cite book| last1=Schippmann| first1=Klaus| title=Die iranischen Feuerheiligtümer = Iranian Fire temples| date=1971| publisher=Walter de Gruyter| location=Berlin| isbn=978-3-11-001879-0| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HWwiAAAAQBAJ| accessdate=23 January 2016| language=German}}</ref> The [[Spherical trigonometry|spherical triangles]] of the squinches were split up into further subdivisions or systems of niches, resulting in a complex interplay of supporting structures forming an ornamental spatial pattern which hides the weight of the structure.

The "non-radial rib vault", an architectural form of ribbed vaults with a superimposed spherical dome, is the characteristic architectural vault form of the Islamic East. From its beginnings in the Jameh Mosque of Isfahan, this form of vault was used in a sequence of important buildings up to the period of [[Safavid dynasty|Safavid]] architecture. Its main characteristics are:<ref name=Giese-Vogeli/>{{rp|66–88}}
# Four intersecting ribs, at times redoubled and intersected to form an eight-pointed star;
# the omission of a transition zone between the vault and the supporting structure;
# a central dome or [[roof lantern]] on top of the ribbed vault.

While intersecting pairs of ribs from the main decorative feature of [[Seljuk architecture]], the ribs were hidden behind additional architectural elements in later periods, as exemplified in the dome of the [[Tomb of Ahmed Sanjar]] in [[Merv]], until they finally disappeared completely behind the double shell of a stucco dome, as seen in the dome of [[Ālī Qāpū]] in Isfahan.<ref name=Giese-Vogeli/>{{rp|66–88}}
<center><gallery widths="180px" heights="180px">
Dome and Chahartaq remains of Harpak Fire Temple in Abyaneh.JPG|Dome of the Fire temple of Harpak in [[Abyaneh]]
Friday mosque, isfahan.jpg|Non-radial rib vault in the Jameh Mosque of Isfahan
SultanSanjarMausoleum2.jpg|Dome of the tomb of Ahmed Sanjar in Merv
Music Room, Ali Qapu Palace, Isfahan (1267170087).jpg|Upper dome of Ālī Qāpū, Isfahan
File:Malda ~ Adina Mosque 4.JPG|[[Adina Mosque]], West Bengal, India
</gallery></center>

==== Domes ====
Based on the model of pre-existing [[Byzantine architecture|Byzantine]] [[dome]]s, the [[Ottoman Architecture]] developed a specific form of monumental, representative building: Wide central domes with huge diameters were erected on top of a centre-plan building. Despite their enormous weight, the domes appear virtually weightless. Some of the most elaborate domed buildings have been constructed by the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] architect [[Mimar Sinan]].

When the Ottomans had conquered [[Istanbul|Constantinople]], they found a variety of Byzantine Christian churches, the largest and most prominent amongst them was the [[Hagia Sophia]]. The brickwork-and-mortar ribs and the spherical shell of the central dome of the Hagia Sophia were built simultaneously, as a self-supporting structure without any wooden [[centring]].<ref>{{cite book| author=Auguste Choisy| title=L'art de bâtir chez les Byzantins| year=1883| publisher=Librairie de la société anonyme| location=Paris| pages=67–69}}</ref> In the early Byzantine church of [[Hagia Irene]], the ribs of the dome vault are fully integrated into the shell, similar to Western [[Roman architecture|Roman]] domes, and thus are not visible from within the building.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Jean Ebersoll |author2=Adolphe Thiers | title=Les églises de Constantinople| date=1913| publisher=Ernest Leroux| location=Paris| page=69}}</ref> In the dome of the Hagia Sophia, the ribs and shell of the dome unite in a central medallion at the apex of the dome, the upper ends of the ribs being integrated into the shell: Shell and ribs form one single structural entity. In later Byzantine buildings, like the [[Kalenderhane Mosque]], the [[Eski Imaret Mosque]] (formerly the Monastery of Christ Pantepoptes) or the Pantokrator Monastery (today: [[Zeyrek Mosque]]), the central medallion of the apex and the ribs of the dome became separate structural elements: The ribs are more pronounced and connect to the central medallion, which also stands out more pronouncedly, so that the entire construction gives the impression as if ribs and medallion are separate from, and underpin, the proper shell of the dome.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Jean Ebersoll |author2=Adolphe Thiers | title=Les églises de Constantinople| date=1913| publisher=Ernest Leroux| location=Paris| pages=100–117; 178–188; 192–214}}</ref>

Mimar Sinan solved the structural issues of the Hagia Sophia dome by constructing a system of centrally symmetric pillars with flanking semi-domes, as exemplified by the design of the [[Süleymaniye Mosque]] (four pillars with two flanking shield walls and two semi-domes, 1550–1557), the [[Rüstem Pasha Mosque]] (eight pillars with four diagonal semi-domes, 1561–1563), and the [[Selimiye Mosque]] in [[Edirne]] (eight pillars with four diagonal semi-domes, 1567/8–1574/5). In the history of architecture, the structure of the Selimiye Mosque has no precedent. All elements of the building subordinate to its great dome.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Art and Architecture of Islam 1250–1800 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-mhIgewDtNkC&pg=PA226 |publisher=Yale University Press |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-300-06465-0 |first=Sheila |last=Blair |first2=Jonathan M. |last2=Bloom}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=http://archnet.org/library/pubdownloader/pdf/3588/doc/dpt0810.pdf |author=Doğan Kuban |chapter=The Style of Sinan's Domed Structures |title=Muqarnas IV: An Annual on Islamic Art and Architecture |editor=Oleg Grabar |location=Leiden |year=1987 |p= 77 dead-url=yes |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040624170747/http://archnet.org/library/pubdownloader/pdf/3588/doc/dpt0810.pdf |archive-date=2004-06-24}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| last=Necipoğlu| first=Gülru| title=The Age of Sinan. Architectural Culture in the Ottoman Empire| year=2005| publisher=Reaktion Books| location=London| isbn=978-1-86189-253-9}}</ref>

<gallery widths="180px" heights="180px">
Penditifkuppel.svg|Schematic drawing of a pendentive dome
InteriorofHagiaSophia msu77.jpg|Central domes of the Hagia Sophia
Central dome interior of Kalenderhane Mosque.jpg|Dome of the Kalenderhane Mosque
Selimiye Camii - Ανδριανούπολη - 5172705084.jpg|Selimiye Mosque
</gallery>

=== Muqarnas ===
{{Main|Muqarnas}}
The architectural element of muqarnas developed in northeastern Iran and the Maghreb around the middle of the 10th century. The ornament is created by the geometric subdivision of a vaulting structure into miniature, superimposed pointed-arch substructures, also known as "honeycomb", or "stalactite" vaults. Made from different materials like stone, brick, wood or stucco, its use in architecture spread over the entire Islamic world. In the Islamic West, muqarnas are also used to adorn the outside of a dome, cupola, or similar structure, whilst in the East is more limited to the interior face of a vault.

<gallery widths="180px" heights="180px">
Topkapi Scroll p294 muqarnas.JPG|Design of a muqarnas quarter vault from the [[Topkapı Scroll]]
Décor intérieur du mausolée de Chirin Bika Aka (Shah-i-Zinda, Samarcande) (6009388163).jpg|Muqarnas in the necropolis of [[Shah-i-Zinda]], Samarqand
Ceiling in Alhambra.JPG|Muqarnas in the [[Alhambra]]
Persian Style Mosque in Bukhara.jpg|The muqarna of a mosque in [[Bukhara]], [[Uzbekistan]]
</gallery>

=== Ornaments ===
{{Main|Islamic interlace patterns|Islamic geometric patterns|Arabesque}}

As a common feature, Islamic architecture makes use of specific ornamental forms, including mathematically complicated, elaborate [[Islamic geometric patterns|geometric]] and [[Islamic interlace patterns|interlace patterns]], floral motifs like the [[arabesque]], and elaborate [[Islamic calligraphy|calligraphic]] inscriptions, which serve to decorate a building, specify the intention of the building by the selection of the textual program of the inscriptions. For example, the calligraphic inscriptions adorning the [[Dome of the Rock]] include quotations from the Quran (e.g., Quran 19:33–35) which reference the miracle of Jesus and his human nature.

The geometric or floral, interlaced forms, taken together, constitute an infinitely repeated pattern that extends beyond the visible material world.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=tA9Uuy2cSIcC&pg=PA26&dq=%22the+arabesque+is%22&hl=fr&ei=_2t2TI_dO4X54gbv5cjbBg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=6&ved=0CEYQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=%22the%20arabesque%20is%22&f=false Sheila R. Canby, ''Islamic art in detail'', page 26. Harvard University Press, 2005.]</ref> To many in the Islamic world, they symbolize the concept of infinite proves of existence of one eternal God. The repetitiveness, simplicity contrasted with complexity and percision suggests that our complex universe is only one of the many manifestations of the infinitely obvious and present Allah, the one God. Furthermore, the Islamic artist conveys a definite spirituality without the [[icon]]ography of [[Christian art]]. Non-figural ornaments are used in mosques and buildings around the Muslim world, and it is a way of decorating using beautiful, embellishing and repetitive Islamic art [[Aniconism in Islam|instead of using pictures of humans and animals]] (which some Muslims believe is forbidden (''[[Haram]]'') in Islam).

Instead of recalling something related to the reality of the [[spoken word]], calligraphy for the Muslim is a visible expression of spiritual concepts. Calligraphy has arguably become the most venerated form of Islamic art because it provides a link between the languages of the Muslims with the religion of Islam. The [[holy book]] of Islam, al-[[Qur'ān]], has played a vital role in the development of the Arabic language, and by extension, calligraphy in the [[Arabic alphabet]]. [[Proverb]]s and complete passages from the Qur'an are still active sources for Islamic calligraphy. Contemporary artists in the Islamic world draw on the heritage of calligraphy to use calligraphic inscriptions or abstractions in their work.

<gallery widths="180px" heights="180px">
Mosaïc in the Ben Youssef Madrasa, Morocco (2).jpg|Geometrical tile ornament ([[Zellij]]), Ben Youssef Madrasa, Maroc
Mevlana - Kuppel 3.jpg|Calligraphic inscription on the dome of the [[Mevlana Museum|Mevlana mausoleum]]
Isfahan Royal Mosque dome.JPG|Dome of the [[Shah Mosque]] in Isfahan with calligraphic inscription
Atia terracotta.jpg|Bengali Islamic terracotta on a 17th-century mosque in Tangail, Bangladesh
</gallery>

=== Architectural forms ===
Many forms of Islamic architecture have evolved in different regions of the [[Muslim world|Islamic world]]. Notable Islamic architectural types include the early [[Abbasid]] buildings, T-Type mosques, and the central-dome mosques of [[Anatolia]]. The [[Petroleum|oil]]-wealth of the 20th century drove a great deal of mosque construction using designs from leading modern architects.

''Arab-plan'' or ''hypostyle'' mosques are the earliest type of mosques, pioneered under the [[Umayyad Dynasty]]. These mosques are square or rectangular in plan with an enclosed courtyard and a covered prayer hall. Historically, because of the warm Mediterranean and Middle Eastern climates, the courtyard served to accommodate the large number of worshippers during Friday prayers. Most early hypostyle mosques have flat roofs on top of prayer halls, necessitating the use of numerous [[column]]s and [[Support (structure)|support]]s.<ref name="Masdjid1">{{cite encyclopedia | last = Hillenbrand| first = R | editor = P.J. Bearman |editor2=Th. Bianquis |editor3=[[Clifford Edmund Bosworth|C.E. Bosworth]] |editor4=E. van Donzel |editor5=W.P. Heinrichs | encyclopedia =[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]] Online| title = Masdjid. I. In the central Islamic lands | publisher = Brill Academic Publishers | issn = 1573-3912 }}</ref> One of the most notable hypostyle mosques is the [[Mezquita]] in [[Córdoba, Spain]], as the building is supported by over 850 columns.<ref name="mit-handout">{{cite web|url=http://web.mit.edu/4.614/www/handout02.html |accessdate=2006-04-09 |publisher=Massachusetts Institute of Technology |title=Religious Architecture and Islamic Cultures}}</ref> Frequently, hypostyle mosques have outer [[arcade (architecture)|arcade]]s so that visitors can enjoy some shade. Arab-plan mosques were constructed mostly under the Umayyad and [[Abbasid]] dynasties; subsequently, however, the simplicity of the Arab plan limited the opportunities for further development, and as a result, these mosques gradually fell out of popularity.<ref name="Masdjid1"/>

[[Ottoman Dynasty|The Ottomans]] introduced ''central dome mosques'' in the 15th century and have a large dome centered over the prayer hall. In addition to having one large dome at the center, there are often smaller domes that exist off-center over the prayer hall or throughout the rest of the mosque, where prayer is not performed.<ref name="mit-vocab">{{cite web|url=http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Architecture/4-614Religious-Architecture-and-Islamic-CulturesFall2002/LectureNotes/detail/vocab-islam.htm#islam6 |accessdate=2006-04-09 |title=Vocabulary of Islamic Architecture |publisher=Massachusetts Institute of Technology |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20051124083425/http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Architecture/4-614Religious-Architecture-and-Islamic-CulturesFall2002/LectureNotes/detail/vocab-islam.htm#islam6 <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archivedate = 2005-11-24}}</ref> This style was heavily influenced by the [[Byzantine]] religious architecture with its use of large central domes.<ref name="Masdjid1"/>

<center><gallery widths="180px" heights="180px">
Cordoba moschee innen5 dome.jpg|The interior of the [[Mezquita]] in [[Córdoba, Spain]]
مسجد_سالن_اجلاس_بین_المللی_اصفهان.jpg|A sample of modern Islamic architecture - The mosque of international conferences center - Isfahan
</gallery></center>

=== Specific architectural elements ===
[[File:Ayyubid wall cyark.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|Plan view of Bab al-Barqiyya along [[Ayyubid]] Wall. Located close to one of Cairo's main modern traffic arteries, al-Azhar Street, the Fatimid-era Bab al-Barqiyya fortified gate was constructed with interlocking volumes that surrounded the entrant in such a way as to provide greater security and control than typical city wall gates. Laser scan data from an [[Aga Khan Foundation]]/[[CyArk]] research partnership.]]
Islamic architecture may be identified with the following design elements, which were inherited from the first mosque buildings (originally a feature of the [[Masjid al-Nabawi]]).

* [[Minaret]]s or towers (these were originally used as torch-lit watchtowers, as seen in the [[Great Mosque of Damascus]]; hence the derivation of the word from the Arabic ''nur'', meaning "light"). The minaret of the [[Mosque of Uqba|Great Mosque of Kairouan]] in [[Tunisia]] is considered as the oldest surviving minaret in the world.<ref name="minaret">[https://books.google.com/books?id=DBqId4J_sIAC&pg=PA128&dq=kairouan+oldest+minaret&lr=&cd=22#v=onepage&q=kairouan%20oldest%20minaret&f=false Titus Burckhardt, ''Art of Islam, Language and Meaning: Commemorative Edition'']. World Wisdom. 2009. p.128</ref> It has the shape of a square massive tower of three superimposed sections.<ref name="minaret"/>
* A four-[[iwan]] plan, with three subordinate halls and one principal one that faces toward Mecca
* [[Mihrab]] or [[niche (architecture)|prayer niche]] on an inside wall indicating the direction to [[Mecca]].
* [[Dome]]s and [[Cupola]]s.  In South East Asia ([[Indonesia]] and [[Malaysia]]), these are very recent additions.
* Pishtaq is the formal gateway to the [[iwan]], usually the main prayer hall of a mosque, a vaulted hall or space, walled on three sides, with one end entirely open; a [[Persian language|Persian]] term for a portal projecting from the facade of a building, usually decorated with calligraphy bands, glazed tilework, and geometric designs.<ref name="ReferenceA">[https://archnet.org/library/dictionary/entry.jsp?entry_id=DIA0502 Dictionary of Islamic architecture: Pishtaq] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629172823/https://archnet.org/library/dictionary/entry.jsp?entry_id=DIA0502 |date=2011-06-29 }}  archnet.org.</ref><ref name="Pishtaq">[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/461774/pishtaq Pishtaq] ''[[Britannica.com]]''.</ref>
* Iwans to intermediate between different pavilions.
* Balconies are a common feature of Islamic domestic architecture due to the warm climates in most countries.<ref name="doi.org">{{Cite web|url=https://doi.org/10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.T2082081|title=Balconies in Islamic Architecture|last=Graves|first=Margaret|date=|website=Grove Art Online|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=}}; “Wooden balconies projecting at upper levels and constructed with latticed screens to ensure privacy but allow air circulation were a feature of Islamic domestic architecture in many countries, and specific types developed in particular areas over time, such as the wooden screen known as ''[[mashrabiya]]'' in Egypt and the ''shanashil'' in Iraq”</ref> Balconies also became an architectural element of some mosques, such as the Turkish royal boxes ''[[Müezzin mahfili|hünkâr mahfili]]'', or "that in the Bara Gunbad complex at Delhi (1494)".<ref name="doi.org" />

=== Qibla ===
The ''[[Qibla]]h'' ({{lang-ar|قِـبْـلَـة}}) is the direction in which [[Mecca]] is from any given location, and within Islamic architecture it is a major component of both the features and the orientation of the building itself.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=King|first=David|date=Aug 1, 1995|title=The Orientation of Medieval Islamic Religious Architecture and Cities|url=|journal=Journal for the History of Astronomy|volume=26| issue = 3|pages=253–274|via=ProQuest|bibcode=1995JHA....26..253K|doi=10.1177/002182869502600305}}</ref> Ancient Islamic cities and the ''[[Mihrab]]'' in mosques were meant to be built facing in this direction, yet when actually observing the layout of such areas they do not all point to the same place.<ref name=":0" /> This is due to discrepancies in the calculations of the Islamic scientists in the past who determined where Mecca was from their individual locations. Scholars note that these differences come about for a multitude of reasons, such as some misunderstanding the meaning of Qibla itself, the fact that the geographic coordinates of the past do not line up with the coordinates of today, and that the determination of this direction was more an astronomical calculation, rather than a mathematical one. Early mosques were constructed according to either the calculations of what direction Qibla was approximately, or with the Mihrab facing south, as that was the direction that the [[Prophet Muhammad]] was facing when he prayed in [[Medina]], which is a city directly north of Mecca<ref name=":0" />

== Towns and cities ==

=== Urban and nomadic life according to Ibn Khaldun ===
During its history, the society of the pre-modern Islamic world was dominated by two important social contexts, [[Nomads|nomadic life]] and [[Urbanism]]. The historian and politician [[Ibn Khaldun]] thoroughly discusses both concepts in his book [[Muqaddimah]]. According to him, the way of life and culture of the rural [[bedouin]] nomads and the townspeople are opposed in a central [[Conflict (process)|social conflict]]. Ibn Khaldun explains the rise and fall of civilizations by his concept of [[Asabiyyah]] ("bond of cohesion", or "family loyalty"), as exemplified by the rule of the [[caliph]]s. Bedouins, being the nomadic inhabitants of the steppe and the desert, are interconnected by strong bonds of asabiyyah and firm religious beliefs. These bonds tend to slacken in urban communities over some generations. In parallel, by losing their asabiyyah, the townspeople also lose the power to defend themselves, and fall victims to more aggressive tribes which may destroy the city and set up a new ruling dynasty, which over time is subject to the same weakening of power again.<ref>''The Muqaddimah'', translated by F. Rosenthal (III, pp.&nbsp;311–15, 271-4 [Arabic]; [[Richard Nelson Frye]] (p.&nbsp;91) [https://asadullahali.files.wordpress.com/2012/10/ibn_khaldun-al_muqaddimah.pdf online], accessed 26 January 2016.</ref>

=== Experiments with the hellenistic ideal city ===
The antique concept of the architecture of a [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] [[polis]] or [[Roman Empire|Roman]] [[civitas]] is based on a structure of main and smaller roads running through the entire city, and dividing it into quarters. The streets are oriented towards public buildings like a palace, temple, or a public square. Two main roads, ([[cardo]] and [[decumanus Maximus|decumanus]]) cross each other at right angles in the center of the city. A few cities were founded during the early Islamic [[Umayyad Caliphate]], the outlines of which were based on the Ancient Roman concept of the [[ideal city]]. An example of a city planned according to Hellenistic concepts was excavated at [[Anjar, Lebanon|Anjar]] in [[Lebanon]].<ref>{{cite book| last= Finster| first=Barbara| title=Anjar: spätantik oder frühislamisch? = Anjar: Late antique or early Islamic? In: Karin Bartl, Abd al-Razzaq Moaz (Eds.): Residences, castles, settlements. Transformation processes from late antiquity to early Islam in Bilad al-Sham| year=2009| publisher=Marie Leidorf GmbH| location=Rahden| isbn=978-3-89646-654-9| pages=229–242}}</ref>

=== Transformation of conquered towns ===
More often than founding new cities, the new Islamic rulers took over existing towns, and transformed them according to the needs of the new Islamic society. This process of transformation proved to be decisive for the development of the traditional Islamic city, or [[Medina quarter|Medina]].<ref>Hugh Kennedy (1985): ''From Polis to Madina: Urban Change in Late Antique and Early Islamic Syria.'' Past & Present '''106''' (Feb. 1985), p. 3–27 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/650637 JSTOR], accessed 28 January 2016</ref> The principle of arranging buildings is known as "horizontal spread". Residencies and public buildings as well as private housing tend to be laid out separately, and are not directly related to each other architectonically. Archaeological excavations at the city of [[Jerash]], the Gerasa of Antiquity, have revealed how the Umayyads have transformed the city plan.<ref>Ian Simpson: ''Market building at Jarash. Commercial transformation at the Tetrakionion in the 6th to 9th centuries C.E.'' In: Bartl & Moaz, 2009, p. 115–124</ref>

=== Urban morphology of the Medina ===
The architecture of the "[[Orientalism|oriental]]"-Islamic [[town]] is based on cultural and sociological concepts which differ from those of European cities. In both cultures, a distinction is made between the areas used by the rulers and their government and administration, public places of everyday common life, and the areas of private life. Whilst the structures and concepts of European towns originated from a sociological struggle to gain basic rights of freedom – or [[town privileges]] – from political or religious authorities during the [[Middle Ages]], an Islamic town or city is fundamentally influenced by the preservation of the unity of secular and religious life throughout time.<ref name="Wirth">{{cite book|last1=Wirth|first1=Eugen|title=Die orientalische Stadt im islamischen Vorderasien und Nordafrika: Städtische Bausubstanz und räumliche Ordnung, Wirtschaftsleben und soziale Organisation. = The Oriental town in the Islamic Near East and North Africa. Urban building and spatial order, economic life and social structure|date=2001|publisher=Von Zabern|location=Mainz|isbn=978-3-8053-2709-1|edition= 2nd|language=German}}</ref>

The fundamental principle of the Islamic society is the ''[[ummah]]'', or ''{{transl|ar|ALA-LC|ummat al-Islamiyah}}'' ({{lang-ar|الأمة الإسلامية}}), the community of Muslims of whom each individual is equally submitted to [[Allah]] under the common law of [[sharia]], which also subjected the respective ruler, at least nominally. In [[Abbasid dynasty|Abbasid]] times, some cities like the [[Round city of Baghdad]] were constructed from scratch, set up to a plan which focused on the caliph's residence, located in the very centre of the city, with main roads leading radially from the city gates to the central palace, dividing individual tribal sections with no interconnection, and separated from each other by radial walls. However, these efforts were of short duration only, and the original plan soon disappeared and gave way to succeeding buildings and architectural structures.

In a medina, palaces and residences as well as public places like [[mosque]]-[[madrasa]]-[[Dar al-Shifa|hospital]] complexes and private living spaces rather coexist alongside each other. The buildings tend to be more inwardly oriented, and are separated from the surrounding "outside" either by walls or by the hierarchical ordering of the streets, or both. Streets tend to lead from public main roads to cul-de-sac byroads and onwards into more private plots, and then end there. There are no, or very few, internal connections between different quarters of the city. In order to move from one quarter to the next, one has to go back to the main road again.<ref name="Wirth" />

Within a city quarter, byroads lead towards individual building complexes or clusters of houses. The individual house is frequently also oriented towards an inner [[Atrium (architecture)|atrium]], and enclosed by walls, which mostly are unadorned, unlike European outward-oriented, representative [[facade]]s. Thus, the spatial structure of a medina essentially reflects the ancient nomadic tradition of living in a family group or tribe, held together by asabiyya, strictly separated from the "outside". In general, the morphology of an Islamic medina is granting – or denying – access according to the basic concept of hierarchical degrees of privacy. The inhabitants move from public space to the living quarters of their tribe, and onwards to their family home. Within a family house, there are again to be found common and separate spaces, the latter, and most private, usually reserved for women and children. In the end, only the family heads have free and unlimited access to all rooms and areas of ther private home, as opposed to the more European concept of interconnecting different spaces for free and easy access. The hierarchy of privacy thus guides and structurizes the entire social life in a medina, from the caliph down to his most humble subject, from the town to the house.<ref name="Bianca">{{cite book| last=Bianca| first=Stefano| title=Die Stadt als Haus. In: Hofhaus und Paradiesgarten. Architektur und Lebensformen in der islamischen Welt = The town seen as a house. In: Atrium house and paradise garden. Architecture and way of life in the Islamic world.| year=2001| publisher=C. H. Beck| location=München| isbn=978-3-406-48262-5| edition= 2nd| language=German| pages=244–255}}</ref>

<gallery widths="180px" heights="180px">
Vue medina fes.jpg|[[Medina quarter]] of [[Fez, Morocco]]
Algier.png|[[Figure-ground diagram]] of [[Algiers]]
Schwarzplan1819.jpg|Figure-ground diagram of a European town (1819)
</gallery>

=== Frontier fortresses and towns ===
[[File:Qasr Al-Hallabat mosque.jpg|thumb|Mosque in Qasr al-Hallabat]]
[[File:Qasr Al-Hallabat, entrance courtyard.jpg|thumb|Entrance courtyard of Qasr al-Hallabat]]

==== Misr, Ribat ====
In the frontier area of the [[Spread of Islam|Arabic expansion]], military forts ('''[[Amsar|Misr]]''', Pl. {{lang-ar|أَمْـصَـار}}, amṣār), or '''[[Ribat|Ribāṭ]]''' ({{lang-ar|رِبَـاط}}, fortress) were founded. The structure and function of a misr is similar to an ancient Roman [[Colonia (Roman)|Colonia]].<ref>R. Hillenbrand: ''Anjar and early Islamic urbanism.'' In: G. P. Brogiolo and Bryan Ward-Perkins (Eds.): ''The idea and ideal of the town between Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages''. Leiden, Brill, 1999, pp.&nbsp;59–98</ref> Like a frontier colony, the fortress served as a base for further conquests. Arabian military forts of this type were frequently built in the vicinity of an older town from Antiquity or from Byzantine times. They frequently were of square format.<ref>Hillenbrand 1999, S.&nbsp;92.</ref>

Rather than maintaining their original purpose to serve as a military base, many ''amṣār'' developed into urbane and administrative centers. In particular, this happened in the case of the [[Iraq]]i cities of [[Kufa]] and [[Basra]], which became known as ''"al-miṣrān"'' ("the [two] forts"), but also with [[Fustat]] and [[Kairouan]] in North Africa.

==== Qaṣr ====
''Qaṣr'' ({{lang-ar|قَ،صْـر}}'; Pl. {{lang-ar|قصور|}}, ''quṣūr'')  means palace, castle or (frontier) fort. Fortresses from Late Antiquity often continued to be in use, whilst their function changed during time. Some ''quṣūr'' were already used as [[Castra]] during Roman times, and were part of the fortifications of the North African [[Limes]]. Already during the Ancient Roman times, castra did not only serve as fortifications, but also as markets and meeting points for the tribes living beyond the border.

Smaller ''quṣūr'' are found in modern [[Jordan]], and include [[Qasr Al-Hallabat]] (located {{convert|50|km|mile|abbr=on}} east of [[Amman]]), Qasr Bushir ({{convert|15|km|mile|abbr=on}} north of [[Lajjun]]), the castle of Daganiya ({{convert|45|km|mile|abbr=on}} north of [[Ma'an]]) and Odruh ({{convert|22|km|mile|abbr=on}} east of [[Petra|Wadi Musa]]). After the [[Limes Arabicus]] was abandoned by the Roman Empire, many of the castra continued to be in use.<ref name="Konrad 2009">Michaela Konrad: ''Roman military fortifications along the Eastern desert frontier. Settlement continuities and change in North Syria 4th–8th centuries A.D.'' In: Bart and Motz 2009, p.&nbsp;433–453</ref> This continuity was subject to archaeological investigations in the fort of Qasr al-Hallabat, which at different times served as a Roman castrum, Christian [[Cenobitic monasticism|cenobitic monastery]], and finally as an Umayyad Qasr.<ref>Ignacio Arche (2009): ''Hallabat: Castellum, coenobium, praetorium, qaṣr. The construction of a palatine architecture under the Umayyads I.'' In: Bartl and Moaz, 2009, pp.&nbsp;153–182</ref> [[Qasr Al-Kharanah]] is one of the earliest known [[Desert castles]], its architectural form clearly demonstrates the influence of [[Sasanian architecture]].

According to a hypothesis developed by [[Jean Sauvaget]], the umayyad ''quṣūr'' played a role in the systematic agricultural colonisation of the uninhabited frontier areas, and, as such, continue the colonisation strategy of earlier Christian monks and the [[Ghassanids]].<ref>[[Jean Sauvaget]] (1939): ''Remarques sur les monuments omeyyades. Chateaux de Syrie. I.'' Journal Asiatique, pp.&nbsp;1–59</ref> The Umayyads, however, increasingly oriented their political strategy towards a model of [[Client politics]], of mutual interdependence and support.<ref>Donald Whitcomb (1995): ''Islam and the socio-cultural transition of Palestine - Early Islamic period (638–1099 C.E.)'' In: T. E. Levy (Ed.): ''The archeology of society in the Holy Land.'' London, Leicester University Press, pp.&nbsp;488–501</ref> After the Umayyad conquest, the ''quṣūr'' lost their original function and were either abandoned or continued to serve as local market places and meeting points until the tenth century.<ref name="Konrad 2009" /> Another type of Islamic fortress is the [[Qalat (fortress)|Qalat]].

==Early history==
[[File:Ceiling in Alhambra.JPG|thumb|left|Moorish ceiling in [[Alhambra]]]]
[[File:Pergamon Museum Berlin P3.jpg|thumb|Section of the Umayyad-era [[Mshatta Facade]], now in the Pergamon Museum in Berlin, from a palace near [[Amman]]]]
[[File:Cairo, porte settentrionali, 01.JPG|thumb|Bab al-Futuh gate built by the Fatimid vazir [[Badr al-Jamali]]]]

There are few buildings dating from the era of Prophet Muhammad, but one example is the [[Jawatha Mosque]] in [[Saudi Arabia]]. The [[Rashidun Caliphate]] (632–661) was the first state to use Islamic Architecture.{{citation needed|date=October 2018}}

The [[Umayyad Caliphate]] (661–750) combined elements of [[Byzantine architecture]] and [[Sassanid architecture]], but [[Umayyad architecture]] introduced new combinations of these western and eastern styles.{{sfn|Petersen|2002|p=295}}
The horseshoe arch appears for the first time in Umayyad architecture, later to evolve to its most advanced form in [[al-Andalus]].{{sfn|Ali|1999|p=35}} Umayyad architecture is distinguished by the extent and variety of decoration, including mosaics, wall painting, sculpture and carved reliefs with Islamic motifs.{{sfn|Petersen|2002|p=296}} The Umayyads introduced a [[transept]] that divided the prayer room along its shorter axis.{{sfn|Ettinghausen|Grabar|Jenkins|2001|p=24}} They also added the [[mihrab]] to mosque design.{{sfn|Ettinghausen|Grabar|Jenkins|2001|p=24}}
The mosque in [[Medina]] built by [[al-Walid I]] had the first ''[[mihrab]]'', a niche on the qibla wall, which seems to have represented the place where the Prophet stood when leading prayer. This almost immediately became a standard feature of all mosques.{{sfn|Ettinghausen|Grabar|Jenkins|2001|p=24}}

The [[Abbasid architecture]] of the [[Abbasid Caliphate]] (750–1513) was strongly influenced by [[Sassanid architecture]], and later by Central Asian styles. The Abbasid mosques all followed the courtyard plan. The earliest was the mosque that al-Mansur built in Baghdad. since destroyed. The [[Great Mosque of Samarra]] built by al-Mutawakkil was {{convert|256|by|139|m}}. A flat wooden roof was supported by columns. The mosque was decorated with marble panels and glass mosaics.{{sfn|Bloom|Blair|2009|p=80}} The prayer hall of the Abu Dulaf mosque at Samarra had arcades on rectangular brick piers running at right angles to the [[qibla]] wall. Both of the Samarra mosques have spiral minarets, the only examples in Iraq.{{sfn|Bloom|Blair|2009|p=80}} A mosque at [[Balkh]] in what is now Afghanistan was about {{convert|20|by|20|m}} square, with three rows of three square bays, supporting nine vaulted domes.{{sfn|Bloom|Blair|2009|p=82}}

Construction of the [[Mezquita de Córdoba|Great Mosque at Córdoba]] (now a cathedral known as the Mezquita) beginning in 785 CE marks the beginning of [[Moorish architecture]] in the [[Iberian peninsula]] and North Africa (see [[Moors]]). The mosque is noted for its striking interior [[arch]]es. Moorish architecture reached its peak with the construction of the [[Alhambra]], the magnificent palace/fortress of [[Granada]], with its open and breezy interior spaces adorned in red, blue, and gold. The walls are decorated with stylized [[foliage]] motifs, [[Arabic language|Arabic]] inscriptions, and [[Arabesque (Islamic art)|arabesque]] design work, with walls covered in glazed [[tile]]. Their other, smaller, survivals such as the Bab Mardum in [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]], or the caliphal city of [[Medina Azahara]]. Moorish architecture has its roots deeply established in the [[Arab]] tradition of architecture and design established during the era of the first Caliphate of the [[Umayyads]] in the [[Levant]] circa 660AD with its capital [[Damascus]] having very well preserved examples of fine [[Arab]] [[Islamic]] design and geometrics, including the carmen, which is the typical Damascene house, opening on the inside with a fountain as the house's centre piece.

[[Fatimid architecture]] in Egypt followed [[Tulunid]] techniques and used similar materials, but also developed those of their own. In [[Cairo]], their first congregational mosque was [[al-Azhar mosque]] ("the splendid") founded along with the city (969–973), which, together with its adjacent institution of higher learning ([[al-Azhar University]]), became the spiritual center for [[Ismaili|Ismaili Shia]]. The Mosque of al-Hakim (r. 996–1013), an important example of Fatimid architecture and architectural decoration, played a critical role in [[Fatimid]] ceremonial and procession, which emphasized the religious and political role of the [[Fatimid]] [[caliph]]. Besides elaborate funerary monuments, other surviving Fatimid structures include the [[Aqmar Mosque]] (1125)<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=INsmT6zjAl8C&pg=PA72&dq=aqmar+mosque+1125&hl=en&sa=X&ei=zbfpTvpbkbSEB8z0gbYI&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=aqmar%20mosque%201125&f=false Doris Behrens-Abouseif (1992), ''Islamic Architecture in Cairo: An Introduction'', BRILL, p. 72]</ref> and the [[Al-Hakim Mosque]], as well as the monumental gates for Cairo's [[Defensive wall|city walls]] commissioned by the powerful [[Fatimid]] [[emir]] and [[vizier]] [[Badr al-Jamali]] (r. 1073–1094).<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=XshAEMLqzmAC&pg=PA12&dq=false#v=onepage&q=false&f=false David Nicolle (2009), ''Saracen Strongholds 1100–1500: The Central and Eastern Islamic Lands''. Osprey Publishing, p. 12]</ref>

The reign of the [[Mamluk]]s (1250–1517 AD) in Egypt marked a breathtaking flowering of Islamic art which is most visible in old Cairo. [[Zealotry|Religious zeal]] made them generous patrons of [[Mamluk architecture|architecture]] and art. Trade and agriculture flourished under Mamluk rule, and Cairo, their capital, became one of the wealthiest cities in the [[Near East]] and the center of artistic and intellectual activity. This made Cairo, in the words of [[Ibn Khaldun]], "the center of the universe and the garden of the world", with majestic domes, courtyards, and soaring minarets spread across the city.

== Regional styles ==

=== Persian ===
{{see also|Persian architecture}}
[[File:Damghan7.jpg|thumb|right|[[Tarikhaneh Temple]], a pre-Islamic monument built in [[Sassanian Empire|Sassanid Persia]] which was later turned into a mosque, showing elements of [[Iranian architecture]] before the spread of Islam]]
The [[Islamic conquest of Persia]] in the 7th century availed the Muslims with the vast wealth of architectural innovation developed over the centuries, from the [[Roman road|great roads]], [[aqueduct (bridge)|aqueduct]]s and [[arch]]es of the [[Roman Empire]], to the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] [[basilica]]s and [[Sassanid empire|Persian]] arches, and the [[Sassanid empire|Sassanian]] and [[Byzantine art|Byzantine]] [[mosaic]]s. The Islamic architects first utilized these native architects to build mosques, and eventually developed their own adaptations. Islamic architecture thus is directly related to [[Persian architecture|Persian]] and [[Byzantine architecture]].

In Persia and Central Asia, the [[Tahirid dynasty|Tahirids]], [[Samanid]]s, [[Ghaznavids]], and [[Ghurids]] struggled for power in the 10th century, and art was a vital element of this competition. Great cities were built, such as [[Neyshabur|Nishapur]] and [[Ghazni]] ([[Afghanistan]]), and the construction of the Great Mosque of [[Isfahan]] (which would continue, in fits and starts, over several centuries) was initiated. Funerary architecture was also cultivated.

Under the [[Great Seljuq Empire|Seljuq]]s the "Iranian plan" of mosque construction appears for the first time. Lodging places called ''khans'', or [[caravanserai]], for travellers and their animals, or caravansarais, generally displayed utilitarian rather than ornamental architecture, with rubble masonry, strong fortifications, and minimal comfort.<ref>Hillenbrand, p.109</ref> Seljuq architecture synthesized various styles, both Iranian and Syrian, sometimes rendering precise attributions difficult. Another important architectural trend to arise in the Seljuk era is the development of mausolea including the tomb tower such as the [[Gunbad-i-qabus]] (circa 1006-7) (showcasing a Zoroastrian motif) and the domed square, an example of which is the [[tomb of the Samanids]] in the city of [[Bukhara]] (circa 943).<ref>Hillenbrand, p.100.</ref>
[[File:Isfahan_Royal_Mosque_general.JPG|left|thumb|[[Shah Mosque]] in [[Naqsh-e Jahan Square]], [[Isfahan]], [[Iran]]]]

The [[Ilkhanate|Il-Khanate period]] provided several innovations to dome-building that eventually enabled the Persians to construct much taller structures. These changes later paved the way for Safavid architecture. The pinnacle of Il-Khanate architecture was reached with the construction of the [[Soltaniyeh|Soltaniyeh Dome]] (1302–1312) in [[Zanjan (city)|Zanjan]], Iran, which measures 50&nbsp;m in height and 25&nbsp;m in diameter, making it [[List of largest domes in the world#Masonry|the 3rd largest]] and the tallest masonry dome ever erected.<ref>[http://www.iranreview.org/content/view/2280/51/]{{dead link|date=April 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The thin, double-shelled dome was reinforced by arches between the layers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/domes|title=DOMES – Encyclopaedia Iranicam|website=Iranicaonline.org|accessdate=30 December 2017}}</ref> The tomb of [[Öljeitü]] in [[Soltaniyeh]] is one of the greatest and most impressive monuments in Iran, despite many later depredations.

Iranian architecture and city planning also reached an apogee under the [[Timurids]], in particular with the monuments of [[Samarkand]], marked by extensive use of exterior ceramic tiles and [[muqarnas]] vaulting within.

The renaissance in Persian mosque and dome building came during the [[Safavid dynasty]], when [[Abbas I of Persia|Shah Abbas]], in 1598 initiated the reconstruction of [[Isfahan]], with the [[Naqsh-e Jahan Square]] as the centerpiece of his new capital.<ref>Savory, Roger; Iran under the Safavids, p. 155</ref> The distinct feature of Persian domes, which separates them from those domes created in the Christian world or the Ottoman and Mughal empires, was the colorful tiles, with which they covered the ''exterior'' of their domes, as they would on the interior. These domes soon numbered dozens in Isfahan, and the distinct, blue- colored shape would dominate the skyline of the city. Reflecting the light of the sun, these domes appeared like glittering [[turquoise|turquoise gem]] and could be seen from miles away by travelers following the [[Silk road]] through Persia. This very distinct style of architecture was inherited to them from the [[Seljuq dynasty]], who for centuries had used it in their mosque building, but it was perfected during the Safavids when they invented the ''haft- rangi'', or seven- colour style of tile burning, a process that enabled them to apply more colours to each tile, creating richer patterns, sweeter to the eye.<ref>Blake, Stephen P.; Half the World, The Social Architecture of Safavid Isfahan, 1590–1722, p. 143–144</ref> The colours that the Persians favoured were golden, white and turquoise patterns on a dark- blue background.<ref>Canby, Sheila R.; Shah Abbas, The Remaking of Iran, p. 30.</ref> The extensive inscription bands of calligraphy and arabesque on most of the major buildings where carefully planned and executed by [[Reza Abbasi|Ali Reza Abbasi]], who was appointed head of the royal library and Master calligrapher at the Shah's court in 1598,<ref>Canby, Sheila R.; Shah Abbas, The Remaking of Iran, p. 36.</ref> while [[Shaykh Bahai]] oversaw the construction projects. Reaching 53 meters in height, the dome of Masjed-e Shah (Shah Mosque) would become the tallest in the city when it was finished in 1629. It was built as a double- shelled dome, with 14&nbsp;m spanning between the two layers, and resting on an octagonal dome chamber.<ref>Hattstein M., Delius P.; Islam, Art and Architecture; p. 513–514</ref>
[[File:Bibi Heybat Mosque Baku 1.jpg|thumb|The [[Bibi-Heybat Mosque]] in [[Baku]], [[Azerbaijan]]]]

Persian-style mosques are also characterized by their tapered brick pillars, large [[Arcade (architecture)|arcades]] and arches each supported by several pillars. In South Asia, such art was also used as was a technique throughout the region.<ref name="B-I">"Islam", ''The New Encyclopædia Britannica'' (2005)</ref>

The [[Islamic conquest of Persia]] in the 7th century also helped Islamic architecture to flourish in [[Azerbaijan]].<ref>[http://www.isesco.org.ma/english/publications/Islamtoday/14/P6.php Journal Islam Today N° 14-1417H/1996] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110127034538/http://www.isesco.org.ma/english/publications/islamtoday/14/P6.php |date=2011-01-27 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.zerbaijan.com/azeri/azerbaijan4.htm|title=Virtual Azerbaijan Presents - Azerbaijan's History|first=Adil T.|last=Baguirov|website=Zerbaijan.com|accessdate=30 December 2017}}</ref> The country became home of Nakchivan and Shirvan-Absheron architecture schools. An example of the first direction in the Azerbaijani Islamic architecture is the mausoleum of Yusuf, built in 1162.{{citation needed|date=May 2015}}

The Shirvan-Absheron school unlike Nakchivan style used stones instead of the bricks in the construction. At the same characteristics of this trend were the asymmetry and stone carving, which includes famous landmarks like [[Palace of the Shirvanshahs]]

=== Ottoman ===
{{Main|Ottoman architecture}}
[[File:Sultan Ahmed Mosque Istanbul Turkey retouched.jpg|thumb|left|[[Sultan Ahmed Mosque]], built in 1616, [[Istanbul]], [[Turkey]]]]

The standard plan of Ottoman architecture was inspired in part by the example of [[Hagia Sophia]] in [[Constantinople]]/[[Istanbul]], [[Ilkhanid]] works like [[Oljeitu]] Tomb and earlier [[Seljuks of Rum|Seljuk]] and Anatolian Beylik monumental buildings and their own original innovations. The most famous of Ottoman architects was (and remains) [[Mimar Sinan]], who lived for approximately one hundred years and designed several hundreds of buildings, of which two of the most important are [[Süleymaniye Mosque]] in Istanbul and [[Selimiye Mosque (Edirne)|Selimiye Mosque]] in [[Edirne]]. Apprentices of Sinan later built the famous [[Sultan Ahmed Mosque|Blue Mosque]] in Istanbul.

The most numerous and largest of mosques exist in [[Turkey]], which obtained influence from Byzantine, [[Iranian architecture|Persian]] and [[Syria]]n-[[Arab]] designs. Turkish architects implemented their own style of [[cupola]] domes.<ref name="B-I"/> For almost 500 years [[Byzantine architecture]] such as the church of Hagia Sophia served as models for many of the Ottoman mosques such as the Shehzade Mosque, the Suleiman Mosque, and the Rüstem Pasha Mosque.

The [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]]s mastered the technique of building vast inner spaces confined by seemingly weightless yet massive domes, and achieving perfect harmony between inner and outer spaces, as well as light and shadow. Islamic religious architecture which until then consisted of simple buildings with extensive decorations, was transformed by the Ottomans through a dynamic architectural vocabulary of [[Vault (architecture)|vaults]], domes, semidomes and columns. The mosque was transformed from being a cramped and dark chamber with arabesque-covered walls into a sanctuary of esthetic and technical balance, refined elegance and a hint of heavenly transcendence.

=== Turkistani (Timurid) ===
[[File:RegistanSquare Samarkand.jpg|thumb|The [[Registan]] is the ensemble of three [[madrasa]]s, in [[Samarkand]], modern day [[Uzbekistan]]]]
{{anchor|Timurid architecture}}

Timurid architecture is the pinnacle of [[Islamic art]] in [[Central Asia]]. Spectacular and stately edifices erected by [[Timur]] and [[Timurid Dynasty|his successors]] in [[Samarkand]] and [[Herat]] helped to disseminate the influence of the [[Ilkhanid]] [[Art school|school of art]] in India, thus giving rise to the celebrated [[Mughal architecture|Mughal]] school of architecture. Timurid architecture started with the [[Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasavi|sanctuary of Ahmed Yasawi]] in present-day [[Kazakhstan]] and culminated in Timur's mausoleum [[Gur-e Amir]] in [[Samarkand]]. The style is largely derived from [[Persian architecture]]. [[Axial symmetry]] is a characteristic of all major Timurid structures, notably the [[Shah-i-Zinda]] in [[Samarkand]] and the mosque of [[Gowhar Shad]] in [[Mashhad]]. Double [[dome]]s of various shapes abound, and the outsides are perfused with brilliant colors.

=== Moroccan ===
{{Main|Moroccan architecture}}
[[File:Meknes-Medina.jpg|thumb|left|[[El Hedim Square]] in [[Meknes]], [[Morocco]] with the "[[Bab Mansour]] Gate" in the [[Old city of Meknes]]]]

Moroccan architecture dates from 110 BCE with the Berber's massive pisé ([[mud brick]]) buildings. The architecture has been influenced by Islamization during the [[Idrisid dynasty]], [[Moorish architecture|Moorish]] exiles from Spain, and also by France who [[French protectorate in Morocco|occupied Morocco]] in 1912. [[Morocco]] is in [[Maghreb|Northwest Africa]] bordering the [[Mediterranean]] and the [[Atlantic]]. The country's diverse geography and the land's long history marked by successive waves of settlers and military encroachments are all reflected in Morocco's architecture. [[Moroccan Islamic architecture]] is also present outside the country. For example, [[Sheikha Salama Mosque]] in the [[United Arab Emirates|UAE]] city of [[Al Ain]] has two [[minaret]]s which partly look Moroccan.<ref name="RoughGuides2016B">{{cite book |work=[[Rough Guides]] UK |title=The Rough Guide to Dubai |publisher=[[Penguin Books|Penguin]] |chapter= |page=266 |isbn=978-0-2412-9865-7 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=3awnDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT266&dq=sheikha+salama+mosque#v=onepage&q=sheikha%20salama%20mosque&f=false |date=2016-11-15}}</ref>

=== Yemenite ===
[[File:Bab Al Yemen Sanaa Yemen.jpg|thumb|The ''[[Bab al-Yaman|Bāb al-Yaman]]'' ({{lang-ar|بَـاب ٱلْـيَـمَـن|Gate of the Yemen) in the [[Old city of Sana'a|Old City]] of [[Sana'a]], [[Yemen]]]]

Yemenite architecture Is the architecture that characterizes houses built on several floors, some of the floors used as a line
A storage room with removable stairs. The houses are made of mud bricks mixed with Gypsum.

=== Russian ===
{{Main|Tatar mosque}}
[[File:Центр семьи «Казань».JPG|thumb|left|[[Kazan Family Center]] in [[Kazan]], [[Republic of Tatarstan]], [[Russia]]]]

Russian -Islamic architecture is a feature of the architecture of the [[Tatars]], formed under the influence of a sedentary and nomadic way of life in ancient times, developing in the epochs of the Golden Horde, the Tatar khanates and under the rule of the [[Russian Empire]]. The architecture was formed in the modern form for many centuries and depended on the culture, aesthetics and religion of the population, therefore combines a unique combination of Eastern, Russian, Bulgarian, Golden Horde architecture, European styles dominating in Russia at one time or another, especially this Is clearly reflected in the Tatar mosques.

=== Indian ===
{{Main|Indo-Islamic architecture|Mughal architecture}}
{{See also|Indian architecture|Pakistani architecture|Bangladeshi architecture}}
[[File:Humayun Tomb in Delhi-Front view.JPG|thumb|[[Humayun's Tomb]], [[Delhi]], the first fully developed Mughal imperial tomb, 1569-70 CE]]

The most known Indo-Islamic style is [[Mughal architecture]]. Its most prominent examples are the series of imperial [[Mausoleum|mausolea]], which started with the pivotal [[Tomb of Humayun]], but is best known for the [[Taj Mahal]], completed in 1648 by emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his wife [[Mumtaz Mahal]] who died while giving birth to their 14th child. The Taj Mahal is completely symmetrical except for Shah Jahan's [[sarcophagus]], which is placed off center in the crypt room below the main floor. This symmetry extended to the building of an entire mirror mosque in black marble to complement the Mecca-facing mosque place to the west of the main structure. A famous example of the [[charbagh]] style of Mughal garden is the [[Shalimar Gardens (Lahore)|Shalimar Gardens]] in [[Lahore]], where the domeless [[Tomb of Jahangir]] is also located. [[Bibi Ka Maqbara]] in [[Aurangabad, Maharashtra|Aurangabad]] which was commissioned by sixth [[Mughal Emperor]] [[Aurangzeb]] in memory of his wife.  The [[Red Fort]] in [[Delhi]] and [[Agra Fort]] are huge castle-like fortified palaces, and the abandoned city of [[Fatehpur Sikri]], 26 miles (42&nbsp;km) west of [[Agra]], was built for [[Akbar]] in the late 16th century.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=HHyVh29gy4QC&pg=PA29 [[John F. Richards]] (1996), ''The Mughal Empire'', Cambridge University Press, p. 29]</ref> While the [[Deccan sultanates]] in the Southern regions of the Indian subcontinent developed the Indo-Islamic Deccani architectural styles like [[Charminar]] and [[Gol Gumbaz]].<ref name="michell_77">Michell, George & Mark Zebrowski. Architecture and Art of the Deccan Sultanates (The New Cambridge History of India Vol. I:7), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1999, {{ISBN|0-521-56321-6}}, p.14 & pp.77–80.</ref>

Within the [[Indian subcontinent]], the [[Bengal]]i region developed a distinct regional style under the independent Bengal Sultanate. It incorporated influences from Persia, Byzantium and North India,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Architecture|title=Architecture - Banglapedia|website=En.banglapedia.org|accessdate=30 December 2017}}</ref> which were with blended indigenous Bengali elements, such as curved roofs, corner towers and complex [[terracotta]] ornamentation. One feature in the sultanate was the relative absence of minarets.<ref name="Hasan, Perween 2007 p. 23-27">Hasan, Perween (2007). Sultans and Mosques:The Early Muslim Architecture of Bangladesh. United Kingdom: I.B. Tauris. p. 23–27. {{ISBN|1-84511-381-0}}.</ref> Many small and medium-sized medieval mosques, with multiple domes and artistic [[Niche (architecture)|niche]] [[mihrab]]s, were constructed throughout the region.<ref name="Hasan, Perween 2007 p. 23-27"/> The grand mosque of Bengal was the 14th century [[Adina Mosque]], the largest mosque in the Indian subcontinent. Built of stone demolished from temples, it featured a monumental ribbed barrel vault over the central nave, the first such giant vault used anywhere in the subcontinent. The mosque was modeled on the imperial [[Sasanian]] style of Persia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bengal|title=BENGAL – Encyclopaedia Iranica|website=Iranicaonline.org|accessdate=30 December 2017}}</ref> The Sultanate style flourished between the 14th and 16th centuries. A provincial style influenced by North India evolved in Mughal Bengal during the 17th and 18th centuries. The Mughals also copied the Bengali [[do-chala]] roof tradition for mausoleums in North India.<ref>Petersen, Andrew (2002). Dictionary of Islamic Architecture. Routledge. p. 33–35. {{ISBN|1-134-61366-0}}.</ref>

<gallery widths="180px" heights="180px">
File:Qutb Minar tower.jpg|[[Qutub Minar]] built at the start of the [[Delhi Sultanate]], a massive statement of conquest.
File:TajMahalbyAmalMongia.jpg|The [[Taj Mahal]], the most famous building of [[Mughal architecture]].
GolGumbaz2.jpg|[[Gol Gumbaz]] built by the [[Bijapur Sultanate]] in Deccani style, the world's 2nd largest pre-modern dome.<ref>After the Byzantine [[Hagia Sophia]]</ref>
Malda ~ Adina Mosque 5.JPG|[[Adina Mosque]], the largest mosque of [[Bengali Muslim architecture]]. 
Charminar-Pride of Hyderabad.jpg|[[Charminar]] at Old City in [[Hyderabad, India]].
Asfi masjid.jpg|The Asfi mosque, located near the [[Bara Imambara]] in [[Lucknow, India]].
</gallery>

=== Chinese ===
{{Main|Chinese mosques}}
[[File:Chiang Rai Mosque1.jpg|thumb|left|[[Hui people]] who have also migrated to the south such as this [[Darunaman Mosque]], located in [[Chiang Rai province]], [[Thailand]] shows a mixture between Chinese and Islamic architecture]]
[[File:Chinese-style minaret of the Great Mosque.jpg|upright|thumb|right|The Great Mosque of Xi'an, China]]

The first Chinese mosque was established in the 7th century during the [[Tang Dynasty]] in [[Xi'an]]. The [[Great Mosque of Xi'an]], whose current buildings date from the [[Ming Dynasty]], does not replicate many of the features often associated with traditional mosques. Instead, it follows traditional [[Chinese architecture]]. Some Chinese mosques in parts of western China were more likely to incorporate minarets and domes while eastern Chinese mosques were more likely to look like [[pagoda]]s.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/198504/muslims.in.china-the.mosques.htm|accessdate=2006-04-08|last=Cowen|first=Jill S.|date=July–August 1985|pages=30–35|publisher=Saudi Aramco World|title=Muslims in China: The Mosque|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060322154300/http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/198504/muslims.in.china-the.mosques.htm|archive-date=2006-03-22|dead-url=yes|df=}}</ref>

As in other regions, Chinese Islamic architecture reflects the local architecture in its style; some Chinese mosques resemble temples. In western China, mosques resemble those of the [[Arab World]], with tall, slender minarets, curvy arches and dome shaped roofs. In northwest China where the Chinese [[Hui people|Hui]] have built their mosques, there is a combination of eastern and western styles. The mosques have flared Buddhist style roofs set in walled courtyards entered through archways with miniature domes and [[minaret]]s.<ref>Saudi Aramco World, July/August 1985, page 3035</ref>

=== Indonesian-Malaysian ===
{{Main|Indonesian Islamic architecture}}
[[File:Masjid Menara Kudus.jpg|thumb|250px|Minaret is not an original architecture of Indonesian mosque, instead the [[Menara Kudus Mosque]] employs a [[Hindu temple|Hindu]]-[[Buddhist architecture|Buddhist]] [[Candi of Indonesia|temple]]-like structure for a [[beduk|drum]] used to call prayer<ref name="Schoppert, P. 1997, p. 207">Schoppert, P., Damais, S., ''Java Style'', 1997, Didier Millet, Paris, p. 207, {{ISBN|962-593-232-1}}</ref>]]

[[Southeast Asia]] was slow to adopt Middle Eastern architectural styles. Islam entered Indonesia in the 15th-century via [[Java]] island, during which period the dominant religion in Southeast Asia included a variety of pagan groups. Introduction of Islam was peaceful. Existing architectural features in Indonesia such as the [[candi bentar]] gate, [[paduraksa]] (normally marks entrance to the most sacred precincts), and the sacred pyramidal roof was used for Islamic architecture. For centuries, Indonesian mosques lacked domes or minarets, both considered a Middle Eastern origin. Indonesian original mosques feature multi-layered pyramidal roofs and no minaret. Prayer are called by striking a prayer's drum known as [[beduk]]. The minaret of the [[Menara Kudus Mosque]] is a great example of Indonesian architecture. Indonesian mosque architecture also features strong influence from the Middle Eastern architecture styles.<ref name="heritage 88">{{cite book |author=Gunawan Tjahjono |authorlink= |title=Indonesian Heritage-Architecture |year=1998 |publisher=Archipelago Press |location=Singapore |isbn=978-981-3018-30-3 |pages=88–89}}</ref>

The architecture of Javanese Indonesian mosques had a strong influence on the design of other mosques in [[Indonesia]], [[Malaysia]], [[Brunei]], and the [[Philippines]].

Today, with increasing Muslim pilgrimage to Mecca, Indonesian-Malaysian mosques are developing a more standard, international style, with a dome and minaret.
<gallery widths="180px" heights="180px">
GrandMosqueYogya.JPG|The Grand Mosque of the [[Sultanate of Yogyakarta]], [[Indonesia]], features multi-layered roof typical of Indonesian mosque architecture.
Meuseujid Raya Bayturrahman.JPG|[[Baiturrahman Grand Mosque]], [[Indonesia]], with [[Mughal culture|Mughal]] and [[Colonial architecture of Indonesia|Dutch Colonial]] influences.
Masjid Agung Palembang.jpg|Masjid Agung Palembang, [[Indonesia]], with [[Chinese architecture|Chinese]] influence.
Masjid-Kampung-Kling-2326.jpg|[[Kampung Kling Mosque]], [[Malaysia]], with a cross between Sumatran, [[Chinese architecture|Chinese]], Hindu, and the Malacca Malay influences.
Masjid Kampung Laut, Nilampuri, Kelantan, Malaysia.jpg|[[Masjid Kampung Laut]], [[Malaysia]], which is a typical traditional [[Malay house|Malay]] mosque architecture in Malaysia.
Torres Petronas Mayo 2004.jpg|[[Petronas Twin Towers]] in [[Kuala Lumpur]], [[Malaysia]], are 88-floor towers constructed largely of reinforced concrete, with a steel and glass facade designed to resemble motifs found in [[Islamic art]], a reflection of Malaysia's [[Muslim]] religion.<ref>Wee, C. J. Wan-Ling, April Stonghold, James Parpan Almeda (2002). ''Local cultures and the "new Asia": the state, culture, and capitalism in Southeast Asia.'' Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. p. 193.</ref>
</gallery>

=== Sahelian ===
{{Main|Sudano-Sahelian}}

In [[West Africa]], Muslim merchants played a vital role in the Western [[Sahel]] region since the [[Kingdom of Ghana]]. At [[Kumbi Saleh]], locals lived in domed-shaped dwellings in the king's section of the city, surrounded by a great enclosure. Traders lived in stone houses in a section which possessed 12 beautiful mosques (as described by [[Abu Abdullah al-Bakri|al-bakri]]), one centered on [[Friday prayer]].<ref>Historical Society of Ghana. Transactions of the Historical Society of Ghana, The Society, 1957, pp81</ref> The king is said to have owned several mansions, one of which was sixty-six feet long, forty-two feet wide, contained seven rooms, was two stories high, and had a staircase; with the walls and chambers filled with sculpture and painting.<ref>Davidson, Basil. The Lost Cities of Africa. Boston: Little Brown, 1959, pp86</ref> [[Sudano-Sahelian|Sahelian architecture]] initially grew from the two cities of [[Djenné]] and [[Timbuktu]]. The [[Sankore]] Mosque in [[Timbuktu]], constructed from mud on timber, was similar in style to the [[Great Mosque of Djenné]].

=== Somali ===
{{Main|Somali architecture}}
[[File:Ancient-Almnara.jpg|thumb|left|upright|''Almnara Tower'' [[Somalia]]]]
[[File:Fakr Ud Din Mosque.jpg|thumb|right|The 13th century [[Fakr ad-Din Mosque]] in [[Mogadishu]]]]

The spread of Islam in the early medieval era of [[History of Somalia|Somalia's history]] brought Islamic architectural influences from [[Arabia]] and [[Persia]], which stimulated a shift from [[drystone]] and other related materials in construction to [[Masonry|coral stone]], [[mud-brick|sundried bricks]], and the widespread use of [[limestone]] in Somali architecture. Many of the new architectural designs such as [[mosques]] were built on the ruins of older structures, a practice that would continue over and over again throughout the following centuries.<ref>Culture and customs of Somalia – Mohammed Abdullahi Diriye pg 102</ref> Concordant with the ancient presence of Islam in the [[Horn of Africa]] region, mosques in Somalia are some of the oldest on the entire continent. One architectural feature that made Somali mosques distinct from other mosques in Africa were [[minaret]]s.

For centuries, Arba Rukun (1269), the Friday mosque of [[Merca]] (1609) and [[Fakr ad-Din]] (1269) were, in fact, the only mosques in [[East Africa]] to have minarets.<ref>Studies in Islamic history and civilization By David Ayalon pg 370</ref> Fakr ad-Din, which dates back to the [[Mogadishu|Mogadishan]] [[Golden Age]], was built with [[marble]] and [[coral]] [[Rock (geology)|stone]] and included a compact rectangular plan with a domed [[mihrab]] axis. Glazed tiles were also used in the decoration of the mihrab, one of which bears a dated inscription. The 13th century ''Al Gami University'' consisted of a rectangular base with a large cylindrical tower architecturally unique in the [[Islamic world]].

[[Shrine]]s to honor [[Somali people|Somali]] [[patriarchs]] and [[matriarchy|matriarchs]] evolved from ancient Somali burial customs. In Southern Somalia the preferred medieval shrine architecture was the [[Pillar tomb]] style while the North predominantly built structures consisting of [[domes]] and square plans.

=== Interpretation ===
[[File:Sebilj, Sarajevo.jpg|thumb|The [[Sebilj]] is a [[Ottoman Empire|pseudo-Ottoman]] style wooden [[fountain]] in the centre of [[Baščaršija]] square in [[Sarajevo]], [[Bosnia]]]]

Common interpretations of Islamic architecture include the following: The concept of [[God in Islam|God]] or [[Allah]]'s infinite power is evoked by designs with repeating themes which suggest infinity. Human and animal forms are rarely depicted in [[decorative art]] as God's work is [[Aniconism in Islam|considered to be matchless]]. Foliage is a frequent motif but typically stylized or simplified for the same reason. [[Arabic Calligraphy]] is used to enhance the interior of a building by providing quotations from the [[Qur'an]]. Islamic architecture has been called the "architecture of the veil" because the beauty lies in the inner spaces (courtyards and rooms) which are not visible from the outside (street view). Furthermore, the use of grandiose forms such as large domes, towering minarets, and large courtyards are intended to convey power.

== In modern times ==
[[File:Faisal_mosque2.jpg|thumb|[[Faisal Mosque]] at [[Islamabad]], [[Pakistan]] designed by [[Vedat Dalokay]].]]
[[File:Museum_of_Islamic_arts_SOP.jpg|thumb|[[Museum of Islamic Art, Doha|Museum of Islamic Art]] at [[Doha]], [[Qatar]] designed by [[I. M. Pei]].]]
In modern times, the architecture of Islamic buildings, not just religious ones, has gone through some changes. The new architectural style doesn't stick with the same fundamental aspects that were seen in the past, but mosques for the most part still feature the same parts - the ''Miḥrāb'' ({{lang-ar|مِـحْـرَاب}}), the minarets, four-iwan plan, and the ''pishtaq''. A difference to note is the appearance of mosques without domes, as in the past mosques for the most part all had them, but these new dome-less mosques seem to follow a function over form design, and are created by those not of the Islamic faith, in most cases. The influence of Islam still pervades the style of creation itself, and provides a 'conceptual framework',<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=OMER|first=SPAHIC|date=2008|title=Towards Understanding Islamic Architecture|journal=Islamic Studies|volume=47|issue=4|pages=483–510|jstor=20839141}}</ref> for the making of a building that exemplifies the styles and beliefs of Islam. It has also been influenced by the now meeting of many different cultures, such as European styles meeting Islamic styles, leading to Islamic architects incorporating features of other architectural and cultural styles.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Abdelmonem|first=Mohamed|date=2003-10-22|title=Contemporary Islamic Architecture in the Arab World|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320556990}}</ref>

=== Urban design and Islam ===
Urban design and the tradition of Islamic styled architecture have begun to combine to form a new 'neo-Islamic' style, where the efficiency of the urban style meshes with the spirituality and aesthetic characteristics of Islamic styles.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=ELARABY|first=KADRI M.G.|date=1996|title=Neo-Islamic Architecture and Urban Design in the Middle East: From Threshold to Adaptive Design|journal=Built Environment (1978-)|volume=22|issue=2|pages=138–150|jstor=23288987}}</ref> Islamic Architecture in itself is a style that showcases the values, and the culture of Islam, but in modern times sticking to tradition is falling out of practice, so a combination style formed. Examples showing this are places such as the [[Marrakesh Menara Airport]], the Islamic Cultural Center and Museum of Tolerance, ''Masjid Permata Qolbu'', the concept for The Vanishing Mosque, and the ''[[Mazar-e-Quaid]].'' All of these buildings show the influence of Islam over them, but also the movements of things like minimalism which are rising to popularity in the architectural field. Designers that use the aspects of both modern styles and the Islamic styles found a way to have the Western-inspired modernism<ref name=":2" /> with the classical cultural aspects of Islamic architecture. This concept though brings up the controversy of the identity of the Islamic community, of the traditional Islamic community, within a space that doesn't follow the way they knew it.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=ALSAYYAD|first=NEZAR|date=1996|title=Islamic Architecture and Urbanism: Middle Eastern Perspectives|journal=Built Environment (1978-)|volume=22|issue=2|pages=88–90|jstor=23288982}}</ref>

=== Debates on status as a style of architecture ===
There are some who also debate whether Islamic Architecture can truly be called a style, as the religious aspect is seen as separate and having no bearing on the architectural style,<ref name=":12"/> while on the other side people also argue that the newfound trend and divergence from the style of old Islamic Architecture is what is causing the style to lose it status. There are scholars that also believe that the distinguishing features of the Islamic Architecture style were not necessarily found within the architecture, but were rather environmental markers, such as the sounds of prayer, the city around it, the events that occurred there.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Al-Jasmi|first=Abdullah|last2=Mitias|first2=Michael H.|date=2004|title=Does an Islamic Architecture Exist?|journal=Revista Portuguesa de Filosofia|volume=60|issue=1|pages=197–214|jstor=40338415}}</ref> The example given is that we know that a building is a mosque based on what happens there, rather than any visual cues.<ref name=":3" /> Specific features that are notably related to Islamic Architecture - the Mihrab, the Minaret, and the Gate<ref name=":3" /> - are seen in multiple locations and do not always serve the same use, and symbolism for being Islamic in nature is seen to be demonstrated more culturally than it is architecturally. Islamic Architecture is also sometimes referred to as a 'hidden architecture', one that doesn't necessarily show the physical traits of the style, rather it is something that is experienced.<ref>Nawawi, N. (2009). ''ISLAMIC INFLUENCE ON THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE MALAY WORLD''.</ref>

== Connections & deeper meanings ==
Islamic architecture displays intricate patterns, colors, and details embodying the Islamic culture. Such widespread religious displays typically have deeper meanings and connections. Islamic architecture is unique in this case because interior designs often lack or have unknown religious connections. This is caused by the Muslim ideology [[Shirk (Islam)|Shirk]], stating that an attempt to depict any earthly beings as holy is sinful. [[Shirk (Islam)|Shirk]] is unlike Western cultural ideals, often consisting of a large amount of religious symbolism in earthly beings. Due to this, symbolism in Islamic architecture is not as easily accessible compared to that of Western religious architecture.

=== Difficulty forming connections ===
Islamic architecture is a neglected subject within historical studies. Many scholars that study historical architecture often gloss over, if not completely ignore Islamic structures. This is caused by multiple elements, one being that there is little historic literary works that express an Islamic architect's motives with their structures.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|title=Islamic architecture : form, function, and meaning|last=Robert.|first=Hillenbrand|date=1994|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0231101325|edition= Casebound |location=New York|oclc=30319450}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Ghasemzadeh|first=Behnam|date=|title=SYMBOLS AND SIGNS IN ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE|url=http://www.eras.utad.pt/docs/SET%202013%20visuais.pdf|journal=European Review of Artistic Studies|volume=|pages=|via=}}</ref> Due to the massively spanning Islamic religion, there is a large variation between thousands of existing mosques with little consistency between them. Lastly, since it is against Islamic faith to idolize earthly beings, any depictions of earthly beings lack religious connection. These characteristics combine to make it difficult for historians to form symbolic connections from architecture in Islamic places of worship.<ref name=":5" />

=== Religious and societal connections ===
Islamic architecture is unique compared to other vast religions that encompass much of the West. Unlike Christianity, Islam does not sensationalize living beings because they view it as a conflict with the Qur'an. Anything created by Allah is under his order and thus should not be idolized.<ref name=":4" /> This leaves typical religious Western symbols out of the picture, and replaces them with an emphasis on complex geometrical shapes and patterns.<ref name=":4" />

There are several aspects of Islamic architecture that to modern knowledge lack a symbolic religious meaning, but there are connections that do exist. A repeated and significant motif in mosques is calligraphy. Calligraphy plays a huge role in delivering religious connections through artistic design.<ref name=":4" /> Calligraphy, in a mosque setting, is specifically used to reference holy excerpts from both the Qur’an and Prophet Muhammad's teachings. These references are one of the few religious connections architects include within their work.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" />

==== Status and hierarchy ====
Islamic architecture varies vastly across the scope of the world. Specifically, some mosques have different goals and intentions than others. These intentions often highlighted religious and social hierarchies within the mosque. Mosques are designed to have the least significant portions of the layout closest to the entrance, as people move deeper into the building more significant religious areas are revealed.<ref name=":5" /> Hierarchy is also present because certain Islamic architects are tasked to design specifically for the presence of royalty. Designated locations had been carefully chosen in the mosque to highlight an individual's position in society. This emphasis could be made through being within view to all attendees,  placed in the focal point of artistry, and a [[maqsurah]]'''.''' <ref name=":6">{{Cite web|url=https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/architecture/4-614-religious-architecture-and-islamic-cultures-fall-2002/lecture-notes/glossary/|title=Glossary of Terms {{!}} Lecture Notes {{!}} Religious Architecture and Islamic Cultures {{!}} Architecture {{!}} MIT OpenCourseWare|last=Nasser|first=Rabbat|website=ocw.mit.edu|language=en|access-date=2018-07-25}}</ref>

Maintaining a sociological hierarchy within a mosque would typically represent a recognition by a higher being aware of a delegation of power.  This hierarchy does exist but not with any sort of religious message as Hillenbrand points out, “in neither case is this hierarchy employed for especially portentous ends.” <ref name=":4" /> Hierarchy exist in the church in different forms, but is meant for purely functional purposes.<ref name=":4" />

=== Structural intentions ===
Deeper meanings in Islamic architecture often can take form as functional purposes. For example, mosques are built around the ideal that it should not just be a place of mesmerizing aesthetics, but a place where the aesthetics’ fluidity guide the person into proper worship.<ref name=":4" />

A key feature of the mosque is the [[Mihrab]], a universal part of any Islamic place of worship.<ref name=":6" /> The [[Mihrab]] is easily identifiable through a receding wall and a gable over head often consisting of intricate patterns. Upon entering, the most crucial religious function the architecture of the mosque serves to deliver is the [[Qibla]].<ref name=":4" /> The [[Qibla]] is necessary for proper Islamic worship, and is revealed through architectural means.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.al-islam.org/philosophy-islamic-laws-nasir-makarim-shirazi-jafar-subhani/question-7-why-face-qibla-prayers|title=Question 7: Why To Face The Qibla In Prayers?|website=Al-Islam.org|language=en|access-date=2018-07-25}}</ref>

== Contemporary Muslim architects ==
{{div col|colwidth=18em}}
*[[Fazlur Khan]]
*[[Abdel-Wahed El-Wakil]]
*[[Vedat Dalokay]]
*[[Kamran Afshar Naderi]]
*[[Baitul Mukarram|T.Abdul Hussain Thariani]]
*[[Bibi-Heybat Mosque|Fahraddin Miralay]]
*[[Muzharul Islam]]
*[[Khadija Mosque|Mubashra Ilyas]]
*[[Nabih Youssef]]
*[[Bashirul Haq]]
*[[Zaha Hadid]]
*[[Nayyar Ali Dada]]
*[[Habib Fida Ali]]
*[[Hassan Fathy]]
*[[Mimar Sinan]]
{{div col end}}

== See also ==
{{div col|colwidth=18em}}
* ''[[Ablaq]]''
* [[Archnet]], database of Islamic architecture
* [[Aurangabad, Maharashtra]] — City of Gates
* [[Bibi Ka Maqbara]]
* [[Caravanserai]]
* [[Desert castles]]
* [[Gozo Farmhouse]]
* [[Kasbah]]
* [[Kulliyye]]
* [[Moroccan riad]]
* [[Sebil (fountain)|Sebil]]
* [[Turbah]]
* [[Well House]]
{{div col end}}

== Gallery ==
<gallery widths="180px" heights="180px">
Image:Magnificent Chowmahalla Palace.jpg|Chowmahalla Palace in [[Hyderabad, India|Hyderabad]]
File:Shubbaq 1.jpg|Intricate pattern on the Window of [[Syedna Hatim]] Rauza
</gallery>

== Nota ==
{{reflist|group=note|2}}

== References ==
'''Citationsujukan ==
'''Petikan'''
{{Reflist}}
'''Sourcesumber'''
{{refbegin}}
*{{cite book |ref=harv |last=Ali |first=Wijdan |title=the arab contribution to islamic art: from the seventh to the fifteenth centuries |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rpUuqLPPKK4C&pg=PA35 |access-date=2013-03-17 |year=1999 |publisher=American Univ in Cairo Press |isbn=978-977-424-476-6}}
*{{cite book |ref=harv |last1=Bloom |first1=Jonathan M. |last2=Blair |first2=Sheila |title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art & Architecture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=un4WcfEASZwC&pg=PA79 |access-date=2013-03-15 |year=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-530991-1}}
*{{cite book |ref=harv |last1=Ettinghausen |first1=Richard |last2=Grabar |first2=Oleg |last3=Jenkins |first3=Marilyn |title=Islamic Art and Architecture: 650-1250 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l1uWZAzN_VcC&pg=PA37 |access-date=2013-03-17 |year=2001 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-08869-4}}
*{{cite book |ref=harv |last=Petersen |first=Andrew |title=Dictionary of Islamic Architecture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hcebK67IRhkC&pg=PA1 |access-date=2013-03-16 |date=2002-03-11 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-203-20387-3}}
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite book |author1=Fletcher, Banister |author2=Cruickshank, Dan |author1link=Banister Fletcher |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Gt1jTpXAThwC |title=Sir Banister Fletcher's a History of Architecture |publisher=Architectural Press |edition= 20th |year=1996 |origyear=1896 |isbn=978-0-7506-2267-7}}
*{{cite journal |author1=Yahya Abdullahi |author2=Mohamed Rashid Bin Embi |title=Evolution of Islamic geometric patterns |journal=Frontiers of Architectural Research |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=243–251 | year=2013 |doi=10.1016/j.foar.2013.03.002 }}
*{{cite journal |author1=Abdullahi Y. |author2=Embi M. R. B | url=http://www.archnet-ijar.net/index.php/IJAR/article/view/558 |title=Evolution Of Abstract Vegetal Ornaments On Islamic Architecture|journal=International Journal of Architectural Research: Archnet-Ijar |volume=9 |pages=31 | year=2015 |doi=10.26687/archnet-ijar.v9i1.558 }}

== External links ==
*[https://archive.today/20121202035009/http://pesaretabrizi.livejournal.com/1595.html Architecture of IRAN during Islamic times]
*[http://www.ne.jp/asahi/arc/ind/engl.htm ARCHITECTURE OF ISLAM by Takeo Kamiya] (Half in English and half in Japanese)
*[http://archnet.org ARCHNET] Open access, online resource on architecture and art of Muslim societies, globally and throughout history to our times
*[http://archive.cyark.org/bab-albarqiyya-intro Fatimid-era Ayyubid Wall of Cairo Digital Media Archive] ([[creative commons]]-licensed photos, laser scans, panoramas), data from an [[Aga Khan Foundation]]/[[CyArk]] research partnership
*[http://islamic-arts.org Islamic Arts and Architecture website]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20121114074909/http://tehranimages.org/ Tehranimages. Contemporary photos taken in some of the oldest districts of Tehran.]
* [http://spmarchitecture.com/islamic-art-and-architecture 10,000+ Architectural collections worldwide ] Islamic Art And Architecture designs worldwide.

{{Islamic architecture}}
{{Islamic art}}
{{Archhistory}}
{{Mathematics and art}}

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{{DEFAULTSORT:Islamic Architecture}}
[[Category:Islamic architecture| ]]
[[Category:Islamic art]]
[[Category:Islamic architectural elements| ]]
[[Category:Arab culture]]