Revision 3686072 of "Sains Islam pada Zaman Pertengahan" on mswiki

{{about|sejarah sains dalam tamadun Islam di antara abad ke-8 dan ke-16|maklumat pada sains dalam konteks Islam|Islam dan sains}}
{{History of science sidebar}}

Dalam [[sejarah sains]], '''sains Islam''' merujuk kepada [[sains]] yang dikembangkan dalam lingkungan [[dunia Islam|tamadun Islam]] di antara abad ke-8 dan ke-16, sewaktu apa yang disebut sebagai [[Zaman Kegemilangan Islam]].<ref>{{cite journal|first=A. I.|last=Sabra|authorlink=A. I. Sabra|title=Situating Arabic Science: Locality versus Essence|journal=Isis|year=1996|volume=87|pages=654–670|url=http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-1753%28199612%2987%3A4%3C654%3ASASLVE%3E2.0.CO%3B2-M|issue=4|doi=10.1086/357651}}
{{quote|"Let us begin with a neutral and innocent definition of Arabic, or what also may be called Islamic, science in terms of time and space: the term ''Arabic'' (or ''Islamic'') ''science'' the scientific activities of individuals who lived in a region that might extended chronologically from the eighth century A.D. to the beginning of the modern era, and geographically from the Iberian Peninsula and north Africa to the Indus valley and from the Southern Arabia to the Caspian Sea—that is, the region covered for most of that period by what we call Islamic Civilization, and in which the results of the activities referred to were for the most part expressed in the Arabic Language. We need not be concerned over the refinements that obviously need to be introduced over this seemingly neutral definition."}}</ref> Ia juga dikenali sebagai "sains Arab" kerana kebanyakan teks pada zaman itu ditulis dalam [[bahasa Arab]], bahasa yang menjadi ''[[lingua franca]]'' tamadun [[Islam]]. Namun, bukan semua ahli sains pada zaman itu [[Muslim]] atau [[Arab]]. Sebilangan ahli sains terkemuka yang menyumbang kepada sains dalam tamadun Islam bukan berketurunan Arab (yang paling terkemuka ialah orang Parsi), dan ada juga ahli sains yang bukan Muslim.<ref>[[Bernard Lewis]], ''[[What Went Wrong]]? Western Impact and Middle Eastern Response'':
{{quote|"There have been many civilizations in human history, almost all of which were local, in the sense that they were defined by a region and an ethnic group. This applied to all the ancient civilizations of the Middle East—[[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]], [[Babylon]], [[Persia]]; to the great civilizations of Asia—[[History of India|India]], [[History of China|China]]; and to the civilizations of [[Pre-Columbian|Pre-Columbian America]]. There are two exceptions: [[Christendom]] and [[Islam]]. These are two civilizations defined by religion, in which religion is the primary defining force, not, as in India or China, a secondary aspect among others of an essentially regional and ethnically defined civilization. Here, again, another word of explanation is necessary."}}
{{quote|"In English we use the word “[[Islam]]” with two distinct meanings, and the distinction is often blurred and lost and gives rise to considerable confusion. In the one sense, Islam is the counterpart of [[Christianity]]; that is to say, a religion in the strict sense of the word: a system of belief and worship. In the other sense, Islam is the counterpart of [[Christendom]]; that is to say, a civilization shaped and defined by a religion, but containing many elements apart from and even hostile to that religion, yet arising within that civilization."}}
</ref> 

Ada beberapa pandangan berlainan di kalangan sejarawan sains berkaitan sains Islam . Pandangan traditional,  contohnya pandangan yang dipegang Bertrand Russell,<ref>[[Bertrand Russell]] (1945), ''[[History of Western Philosophy (Russell)|History of Western Philosophy]]'', book 2, part 2, chapter X</ref> memegang bahawa sains Islam, sementara mengkagumkan dalam banyak cara, berkurangan tenaga intelek yang diperlukan untuk membuat inovasi, dan nilai utamanya ialah sebagai penyimpan ilmu kuno dan pengirim kepada [[Eropah]] [[Zaman Pertengahan]]. Para pengulang kaji seperti [[Abdus Salam]]<ref>[[Abdus Salam]], H. R. Dalafi, Mohamed Hassan (1994). ''Renaissance of Sciences in Islamic Countries'', p. 162. [[World Scientific]], ISBN 9971-5-0713-7.</ref> dan [[George Saliba]],<ref name=Saliba-1994>{{Harv|Saliba|1994|pp=245, 250, 256-257}}</ref> pula berpegang bahawa suatu ''Revolusi saintifik Islam'' muncul sewaktu [[Zaman Pertengahan]],<ref>Abid Ullah Jan (2006), ''After Fascism: Muslims and the struggle for self-determination'', "Islam, the West, and the Question of Dominance", Pragmatic Publishings, ISBN 978-0-9733687-5-8.</ref><ref>Salah Zaimeche (2003), [http://www.muslimheritage.com/uploads/Introduction_to_Muslim%20Science.pdf An Introduction to Muslim Science], FSTC.</ref> satu ungkapan yang digunakan para sarjana seperti [[Donald Routledge Hill]] dan [[Ahmad Y Hassan]] untuk menyatakan pandangan bahawa Islam merupakan daya pendorong pencapaian orang Islam.<ref>[[Ahmad Y Hassan]] and [[Donald Routledge Hill]] (1986), ''Islamic Technology: An Illustrated History'', p. 282, [[Cambridge University Press]]</ref> [[Robert Briffault]], seorang sezaman dengan Russell, pula melihat sains Islam sebagai pengasas sains moden.<ref name=Briffault/> Pandangan pengajian terkini seperti ditonjolkan Toby E. Huff,<ref name=Huff>{{Harv|Huff|2003}}</ref><ref>{{citation|last=Saliba|first=George|author-link=George Saliba|title=Seeking the Origins of Modern Science? Review of Toby E. Huff, The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China and the West|url=http://www.riifs.org/review_articles/review_v1no2_sliba.htm|journal=Bulletin of the Royal Institute for Inter-Faith Studies|volume=1|issue=2|date=Autumn 1999|accessdate=2008-04-10}}</ref> [[Will Durant]],<ref name=Durant/> [[Fielding H. Garrison]],<ref name=Garrison/> [[Muhammad Iqbal]]<ref name=Iqbal/> [[Hossein Nasr]] dan [[Bernard Lewis]],<ref>{{citation|title=End the Biggest Educational and Intellectual Blunder in History: A $100,000 Challenge to Our Top Educational Leaders|first=Norman W.|last=Edmund|publisher=Scientific Method Publishing|year=2005|isbn=0963286668|page=447}}</ref> ialah para [[Senarai ahli sains Islam|ahli sains Islam]] menyumbang kepada pengasasan sains ber[[eksperimen]] melalui sumbangan mereka kepada [[kaedah saintifik]] serta pendekatan [[empirik]], bereksperimen dan [[kuantitatif]] yang dibawa kepada [[penyelidikan]], mahupun usaha mereka tidak boleh dikatakan suatu [[Revolusi Sains|revolusi sains]],<ref name=Huff/> seperti yang telah berlaku pada zaman awal Eropah moden yang membawa kepada kemunculan sains moden,<ref>Thomas Kuhn, ''The Copernican Revolution'', (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Pr., 1957), p. 142.</ref><ref>Herbert Butterfield, The Origins of Modern Science, 1300-1800.</ref> melainkan ''[[Kitab Optik (Kitab al-Manazir|Kitab Optik]]'' karya [[Abu_Ali_Hasan_Ibn_Al-Haitham|Ibn Al-Haitham]] yang dianggap ramai sebagai satu revolusi dalam bidang [[optik]] dan [[persepsi penglihatan]].<ref name=Hogendijk/><ref name=Hatfield/><ref>{{Citation|journal=The Medieval History Journal|volume=9|issue=1|pages=89-98|year=2006|doi=10.1177/097194580500900105|title=The Gaze in Ibn al-Haytham|first=Gérard|last=Simon}}</ref><ref>{{citation|title=Burning Instruments: From Diocles to Ibn Sahl|first=Hélèna|last=Bellosta|journal=Arabic Sciences and Philosophy|year=2002|volume=12|pages=285-303|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|doi=10.1017/S095742390200214X}}</ref><ref>{{citation|title=Portraits of Science: A Polymath in the 10th Century|first=Roshdi|last=Rashed|journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]]|date=2 August 2002|volume=297|issue=5582|page=773|doi=10.1126/science.1074591}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Lindberg |first=David C. |year=1967 |title=Alhazen's Theory of Vision and Its Reception in the West |journal=[[Isis (journal)|Isis]] |volume=58 |issue=3 |pages=321–341 [332] |doi=10.1086/350266 }}</ref>

== Gambaran keseluruhan ==

=== Kebangkitan ===

''Maklumat lanjut: [[Zaman Kegemilangan Islam]]''

[[File:Taqi al din.jpg|thumb|Sarjana Islam pada Zaman Pertengahan]]

Sewaktu [[penaklukan Islam|penaklukan]] awal Islam, tentera [[Arab]] [[Muslim]], yang pada asasnya dipimpin oleh [[Khalid ibn al-Walid]], menakluki [[Empayar Parsi]] [[Empayar Sassanid|Sassanid]] dan lebih dari setengah Empayar [[Empayar Byzantine|Byzantine (ataupun "Rom")]], dan mendirikan [[Empayar Arab]] sepanjang [[Timur Tengah]], [[Asia Tengah]], dan [[Afrika Utara]], diikuti pengembangan selanjutnya di sepanjang [[Pakistan]], [[Sejarah Islam di Itali selatan|Itali selatan]] dan [[Semenanjung Iberia]]. Oleh sebab itu, kerajaan-kerajaan Islam mewarisi ilmu dan kemahiran [[Sejarah Timur Tengah|Timur Tengah]] silam, [[Sejarah Greece|Greece]], [[Empayar Parsi|Parsi]] dan [[Sejarah India|India]] <ref>[[Bernard Lewis]], ''[[What Went Wrong]]?''</ref>

Seni pembuatan [[kertas]] diperoleh daripada banduan [[China]] dalam [[Pertempuran Talas]] (751 M), dan ini membawa kepada pembinaan [[kincir kertas]] di [[Samarkand]] dan [[Baghdad]]. Orang Arab memperbaiki teknik-teknik China dengan menggunakan kain buruk [[linen]] yang diperbuat daripada kulit kayu [[kertau]] (mulberi).

[[Senarai ahli sains dan sarjana Arab|Ahli Sains Arab]] dan [[Senarai ahli sains dan sarjana Iran|ahli sains Iran]] tinggal dan mengamalkan ilmu masing-masing di tanah jajahan Islam sewaktu Zaman Kegemilangan Islam, walaupun bukan semua ahli sains dalam tamadun Islam berbangsa [[Arab]] atau beragama [[Islam]]. Sesetengah sarjana membantah penggunaan istilah "Arab-Islam" kerana dirasakan istilah itu tidak menggambarkan kepelbagaian para sarjana Timur yang telah menyumbang kepada sains pada zaman itu.<ref>Behrooz Broumand, The contribution of Iranian scientists to world civilization, Archives of Iranian Medicine 2006; 9 (3): 288 – 290</ref>

Sewaktu Zaman Kegemilangan Islam, para sarjana Islam membuat pengembangan penting kepada [[sains]], [[matematik]], [[perubatan]], [[Astronomi|ilmu falak]], [[kejuruteraan]], dan bidang-bidang lain. Sewaktu ini, [[falsafah Islam awal]] berkembang dan sering memainkan peranan pangsi dalam perdebatan saintifik &mdash; tokoh-tokoh utama, biasanya [[ahli sains]] dan [[ahli falsafah]].

Bilangan karya penting dan asli Arab yang ditulis dalam bidang sains matematik adalah lebih besar daripada jumlah gabungan karya [[Bahasa Latin]] dan [[Bahasa Yunani]] dalam bidang yang sama.<ref>N. M. Swerdlow (1993). "Montucla's Legacy: The History of the Exact Sciences", ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' '''54''' (2), p. 299-328 [320].</ref>

=== Institusi saintifik ===

''Lihat: [[Madrasah]], [[Bimaristan]] dan [[Ilmu falak Islam]]

Terdapat beberapa institusi penting yang tidak wujud pada zaman kuno diasaskan dalam dunia Islam Zaman Pertengahan: contoh-contoh  utama termasuklah [[hospital awam]] (yang menggantikan [[kuil penyembuhan]] dan [[kuil tidur]])<ref name=Barrett/> dan [[hospital psikiatri]],<ref>Ibrahim B. Syed PhD, "Islamic Medicine: 1000 years ahead of its times", ''Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine'', 2002 (2), p. 2-9 [7-8].</ref> [[Perpustakaan awam]] dan [[perpustakaan pinjaman]], [[universiti]] yang mengurniakan ijazah, dan [[balai cerap]] [[Astronomi|ilmu falak]] yang berfungsi sebagai institut penyelidikan<ref name=Barrett>[[Peter Barrett]] (2004), ''Science and Theology Since Copernicus: The Search for Understanding'', p. 18, [[Continuum International Publishing Group]], ISBN 0-567-08969-X.</ref> (berlainan dengan [[pos pemerhatian]] peribadi yang terdapat dalam zaman kuno),<ref>{{citation|last=Micheau|first=Francoise|contribution=The Scientific Institutions in the Medieval Near East|pages=992–3}}, in {{Harv|Morelon|Rashed|1996|pp=985-1007}}</ref> dan [[Wakaf (Faraid)|Waqaf]].<ref>{{Harv|Gaudiosi|1988}}</ref><ref>{{Harv|Hudson|2003|p=32}}</ref>

Universiti-universiti pertama yang mengeluarkan diploma ialah hospital-universiti [[Bimaristan]] dunia Islam dalam Zaman Pertengahan. Institusi-institusi ini mengurniakan diploma perubatan kepada penuntut-penuntut [[perubatan Islam]] yang layak menjadi pengamal [[Doktor Perubatan|perubatan]] dalam kurun ke-9. 

Sir [[John Bagot Glubb]] menulis:<ref>[[John Bagot Glubb]] ([[cf.]] [http://www.cyberistan.org/islamic/quote2.html Quotations on Islamic Civilization])</ref>

{{quote|"Sekolah-sekolah perubatan sangat aktif di Baghdad setibanya zaman [[Al-Ma'mun|Ma'mun]]. Hospital awam percuma pertama dibuka di Baghdad pada zaman pemerintahan [[Kekhalifahan|Khalifah]] [[Harun al-Rashid]]. Dengan pembangunan sistem ini, para pakar perubatan dan pembedahan dilantik sebagai pensyarah kepada penuntut perubatan dan mengurniakan diploma kepada mereka yang dikira layak menjadi pengamal perubatan. Hospital pertama di Mesir dibuka pada tahun 872 M dan selepas itu hospital-hospital awam dibuka di seluruh empayar Islam, dari Al-Andalus dan [[Maghreb]] hinggalah ke wilayah [[Parsi]]."}} 

[[Universiti Al-Karaouine]] di [[Fez]], Maghribi, yang ditubuhkan pada tahun 859 M diiktiraf [[Buku Rekod Dunia Guinness]] sebagai universiti tertua di dunia.<ref>''The Guinness Book Of Records'', Published 1998, ISBN 0-553-57895-2, P.242 </ref> [[Universiti Al-Azhar]] yang ditubuhkan di Kaherah, Mesir pada abad ke-10, menawarkan beberapa ijazah akademik termasuklah ijazah [[pascasiswazah]], dan dianggap universiti penuh yang pertama. 

Beberapa ciri tersendiri perpustakaan moden diperkenalkan dalam dunia Islam. Perpustakaan bukan sahaja merupakan kumpulan manuskrip lama seperti pada zaman kuno, tetapi juga berfungsi sebagai perpustakaan awam dan pinjaman, pusat pendidikan dan penyebaran sains dan idea, tempat mesyuarat dan muzakarah, dan kadangkala sebagai rumah pertumpangan para sarjana atau murid. Konsep [[katalog perpustakaan]] juga diperkenalkan di dalam perpustakaan Islam Zaman Pertengahan, dan buku-buku disusun mengikut [[genre]] dan kategori tertentu.<ref>{{citation|last=Micheau|first=Francoise|contribution=The Scientific Institutions in the Medieval Near East|pages=988–991}} in {{Harv|Morelon|Rashed|1996|pp=985-1007}}</ref>

Satu ciri yang sering terdapat pada Zaman Keemasan Islam ialah jumlah besar orang Islam yang pakar dalam pelbagai bidang ([[polymath]]) ataupun "orang bergeliga" yang menyumbang dalam pelbagai bidang. Mereka ini dikenali sebagai ''Hakim'' dan mereka memiliki ilmu meluas dalam beberapa bidang agama dan sekular, setanding dengan tokoh-tokoh Zaman Pembaharuan seperti [[Leonardo da Vinci]]. Sarjana pelbagai bidang sering ditemui semasa Zaman Keemasan Islam sehinggakan sukar mencari seorang sarjana yang pakar hanya dalam satu bidang kajian. <ref name=Alavi>Karima Alavi,
[http://ccas.georgetown.edu/files/CCAS_Tapestry_of_Travel_lores.pdf Tapestry of Travel], Center for Contemporary Arab Studies, [[Georgetown University]].</ref> Tokoh-tokoh genius atau ''polymath'' ini termasuklah, antara lain, [[Abu_Raihan_Al-Biruni|Al-Biruni]], [[Al-Jahiz]], [[Al-Kindi]], Abu Bakr Muhammad [[Al-Razi]], [[Ibnu Sina]], [[Abu_Abdallah_Muhammad_Al-Idrisi|Al-Idrisi]], [[Ibnu Bajjah]] (''Avempace''), [[Abu_Marwan_Ibn_Zuhr|Ibnu Zuhr]], [[Ibnu Tufayl]], [[Ibnu Rushd]], [[Jalaluddin_al-Suyuti|Al-Suyuti]]<ref name=Sardar>{{citation|first=Ziauddin|last=Sardar|author-link=Ziauddin Sardar|date=1998|contribution=Science in Islamic philosophy|title=Islamic Philosophy|publisher=[[Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]|url=http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/H016.htm|accessdate=2008-02-03}}</ref> [[Abu Musa Jabir bin Hayyan]] (''Geber''), [[Al-Khawarizmi]], [[Banu Musa]], [[Abbas Ibn Firnas]], [[Al-Farabi]], [[Al-Masudi]], [[Al-Muqaddasi]], [[Abu_Ali_Hasan_Ibn_Al-Haitham|Ibnu Al-Haytham]] (''Alhazen''), [[Omar Khayyam]], [[Abu Hamid Al-Ghazali|Al-Ghazali]], [[Al-Khazini]], [[Al-Jazari]], [[Ibn Al-Nafis al-Dimashqi|Al-Nafis]], [[Nasir Al-Din Al-Tusi|Al-Tusi]], [[Ibn al-Shatir]], [[Ibnu Khaldun]], dan [[Taqi Al-Din]].<ref name=Alavi/>

=== Kemerosotan ===

''Lihat juga: [[Zaman Kegemilangan Islam#kemerosotan|Zaman Kegemilangan Islam:Kemerosotan]]''

Dipercayai sains Islam mula merosot pada abad ke-12 dan ke-13 &dash; walaupun tamadun Islam pada masa itu masih menghasilkan ahli sains, hakikat ini lebih pengecualian daripada kebiasaan. Namun, mahupun zaman ini disebut "zaman kemerosotan" sains Islam, dari segi ilmu falak, ia sebenarnya zaman yang amat berdaya keluarannya di mana teori-teori ilmu falak yang bermutu tinggi dihasilkan. Karya [[Ibn al-Shatir]] (1304–1375 M) di Damsyik menjadi contoh yang menarik.<ref>{{Harv|Saliba|1994|p=vii}}: {{quote|"The main thesis, for which this collection of articles came be used as evidence, is the one claiming that the period often called a period of decline in Islamic intellectual history was, scientifically speaking from the point of view of astronomy, a very productive period in which astronomical thories of the highest order were produced."}}</ref><ref>David A. King, "The Astronomy of the Mamluks", ''Isis'', 74 (1983):531-555</ref> Keadaan demikian juga terdapat dalam bidang-bidang lain seperti [[perubatan]] dengan karya-karya [[Ibn al-Nafis]] dan [[Serafeddin Sabuncuoglu]], dan [[sains sosial]] dengan [[Ibnu Khaldun]] dan ''[[Mukaddimah (karya)|Muqaddimah]]''nya (1370 M). Malah, ''Muqaddimah'' sendiri mencatatkan keadaan ini, dengan menyatakan bahawa sains merosot di [[Iraq]], [[Al-Andalus]] dan [[Maghreb]], tetapi berkembang di [[Parsi]], [[Syria]] dan [[Mesir]].<ref name=Hassan>[[Ahmad Y Hassan]], [http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%208.htm Factors Behind the Decline of Islamic Science After the Sixteenth Century]</ref>

Satu faktor yang diutarakan sebagai penyebab kemerosotan ini ialah cabaran terhadap teologi rasional [[Muktazilah]] oleh teologi ortodoks [[Ash'ari]] seperti yang ditonjolkan dalam kitab [[''Tahafut al-falasifa'']] ''("Ketakpaduan Ahli Falsafah")'' hasil penulisan [[Abu Hamid Al-Ghazali|Imam Al-Ghazali]]. Tafsiran ini diutarakan Ignaz Goldziher, ahli [[Orientalis]] [[Yahudi]] dari [[Hungary]] yang mempercayai bahawa terdapat penentangan di antara teologi ortodoks dengan sains yang dipengaruhi adat serta pemikiran [[Yunani]].  <ref>Ignaz Goldziher, ''Stellung der alten islamischen Orthodoxie zu den antiken Wissenschaften''(1915)</ref> Namun, kesarjanaan baharu mencabar pandangan tradisional ini. Beberapa sarjana menunjukkan bahawa aliran teologi Ash'ari sebenarnya menyokong sains dan hanya membangkang falsafah spekulatif, dan beberapa ahli sains agung Islam seperti [[Abu Ali Hasan Ibn Al-Haitham|Ibn al-Haitham]], [[Abu Raihan Al-Biruni|al-Biruni]], Ibn al-Nafis and Ibn Khaldun merupakan penganut teologi  Ash'ari.<ref name=Sardar/><ref name=Hassan/> Emilie Savage-Smith juga menyatakan bahawa pandangan positif Imam al-Ghazali terhadap bidang  perubatan, khususnya [[anatomi]], menggalakkan ahli perubatan Islam  seperti [[Ibn Zuhr]] (''Avenzoar'') dan Ibn al-Nafis untuk melakukan [[diseksi]] pada abad-abad ke-12 dan ke-13.<ref>{{citation|first=Emilie|last=Savage-Smith|title=Attitudes Toward Dissection in Medieval Islam|journal=Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences|year=1995|volume=50|issue=1|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|pages=67–110|doi=10.1093/jhmas/50.1.67|pmid=7876530}}</ref>

Penyebab-penyebab lain kemorosatan sains termasuk persengketaan antara orang Islam [[Ahli Sunah Waljamaah|ahli Sunnah]] dengan [[Syiah]], dan pencerobohan terhadap tanah air orang Islam oleh [[Perang Salib|tentera Salib]] dan [[Empayar Mongol|Mongol]] antara kurun ke-11 dan ke-13, khususnya pencerobohan Mongol dalam kurun ke-13. Pihak Mongol memusnahkan perpustakaan, balai cerap, hospital dan universiti Islam, berpuncak dengan [[Peperangan Baghdad (1258 M)|pemusnahan Baghdad]] pada tahun 1258 M. Baghdad merupakan ibu negeri [[Kerajaan Bani Abbasiyyah|Kekhalifahan Abbasiyyah]] serta pusat intelek Islam dan kemusnahannya dianggap sebagai titik berakhirnya Zaman Kegemilangan Islam.<ref>Erica Fraser. [http://www.acs.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/learning/conclusion.html The Islamic World to 1600], [[University of Calgary]].</ref>

Bermula pada abad ke-13, beberapa orang Islam berpandangan tradisional menganggap pencerobohan tentera Salib dan Mongol sebagai hukuman yang diturunkan ke atas orang Islam kerana mereka telah menyimpang daripada [[Sunnah]], satu pendirian yang juga disokong oleh seorang [[polymath]] termasyhur, Ibn al-Nafis.<ref>Nahyan A. G. Fancy (2006), "Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (d. 1288)", p. 49 & 59, ''Electronic Theses and Dissertations'', [[University of Notre Dame]].[http://etd.nd.edu/ETD-db/theses/available/etd-11292006-152615]</ref> Dipercayai bahawa pandangan tradisional sedimikian serta perang dan persengketaan telah mewujudkan keadaan yang membuat sains Islam kurang berdaya berbanding waktu terdahulu. Namun, Y Ziedan telah menunjukkan bahawa penjarahan Baghdad pada tahun 1258 M telah disusuli oleh usaha saintifik gigih di [[Damsyik]] dan [[Kaherah]], kerana ramai para sarjana Islam menghasilkan ensiklopedia (termasuk ensiklopedia perubatan sebesar 80 jilid oleh Ibn al-Nafis) dalam usaha mereka memelihara khazanah ilmu saintifik Islam dan bagi meringankan kesan kehilangan Baghdad.<ref>{{citation|title=Contributions of Ibn Al-Nafis to the progress of medicine and urology: A study and translations from his medical works|last=Abdel-Halim|first=R. E.|journal=Saudi Medical Journal|year=2008|volume=29|issue=1|pages=13-22 [15-6]}}</ref>

Satu lagi faktor yang dikemukakan sebagai penyebab kemerosatan sains Islam ialah kitaran ekuiti (kitaran kesaksamaan) berdasarkan model masyhur [[Asabiyyah]] (kebangkitan dan kemerosotan [[tamadun]]) Ibnu Khaldun yang menyatakan bahawa kemerosotan itu ekoran kesan ekonomi dan politik dan bukan agama.<ref name=Hassan/>

=== Pengaruh pada sains Eropah ===
{{main|Sumbangan Islam pada Zaman Pertengahan Eropah}}
{{see|Terjemahan bahasa Latin pada abad ke-12}}

Menyumbang pada perkembangan sains Eropah adalah pencarian utama oleh sarjana Eropah tentang pembelajaran baru yang hanya dapat ditemui di kalangan orang Islam, khususnya di [[al-Andalus]] dan [[Sicily]]. Sarjana-sarjana ini menterjemahkan teks-teks saintifik dan falsafah yang baru dari [[bahasa Arab]] ke [[bahasa Latin]].

Salah seorang penterjemah yang produktif di Sepanyol ialah [[Gerard dari Cremona]], yang menterjemahkan 87 buah buku dari bahasa Arab ke bahasa Latin,<ref name=Zaimeche/> termasuklah ''[[Buku Ringkasan pada Pengiraan dengan Penyelesaian dan Keseimbangan|On Algebra and Almucabala]]'' oleh [[Abu Abdullah Mohammad Ibn Musa al-Khawarizmi|Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī]], ''Elementa astronomica'' oleh [[Jabir ibn Aflah]],<ref name=Katz/> ''On Optics'' oleh [[al-Kindi]], ''On Elements of Astronomy on the Celestial Motions'' oleh [[Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Kathīr al-Farghānī]], ''On the Classification of the Sciences'' oleh [[al-Farabi]],<ref>For a list of Gerard of Cremona's translations see: Edward Grant (1974) ''A Source Book in Medieval Science'', (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Pr.), pp. 35-8 or Charles Burnett, "The Coherence of the Arabic-Latin Translation Program in Toledo in the Twelfth Century," ''Science in Context'', 14 (2001): at 249-288, at pp. 275-281.</ref> karya-karya [[al-Razi]] tentang [[alkemi]] dan [[perubatan]],<ref name=Bieber/> karya-karya [[Thabit ibn Qurra]] dan [[Hunayn ibn Ishaq]],<ref>D. Campbell, ''Arabian Medicine and Its Influence on the Middle Ages'', p. 6.</ref> dan karya-karya [[al-Zarqali]], [[Banū Mūsā]], [[Abū Kāmil Shujā ibn Aslam]], [[Abu al-Qasim]], dan [[Ibn al-Haytham]]  (termasuklah ''[[Book of Optics]]'').<ref name=Zaimeche/>

Karya-karya berbahasa Arab lain yang diterjemahkan ke bahasa Latin pada kurun ke-12 termasuklah karya-karya [[Muhammad ibn Jābir al-Harrānī al-Battānī]] dan [[Abu Abdullah Mohammad Ibn Musa al-Khawarizmi|Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī]],<ref name=Katz/> karya-karya [[al-Zahrawi]] (antaranya ''[[al-Tasrif]]''),<ref name=Campbell-3>D. Campbell, ''Arabian Medicine and Its Influence on the Middle Ages'', p. 3.</ref><ref name=Zaimeche/> ''Great Sindhind'' oleh [[Muhammad al-Fazari]] (yang berdasarkan ''[[Surya Siddhanta]]'' dan karya-karya [[Brahmagupta]]),<ref>G. G. Joseph, ''The Crest of the Peacock'', p. 306.</ref> karya-karya [[al-Razi]] dan [[Ibnu Sina]] (termasuklah ''[[Kitab Penyembuhan]]'' dan ''[[Kanun Perubatan]]''),<ref>M.-T. d'Alverny, "Translations and Translators," pp. 444-6, 451</ref> karya-karya [[Ibnu Rusyd]],<ref name=Campbell-3/> karya-karya [[Thabit ibn Qurra]], [[al-Farabi]], [[Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Kathīr al-Farghānī]], [[Hunayn ibn Ishaq]], dan anak saudaranya Hubaysh ibn al-Hasan,<ref>D. Campbell, ''Arabian Medicine and Its Influence on the Middle Ages'', p. 4-5.</ref> karya-karya [[al-Kindi]], ''Liber embadorum'' oleh [[Abraham bar Hiyya]], ''De Simplicibus'' oleh Ibn Sarabi ([[Serapion]] Junior),<ref name=Campbell-3/> karya-karya [[Qusta ibn Luqa]],<ref>D. Campbell, ''Arabian Medicine and Its Influence on the Middle Ages'', p. 5.</ref> karya-karya [[Maslamah Ibn Ahmad al-Majriti]], [[Ja'far ibn Muhammad Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi]], dan [[al-Ghazali]],<ref name=Zaimeche>Salah Zaimeche (2003). [http://www.muslimheritage.com/uploads/Main%20-%20Aspects%20of%20the%20Islamic%20Influence1.pdf Aspects of the Islamic Influence on Science and Learning in the Christian West], p. 10. Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation.</ref> karya-karya [[al-Bitruji]] termasuklah ''On the Motions of the Heavens'',<ref>[http://www.bautz.de/bbkl/m/michael_sco.shtml ''Biographisch-Bibliographisches Kirchenlexicon'']</ref><ref name=Bieber/> ensiklopedia perubatan [[Ali ibn Abbas al-Majusi]], ''The Complete Book of the Medical Art'',<ref name=Bieber>Jerome B. Bieber. [http://inst.santafe.cc.fl.us/~jbieber/HS/trans2.htm Medieval Translation Table 2: Arabic Sources], [[Santa Fe Community College (Florida)|Santa Fe Community College]].</ref> ''Introduction to Astrology'' oleh [[Abu Mashar]],<ref>Charles Burnett, ed. ''Adelard of Bath, Conversations with His Nephew,'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), p. xi.</ref> karya-karya [[Maimonides]], Ibn Zezla (Byngezla), [[Masawaiyh]], [[Serapion]], al-Qifti, dan [[Ibnu Baytar]].<ref>D. Campbell, ''Arabian Medicine and Its Influence on the Middle Ages'', p. 4.</ref> ''Algebra'' oleh [[Abū Kāmil Shujā ibn Aslam]],<ref name=Katz>V. J. Katz, ''A History of Mathematics: An Introduction'', p. 291.</ref> karya alkemi [[Jabir]], dan ''De Proprietatibus Elementorum'', karya berbahasa Arab tentang [[geologi]] yang ditulis oleh seorang [[pseudo-Aristotle]].<ref name=Bieber/> Pada permulaan kurun ke-13, [[Mark dari Toledo]] menterjemahkan [[Qur'an]] dan pelbagai karya-karya perubatan Islam.<ref>M.-T. d'Alverny, "Translations and Translators," pp. 429, 455</ref>

[[Fibonacci]] mempersembahkan laporan Eropah lengkap yang pertama mengenai [[Sistem angka Hindu-Arab]] dari sumber-sumber Arab di dalam ''[[Liber Abaci]]''nya (1202).<ref name=Bieber>Jerome B. Bieber. [http://inst.santafe.cc.fl.us/~jbieber/HS/trans2.htm Medieval Translation Table 2: Arabic Sources], [[Santa Fe Community College (Florida)|Santa Fe Community College]].</ref> ''[[Zij]] as-Sanjari'' oleh [[Al-Khazini]] diterjemahkan ke [[bahasa Yunani]] oleh [[Gregory Choniades]] pada kurun ke-13 dan dikaji di dalam [[Empayar Byzantium]].<ref>David Pingree (1964), "Gregory Chioniades and Palaeologan Astronomy", ''Dumbarton Oaks Papers'' '''18''', p. 135-160.</ref> Pembetulan astronomi terhadap [[model Ptolemy]] dibuat oleh [[al-Battani]] dan [[Ibnu Rusyd]] dan model-model bukan Ptolemy yang dihasilkan oleh [[Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi]] (Urdi lemma), [[Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī]] ([[Ganding Tusi]]) dan [[Ibn al-Shatir]] kemudiannya disadur ke dalam model [[heliosentrik Copernicus]]. Hukum [[graviti]] [[bumi]] [[al-Kindi]] mempengaruhi hukum graviti [[cakerawala]], yang pula mengilhamkan [[Hukum kegravitian semesta Newton]]. ''Ta'rikh al-Hind'' dan ''Kitab al-qanun al-Mas’udi'' oleh [[Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī]] diterjemahkan ke bahasa Latin dengan judul ''Indica'' dan ''Canon Mas’udicus''. ''Commentary on Compound Drugs'' oleh [[Ibn al-Nafis]] diterjemahkan ke bahasa Latin oleh Andrea Alpago (m. 1522), yang juga mungkin menterjemahkan ''Commentary on Anatomy in the Canon of Avicenna'' tulisan Ibn al-Nafis, yang pertama kali menggambarkan [[peredaran paru-paru]] dan [[peredaran koronari]], dan mungkin mempengaruhi [[Michael Servetus]], [[Realdo Colombo]] dan [[William Harvey]].<ref>[http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/arabic/mon4.html Anatomy and Physiology], Islamic Medical Manuscripts, [[United States National Library of Medicine]].</ref> Terjemahan karya-karya [[algebra]] dan [[geometri]] [[Ibn al-Haytham]], [[Omar Khayyám]] dan [[Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī]] kemudiannya mempengaruhi perkembangan [[geometri bukan Euclid]] di Eropah dari kurun ke-17.<ref>D. S. Kasir (1931). ''The Algebra of Omar Khayyam'', p. 6-7. [[Columbia University Press|Teacher's College Press]], [[Columbia University]], [[New York]].</ref><ref>Boris A. Rosenfeld and Adolf P. Youschkevitch (1996), "Geometry", p. 469, in {{Harv|Morelon|Rashed|1996|pp=447-494}}</ref> ''[[Hayy ibn Yaqdhan]]'' tulisan [[Ibn Tufail]] diterjemahkan ke bahasa Latin oleh [[Edward Pococke]] pada tahun 1671 dan ke [[bahasa Inggeris]] oleh [[Simon Ockley]] pada tahun 1708 dan menjadi "salah sebuah buku paling penting yang menandakan [[Revolusi Saintifik]]."<ref>Samar Attar, ''The Vital Roots of European Enlightenment: Ibn Tufayl's Influence on Modern Western Thought'', Lexington Books, ISBN 0-7391-1989-3.</ref> ''Kitab al-Jami fi al-Adwiyah al-Mufradah'' tulisan [[Ibn al-Baitar]] juga mempengaruhi [[botani]] Eropah setelah ia diterjemahkan ke bahasa Latin pada tahun 1758.<ref name=McNeil/>

== Kaedah saintifik ==

Para ahli sains Islam lebih menitikberatkan [[eksperimen|ujikaji]] daripada para pengkaji tamadun purba sebelum mereka (misalnya, ahli falsafah [[Yunani]] lebih cenderung kepada kerasionalan berbanding empirisisme). <ref name=Briffault/><ref name=Durant/> Sikap ini berpunca daripada pemerhatian [[empirik]] yang terkandung di dalam [[Al-Quran|Al-Qur'an]] dan [[Sunnah]] <ref name=Ahmad/><ref>{{quote|"Observe nature and reflect over it."|[[Qur'an]]}} ([[cf.]] C. A. Qadir (1990), ''Philosophy and Science in the lslumic World'', [[Routledge]], London) <br /> ([[cf.]] Bettany, Laurence (1995), "Ibn al-Haytham: an answer to multicultural science teaching?", ''Physics Education'' '''30''': 247-252 [247])</ref><ref>{{cite quran|17|36|quote=You shall not accept any information, unless you verify it for yourself. I have given you the hearing, the eyesight, and the brain, and you are responsible for using them.}}</ref><ref>{{cite quran|2|164|quote=Behold! In the creation of the heavens and the earth; in the alternation of the night and the day; in the sailing of the ships through the ocean for the benefit of mankind; in the rain which Allah Sends down from the skies, and the life which He gives therewith to an earth that is dead; in the beasts of all kinds that He scatters through the earth; in the change of the winds, and the clouds which they trail like their slaves between the sky and the earth - (Here) indeed are Signs for a people that are wise.}}</ref> dan kaedah ketat [[sejarah]] yang diasaskan dalam kajian [[Hadith|hadith]].<ref name=Ahmad>Ahmad, I. A. (June 3, 2002), [http://images.agustianwar.multiply.com/attachment/0/RxbYbQoKCr4AAD@kzFY1/IslamicCalendar-A-Case-Study.pdf The Rise and Fall of Islamic Science: The Calendar as a Case Study], ''Faith and Reason: Convergence and Complementarity'', [[Al Akhawayn University]]. Retrieved on 2008-01-31. <sup>[deadlink]</sup></ref> Justeru, para saintis Islam menggabungkan pemerhatian persis, [[ujikaji terkawal]] dan catatan yang terperinci.<ref name=Durant/> dengan pendekatan baru terhadap siasatan saintifik, yang membawa kepada perkembangan <ref name=Briffault/> [[kaedah saintifk]].<ref name=Gorini/> Khususnya, pemerhatian empirik [[Abu_Ali_Hasan_Ibn_Al-Haitham|Ibn Al-Haitham]] (''Alhazen'') yang tercatat di dalam bukunya berjudul [[Kitab Optik]] (1021 M) dilihat sebagai permulaan kaedah saintifik moden,<ref name=Agar>David Agar (2001). [http://users.jyu.fi/~daagar/index_files/arabs.html Arabic Studies in Physics and Astronomy During 800 - 1400 AD]. [[University of Jyväskylä]].</ref> yang mula-mula diperkenalkan beliau kepada [[optik]] dan [[psikologi]]. Rosanna Gorini menulis:

{{quote|"Mengikut kebanyakkan ahli sejarah, Al-Haitham ialah peneroka kaedah saintifik moden melalui bukunya. Dia menukar makna istilah optik dan mengasaskan ujikaji ataupun eksperimen sebagai norma pembuktian dalam bidang itu. Ujikajinya tidak berlandaskan teori-teori mujarad, tetapi berdiri di atas bukti-bukti ujikaji, dan ujikajinya teratur dan dapat diulangi."<ref name=Gorini>Rosanna Gorini (2003). "Al-Haytham the Man of Experience. First Steps in the Science of Vision", ''International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine''. Institute of Neurosciences, Laboratory of Psychobiology and Psychopharmacology, Rome, Italy.</ref>}}

Kaedah-kaedah awal ujikaji dibangunkan oleh [[Abu_Musa_Jabir_bin_Hayyan|Jabir]] (bagi [[kimia]]), [[Imam Bukhari|Imam Al-Bukhari]] (bagi sejarah dan sains [[Hadith|hadith]]),<ref name=Ahmad/> [[Al-Kindi]] (bagi [[Sains Bumi]]),<ref name=Plinio/> [[Ibnu Sina]] (bagi [[perubatan]]), [[Abu Rayhan Al-Biruni|Al-Biruni]] (bagi [[astronomi|ilmu falak]] dan [[mekanik]]),<ref name=Biruni>{{MacTutor|id=Al-Biruni|title=Al-Biruni}}</ref> [[Ibn Zuhr]] (bagi [[pembedahan]])<ref name=Rabie/> dan [[Ibnu Khaldun]] (bagi [[sains sosial]]).<ref name=Franz/> Pengubahan terpenting kaedah sains, yakni penggunaan ujikaji dan pengkuantitian untuk membezakan teori-teori saintifik yang secara amnya empirik tetapi bersaing, diperkenalkan oleh ahli sains Islam.  

Ibn Al-Haitham, peneroka optik moden,<ref>R. L. Verma "Al-Hazen: father of modern optics", ''Al-Arabi'', 8 (1969): 12-13.</ref> menggunakan [[kaedah saintifik]] untuk memperoleh hasil yang tercatat di dalam bukunya, ''[[Kitab Optik]]''. Khususnya beliau menggabungkan pemerhatian, ujikaji dan hujah-hujah rasional bagi menunjukkan yang teori moden intromisinya (penyusupan) berkaitan [[persepsi penglihatan|penglihatan]], di mana [[pancaran]] [[cahaya]] dikeluarkan oleh objek dan bukannya mata, ialah betul dari segi sains, dan teori kuno yakni [[teori pancaran cahaya]] yang didokong [[Ptolemy]] dan [[Euclid]] (di mana mata memancarkan cahaya), dan teori kuno intromisi yang didokong [[Aristotle]] (di mana objek memancarkan zarah fizikal kepada mata) adalah salah kedua-duanya. <ref>D. C. Lindberg, ''Theories of Vision from al-Kindi to Kepler'', (Chicago, Univ. of Chicago Pr., 1976), pp. 60-7.</ref> Diketahui umum bahawa [[Roger Bacon]] maklum akan usaha kerja Ibnu Al-Haytham. 

Ibn Al-Haitham membangunkan kaedah ketat ujikaji yang menggunakan [[kaedah ujian|ujian saintifik]] terkawal bagi memastikan [[Hipotesis|hipotesis]] teori dan mengesahkan terkaan (konjektur) [[Taakulan induktif|induktif]].<ref name=Bizri/> 

Kaedah saintifik Ibn Al-Haitham sama dengan kaedah saintifik moden dengan erti kata kedua-dua mengandungi prosedur-prosedur berikut:<ref>Bradley Steffens (2006). ''Ibn al-Haytham: First Scientist'', Morgan Reynolds Publishing, ISBN 1-59935-024-6. ([[cf.]] Bradley Steffens, "Who Was the First Scientist?", ''Ezine Articles''.)</ref>

#[[Pemerhatian]]
#Pernyataan [[masalah]]
#Perumusan hipotesis
#Pengujian hipotesis dengan ujikaji
#Kajian hasil ujikaji
#Tafsiran [[data]] dan perumusan [[kesimpulan]]
#[[Penerbitan]] hasil kajian

Pembangunan kaedah saintifik dianggap sangat dasar dan penting bagi sains moden dan ada beberapa pihak &mdash; [[Falsafah Sains|ahli falsafah sains]] dan ahli sains &mdash; menganggap kajian-kajian alam awal sebagai "pra-saintifik." Oleh sebab itu Ibn Al-Haitham dianggap [[ahli sains]] "pertama."<ref>Bradley Steffens (2006). ''Ibn al-Haytham: First Scientist'', Morgan Reynolds Publishing, ISBN 1-59935-024-6.</ref>
Di dalam bukunya berjudul ''Model Pergerakan'', Ibn Al-Haitham juga menggambarkan versi awal ''[[Occam's razor]]'', di mana beliau menggunakan hipotesis minimal berkaitan sifat-sifat pergerakan cakerawala, dalam usaha beliau mengeluarkan hipotesis kosmologi yang tidak didokong oleh pemerhatian dari [[bumi]] daripada model planet beliau.<ref>Roshdi Rashed (2007). "The Celestial Kinematics of Ibn al-Haytham", ''Arabic Sciences and Philosophy'' '''17''', p. 7-55 [35-36]. [[Cambridge University Press]].</ref>

Robert Briffault menulis di dalam bukunya, ''Pembuatan Kemanusiaan'':<ref name=Briffault>[[Robert Briffault]] (1928). ''The Making of Humanity'', p. 191. G. Allen & Unwin Ltd.</ref>

{{quote|"Hutang sains kita dengan sains [[Arab]] bukan dalam bentuk penemuan yang mengejutkan atau teori-teori revolusioner; sains berhutang lebih banyak daripada itu dengan budaya Arab, ia berhutang kewujudannya. Dunia purba, seperti yang dapat kita lihat, ialah pra-saintifik.  Ilmu falak dan matematik Yunani merupakan import asing yang tidak pernah betul-betul menyerapi kebudayaan Yunani. Orang Yunani membuat sistem, memperumumkan dan membuat teori, akan tetapi cara penyelidikan yang sabar, pengumpulan ilmu, kaedah rapi sains, pemerhatian terperinci dan yang memakan masa lama, penyelidikan ujikaji, kesemuanya asing kepada perangai ataupun temperamen Yunani. [...] Apa yang kita dipanggil sains timbul di Eropah hasil daripada semangat baru, cara-cara penyelidikan baharu, kaedah membuat ujikaji, pemerhatian, pengukuran, pembangunan matematik dalam bentuk yang asing kepada Yunani. Semangat dan kaedah-kaedah itu diperkenalkan kepada Eropah oleh orang Arab."}}

{{quote|"Sains ialah sumbangan terbesar orang Arab kepada dunia moden tetapi mengambil masa yang lama untuk menghasilkan buah. Tidak lama selepas kebudayaan ''[[Moor]]'' tenggelam dalam kegelapan baharulah muncul gergasi kelahirannya. Bukan sains sahaja yang menghidupkan semula Eropah. Banyak pengaruh daripada tamadun Islam memancarkan cahaya awal ke atas kehidupan Eropah."<ref>[[Robert Briffault]] (1928). ''The Making of Humanity'', p. 202. G. Allen & Unwin Ltd.</ref>}}

George Sarton pula menulis di dalam ''Pengenalan kepada Sejarah Sains'':

{{quote|"Kejayaan utama, dan yang paling tidak ketara, Zaman Pertengahan ialah pembetukan semangat ujikaji dan ini pada sebahagian besarnya disebabkan orang Islam hingga ke abad ke-12."<ref name=Salam>[[Abdus Salam]] (1984), "Islam and Science". In C. H. Lai (1987), ''Ideals and Realities: Selected Essays of Abdus Salam'', 2nd ed., World Scientific, Singapore, p. 179-213.</ref>}}

Oliver Joseph Lodge menulis di dalam ''Peneroka-peneroka Sains'':

{{quote|"Hubungan efektif tunggal antara sains lama dan baharu diberikan orang Arab. Zaman Gelap (Zaman Pertengahan) merupakan lompang dalam sejarah sains di Eropah, dan selama seribu tahun tidak wujud seorang ahli sains yang ternama melainkan di dalam empayar [[Dunia Islam|Arab]]."<ref>[[Oliver Joseph Lodge]], ''Pioneers of Science'', p. 9.</ref>}}

=== Semakan setara ===

Gambaran pertama proses [[semakan setara]] yang didokumentasi dapat diketemu di dalam ''Etika Doktor'' karya Ishaq bin Ali Al-Rahwi 854–931 M) dari Al-Raha [[Syria]], yang menggambarkan proses pertama semakan setara perubatan. Karya beliau, serta manual perubatan Arab terkemudian, menyatakan bahawa seseorang doktor pelawat mesti membuat nota pendua tentang keadaan pesakit pada setiap lawatan. Apabila pesakit sembuh atau meninggal dunia, nota-nota doktor akan disemak oleh satu majlis terdiri daripada para doktor bagi memastikan rawatan bersesuaian telah diberikan oleh doktor dan sama ada prestasinya menepati piawai bagi penjagaan pesakit. Sekiranya semakan mereka negatif, maka doktor tersebut mungkin menghadapi tindakan undang-undang daripada pesakit yang tidak mendapat rawatan bersesuaian.<ref>Ray Spier (2002), "The history of the peer-review process", ''Trends in Biotechnology'' '''20''' (8), p. 357-358 [357].</ref>

== Sains gunaan ==
'' Maklumat lanjut: [[Rekacipta di Dunia Islam]] [[Revolusi Pertanian Islam]] [[Garis masa saintis dan jurutera Muslim]]

[[Fielding H. Garrison]] menulis di dalam ''History of Medicine'':

{{quote|"[[Saracen]] mereka sendiri merupakan orang yang memulakan bukan sahaja [[algebra]], [[kimia]] dan [[geologi]], tetapi juga banyak apa yang dipanggil perbaikan peradaban, seperti [[lampu jalan]], [[tingkap kaca]], [[bunga api]], [[alat muzik bertali]], [[penanaman]] [[buah]]-buahan, [[minyak wangi]], [[rempah|rempah-ratus]], dll..."<ref name=Garrison>[[Fielding H. Garrison]], ''An Introduction to the History of Medicine: with Medical Chronology, Suggestions for Study and Biblographic Data'', p. 86</ref>}}

Dalam [[sains gunaan]], sebilangan ketara ciptaan dan teknologi dihasilkan oleh saintis dan jurutera Muslim Zaman Pertengahan, seperti [[Abbas Ibn Firnas]], [[Taqi al-Din]], dan terutama sekali [[al-Jazari]], yang dianggap sebagai seorang perintis dalam kejuruteraan moden.<ref>[http://www.mtestudios.com/news_100_years.htm 1000 Years of Knowledge Rediscovered at Ibn Battuta Mall], MTE Studios.</ref> Sebahagian ciptaan itu dipercayai berasal dari dunia Islam Zaman Pertengahan termasuklah [[automaton]] [[boleh atur cara]],<ref>Teun Koetsier (2001), "On the prehistory of programmable machines: musical automata, looms, calculators", ''Mechanism and Machine theory'' '''36''': 590-591</ref> [[kopi]], [[sabun]], [[syampu]], [[penyulingan]] tulen, [[pencecairan]], [[penghabluran]], [[penulenan]], [[pengoksidaan]], [[penyejatan]], [[penurasan]], [[alkohol]] [[suling]], [[asid urik]], [[asid nitrik]], [[alembik]], [[aci engkol]], [[injap]], [[pam]] [[omboh]] [[sedut]] [[salingan]], [[jam mekanikal]] yang digerakkan [[jam air|air]] dan [[pemberat]], [[kunci gabungan]], [[gebaran]], [[gerbang]] runcing, [[skalpel]], [[gergaji]] tulang, [[forseps]], [[katgut]] pembedahan, [[kincir angin]], [[inokulasi]], [[pena]], [[pemecahan tulisan rahsia]], [[analisis kekerapan]], [[hidangan]] tiga peringkat, [[kaca berwarna]] dan [[kaca kuarza]], [[permaidani Parsi]], [[cek]] moden, [[glob cakerawala]], [[roket]] [[peledak]] dan [[bom pembakar]], [[torpedo]], dan [[taman ria]] buatan.<ref name=Vallely/>

=== Sains pertanian ===

[[Fail:al-jazari pump.png|thumb|[[Pam sedut]] [[enjin salingan]] ber[[omboh]] [[Al-Jazari]].]]

''Maklumat lanjut:[[Revolusi Pertanian Islam]]'' dan ''[[Geografi Islam]]''

Pada waktu [[Revolusi Pertanian Islam]] para ahli sains Islam membuat kemajuan besar dalam bidang [[Botani|botani]] dan meletakkan asas [[Sains Pertanian|sains pertanian]]. Ahli botani dan pertanian Islam mempamerkan pengetahuan [[agronomi]], teknik pertanian dan ekonomi termaju dalam bidang-bidang seperti [[meteorologi]], [[kaji iklim]], [[hidrologi]], penggunaan [[tanah]], dan ekonomi serta pengurusan pengusahaan pertanian.  Mereka menunjukkan pengetahuan pertanian dalam bidang-bidang seperti [[pedologi]] tanah (kajian saintifik tentang pembentukan, ciri dan penggunaan tanah), [[ekologi]] pertanian, [[pengairan]], persiapan tanah, penanaman, pembajaan, [[pencantuman]], [[pemangkasan]], [[fitoterapi]], penjagaan dan pemeliharaan [[kultur]] dan tumbuhan, dan penuaian serta pengstoran tanaman.<ref>Toufic Fahd (1996), "Botany and agriculture", p. 849, in {{Harv|Morelon|Rashed|1996|pp=813-852}}</ref>

[[Al-Dinawari]] (828-896 M) dianggap pengasas botani Arab kerana di dalam bukunya ''Kitab Tumbuhan'', beliau menggambarkan sekurang-kurangnya 637 jenis tumbuhan dan membincangkan [[evolusi tumbuhan]] dari lahir sehingga kematian, menggambarkan fasa [[ketumbuhan tanaman]] dan fasa bunga serta buah.<ref name=Fahd-815>{{citation|last=Fahd|first=Toufic|contribution=Botany and agriculture|pages=815}}, in {{Harv|Morelon|Rashed|1996}}</ref>

Pada kurun ke-13, ahli biologi [[Al-Andalus]] Abu Al-Abbas Al-Nabati memabangunkan kaedah saintifik awal bagi botani, dengan memperkenalkan teknik [[empirik]] dan ber[[eksperimen]] dalam pengujian, penggambaran dan pengenalan pelbagai [[materia medika]], serta mengasingkan laporan yang tidak ditentusahkan daripada laporan yang disokong ujian dan pemerhatian.<ref>{{Citation |first=Toby |last=Huff |year=2003 |title=The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China, and the West |page=218 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=0521529948 |pages=813–852}}</ref> Muridnya [[Ibn Al-Baitar]] menerbitkan ''Kitab al-Jami fi al-Adwiya al-Mufrada'', yang dianggap himpunan botani terhebat dalam sejarah, dan merupakan bahan rujukan botani untuk waktu berkurun-kurun lamanya. Ia mengandungi butiran berkenaan sekurang-kurangnya 1,400 jenis tumbuhan, makanan, dan [[ubat]]. 300 daripada bahan yang terkandung di dalam kitab itu merupakan penemuan nya sendiri. Karya Ibn Al-Baitar berpengaruh di Eropah selepas terjemahnya ke dalam [[Latin]] dalam tahun 1758 M.<ref>Diane Boulanger (2002), "The Islamic Contribution to Science, Mathematics and Technology", ''OISE Papers'', in ''STSE Education'', Vol. 3.</ref><ref name=McNeil>Russell McNeil, [http://www.mala.bc.ca/~mcneil/baitart.htm Ibn al-Baitar], [[Malaspina University-College]].</ref>

== Perubatan ==

''Maklumat lanjut: [[Perubatan Islam]] dan [[Bimaristan]]'' 

[[Image:Albucasis.gif|thumb|right|[[Abu Al-Qasim Al-Zahrawi|al-Zahrawi]] (''Abulcasis''), seorang peneroka [[pembedahan]] moden.]] 

Para pakar [[perubatan]] Islam membuat banyak kemajuan serta sumbangan dalam bidang-bidang [[perubatan]], termasuk [[anatomi]], [[patologi]], [[oftalmologi]], sains-sains [[farmaseutik]] termasuk [[farmasi]] dan [[farmakologi]], [[fisiologi]] dan [[pembedahan]].  Doktor-doktor Islam menubuhkan [[hospital]] khusus yang terawal sewaktu terjadinya [[Perang Salib]], yang mengilhamkan pembinaan hospital yang sama di Eropah.<ref name=Sarton>[[George Sarton]], ''Introduction to the History of Science''.<br />([[cf.]] Dr. A. Zahoor and Dr. Z. Haq (1997), [http://www.cyberistan.org/islamic/Introl1.html Quotations From Famous Historians of Science], Cyberistan.</ref>

[[Al-Kindi]] menulis ''[[De gradibus (karya)|De Gradibus]]'', di mana beliau buat pertama kalinya menunjukkan penggunaan [[pengkuantitian]] dan [[matematik]] dalam perubatan, khususnya dalam bidang farmakologi. Ini termasuk pembangunan skala matematik bagi pengkuantitian kekuatan ubat, serta satu aturcara yang dapat membolehkan para doktor menentukan hari-hari kritikal sesuatu penyakit dari awal.<ref>Felix Klein-Frank (2001), ''Al-Kindi'', in [[Oliver Leaman]] and [[Hossein Nasr]], ''History of Islamic Philosophy'', p. 172. [[Routledge]], London.</ref> [[Al-Razi|al-Razi]] (''Rhazes'') (865-925 M), seorang pelopor [[pediatrik]],<ref>David W. Tschanz, PhD (2003), "Arab Roots of European Medicine", ''Heart Views'' '''4''' (2).</ref> mencatatkan kes-kes [[klinikal]] yang ditemukan dan memberikan catatan yang amat berguna tentang pelbagai [[penyakit]]. Bukunya  ''Kitab Menyeluruh berkaitan Perubatan'' (''al-Hawi الحاوي'') yang memperkenalkan [[campak]] dan [[cacar]], sangat berpengaruh di Eropah. Dalam kitab ''Syak terhadap [[Galen]]'' (''Shukuk 'ala alinusor''), al-Razi juga yang pertama membuktikan, melalui penggunaan [[eksperimen|ujikaji]], bahawa teori [[humor]] Galen dan teori [[unsur klasik]] [[Aristotle]] silap.<ref name=Stolyarov>G. Stolyarov II (2002), "Rhazes: The Thinking Western Physician", ''The Rational Argumentator'', Issue VI.</ref> Beliau juga memperkenalkan [[urinalisis]] dan [[ujian najis]].<ref>Rafik Berjak and Muzaffar Iqbal, "Ibn Sina—Al-Biruni correspondence", ''Islam & Science'',  December 2003.</ref>

[[Abu Al-Qasim Al-Zahrawi|al-Zahrawi]] (''Abulcasis''), yang dianggap pelopor [[pembedahan]] moden,<ref>A. Martin-Araguz, C. Bustamante-Martinez, Ajo V. Fernandez-Armayor, J. M. Moreno-Martinez (2002). "Neuroscience in al-Andalus and its influence on medieval scholastic medicine", ''Revista de neurología'' '''34''' (9), p. 877-892.</ref> menulis ''[[Al-Tasrif]]'' (''Kaedah Perubatan'') (c. 1000 M), [[ensiklopedia]] sebesar 30 jilid yang diajarkan di sekolah-sekolah perubatan Islam dan Eropah sehingga kurun ke-17. Beliau mencipta pelbagai [[peralatan pembedahan]], termasuk alat pertama yang khusus bagi wanita,<ref name=Saad>Bashar Saad, Hassan Azaizeh, Omar Said (October 2005). "Tradition and Perspectives of Arab Herbal Medicine: A Review", ''Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine'' '''2''' (4), p. 475-479 [476]. [[Oxford University Press]].</ref> disamping kegunaan [[catgut]] dan [[forceps]] dalam pembedahan, [[Ligatur (perubatan)|ligatur]], [[jarum bedah]], [[skalpel]], [[kuret]], [[Retraktor (perubatan)|retraktor]], [[sudu]] bedah, [[Sound (perubatan)|sound]], [[cangkuk]] bedah, [[rod]] bedah, dan [[Spekulum (perubatan)|spekula]],<ref>Khaled al-Hadidi (1978), "The Role of Muslim Scholars in Oto-rhino-Laryngology", ''The Egyptian Journal of O.R.L.'' '''4''' (1), p. 1-15. ([[cf.]] [http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=674 Ear, Nose and Throat Medical Practice in Muslim Heritage], Foundation for Science Technology and Civilization.)</ref> [[gergaji]] tulang,<ref name=Vallely/> dan [[plaster]].<ref>Zafarul-Islam Khan, [http://milligazette.com/Archives/15-1-2000/Art5.htm At The Threshhold Of A New Millennium – II], ''The Milli Gazette''.</ref> 

Pada tahun 1021 M, [[Abu Ali Hasan Ibn Al-Haitham|Ibn al-Haitham]] (''Alhazen'') membuat kemajuan penting dalam [[pembedahan mata]], semasa beliau mengkaji dan dengan tepatnya menjelaskan jujukan [[penglihatan]] dan [[persepsi penglihatan]] buat kali pertamanya dalam buku beliau, ''[[Kitab Optik (Kitab al-Manazir)|Kitab Optik]]'' (c. 1021 M).<ref name=Saad/>

[[Abu Marwan Ibn Zuhr|Ibn Zuhr]] (''Avenzoar'') dianggap pelopor pembedahan bereksperimen, <ref>Rabie E. Abdel-Halim (2006), "Contributions of Muhadhdhab Al-Deen Al-Baghdadi to the progress of medicine and urology", ''Saudi Medical Journal'' '''27''' (11): 1631-1641.</ref> oleh sebab memperkenalkan kaedah ujikaji ke dalam pemebedahan pada kurun ke-12 &ndash; beliau yang pertama menggunakan ujian terhadap binatang bagi menguji tatacara pembedahan sebelum melakukannya ke atas manusia.<ref name=Rabie>Rabie E. Abdel-Halim (2005), "Contributions of Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) to the progress of surgery: A study and translations from his book Al-Taisir", ''Saudi Medical Journal 2005; Vol. 26 (9): 1333-1339''.</ref> He also performed the first [[dissection]]s and postmortem [[Autopsy|autopsies]] on both humans as well as animals.<ref>[http://encyclopedia.farlex.com/Islamic+medicine Islamic medicine], ''[[Hutchinson Encyclopedia]]''.</ref>

Pada tahun 1242, [[Ibn Al-Nafis al-Dimashqi|Ibn al-Nafis]], yang dianggap pelopor [[Fisiologi kardiovaskular|fisiologi kardiovaskular]] <ref>Chairman's Reflections (2004), "Traditional Medicine Among Gulf Arabs, Part II: Blood-letting", ''Heart Views'' '''5''' (2), p. 74-85 [80].</ref> merupakan yang pertama menggambarkan sistem  [[edaran pulmonari]] dan [[edaran koronari]],<ref>Husain F. Nagamia (2003), "Ibn al-Nafīs: A Biographical Sketch of the Discoverer of Pulmonary and Coronary Circulation", ''Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine'' '''1''', p. 22–28.</ref> yang menjadi asas [[sistem peredaran]] (sistem darah, pembuluh darah, limfa, dan jantung yang berkaitan dengan peredaran darah dan limfa); kerana itu beliau dianggap seorang daripada ahli fisiologi terunggul dalam sejarah.<ref>[[George Sarton]] ([[cf.]] Dr. Paul Ghalioungui (1982), "The West denies Ibn Al Nafis's contribution to the discovery of the circulation", ''Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis'', Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait) <br /> ([[cf.]] [http://www.islamset.com/isc/nafis/drpaul.html The West denies Ibn Al Nafis's contribution to the discovery of the circulation], ''Encyclopedia of Islamic World'')</ref> Beliau juga menggambarkan konsep terawal berkaitan [[metabolisme]],<ref>Dr. Abu Shadi Al-Roubi (1982), "Ibn Al-Nafis as a philosopher", ''Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis'', Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait ([[cf.]] [http://www.islamset.com/isc/nafis/drroubi.html Ibn al-Nafis As a Philosopher], ''Encyclopedia of Islamic World'').</ref> dan membangunkan aturcara [[fisiologi]] dan [[psikologi]] baharu mbagi menggantikan sistem [[Ibnu Sina]] dan [[Galen]], disamping menyangkal teori mereka tentang [[humor], [[Denyutan]],<ref>Nahyan A. G. Fancy (2006), "Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (d. 1288)", p. 3 & 6, ''Electronic Theses and Dissertations'', [[University of Notre Dame]].[http://etd.nd.edu/ETD-db/theses/available/etd-11292006-152615]</ref> [[tulang]], [[otot]], [[usus]], organ [[deria]], [[hempedu]] [[Kanal (anatomi)|kanal]], [[esofagus]], [[perut]], dan lain-lain.<ref>Dr. Sulaiman Oataya (1982), "Ibn ul Nafis has dissected the human body", ''Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis'', Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait ([[cf.]] [http://www.islamset.com/isc/nafis/index.html Ibn ul-Nafis has Dissected the Human Body], ''Encyclopedia of Islamic World'').</ref> 

Ibn al-Lubudi (1210-1267 M) menolak teori Empat Humor yang disokong Galen dan [[Hippocrates]], menemukan hakikat bahawa [[tubuh]] dan pemeliharaannya bergantung secara ekslusif pada [[darah]], menolak idea Galen bahawa wanita dapat mengeluarkan [[sperma]], dan menemukan bahawa pergerakan [[arteri]] tidak bergantung pada pergerakan [[jantung]], bahawa jantung ialah oragn pertama yang terbentuk di dalam tubuh [[janin]] (dan bukannya [[otak]] seperti dikatakan Hippocrates), dan [[tulang]] yang membentuk [[tengkorak]] dapat menjadi [[tumor]].<ref>L. Leclerc (1876), ''Histoire de la medecine Arabe'', vol. 2, p. 161, [[Paris]]. <br /> ([[cf.]] Salah Zaimeche, [http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=497 The Scholars of Aleppo: Al Mahassin, Al Urdi, Al-Lubudi, Al-Halabi], Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation)</ref>

''Tashrih al-badan'' (''Anatomi tubuh badan'') karya [[Mansur ibn Ilyas]] (c. 1390 M) mengandungi rajah-rajah lengkap berkaitan sistem struktur tubuh, [[Sistem saraf|saraf]] dan peredaran darah.<ref>{{Harv|Turner|1997|pp=136—138}}</ref> Semasa berlakunya [[plag bubonik]] (''Black Death'') di [[Al-Andalus]] dalam kurun ke-14, Ibn Khatima and Ibn al-Khatib memberi hipotesis bahawa penyakit berjangkit disebabkan "entiti yang menular" yang memasuki tubuh badan manusia.<ref>Ibrahim B. Syed, Ph.D. (2002). "Islamic Medicine: 1000 years ahead of its times", ''Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine'' '''2''', p. 2-9.</ref> 

Pembaharuan-pembaharuan perubatan lain yang asalnya dengan ahli perubatan Islam termasuk penemuan [[sistem imun]], penggunaan ujian terhadap binatang, dan pemaduan perubatan dengan [[sains]]-sains lain ([[pertanian]], [[botani]], [[kimia]], dan [[farmakologi]]),<ref name=Saad/> disamping perekaan [[picagari]] [[Suntikan (perubatan)]] oleh Ammar ibn Ali al-Mawsili di [[Iraq} dalam abad kesembilan, [[farmasi]] di [[Baghdad]] (754 M), perbezaan antara perubatan dengan farmasi pada kurun ke-12, dan penemuan sekurang-kurangnya 2,000 bahan perubatan dan kimia.<ref>S. Hadzovic (1997). "Pharmacy and the great contribution of Arab-Islamic science to its development", ''Medicinski Arhiv'' '''51''' (1-2), p. 47-50.</ref>

[[Avicenna]], who was a pioneer of [[experimental medicine]] and was also an influential thinker and medical scholar,<ref name=Sarton/> wrote ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'' (1025) and ''[[The Book of Healing]]'' (1027), which remained standard textbooks in both Muslim and European [[University|universities]] until at least the 17th century. Avicenna's contributions include the introduction of systematic [[experiment]]ation and [[quantification]] into the study of [[physiology]],<ref>Katharine Park (March 1990). "''Avicenna in Renaissance Italy: The Canon and Medical Teaching in Italian Universities after 1500'' by Nancy G. Siraisi", ''The Journal of Modern History'' '''62''' (1), p. 169-170.</ref> the discovery of the contagious nature of [[infectious disease]]s, the introduction of [[quarantine]] to limit the spread of contagious diseases, the introduction of [[experimental medicine]],<ref>{{citation|journal=European Review|year=2008|volume=16|pages=219–27|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|title=Islamic Pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Theories and Substances|first=Danielle|last=Jacquart|doi=10.1017/S1062798708000215}}</ref> [[evidence-based medicine]], [[clinical trial]]s,<ref>David W. Tschanz, MSPH, PhD (August 2003). "Arab Roots of European Medicine", ''Heart Views'' '''4''' (2).</ref>
[[randomized controlled trial]]s,<ref>Jonathan D. Eldredge (2003), "The Randomised Controlled Trial design: unrecognized opportunities for health sciences librarianship", ''Health Information and Libraries Journal'' '''20''', p. 34–44 [36].</ref><ref>Bernard S. Bloom, Aurelia Retbi, Sandrine Dahan, Egon Jonsson (2000), "Evaluation Of Randomized Controlled Trials On Complementary And Alternative Medicine", ''International Journal of Technology Assessment in Health Care'' '''16''' (1), p. 13–21 [19].</ref>
[[efficacy]] tests,<ref>D. Craig Brater and Walter J. Daly (2000), "Clinical pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Principles that presage the 21st century", ''Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics'' '''67''' (5), p. 447-450 [449].</ref><ref>Walter J. Daly and D. Craig Brater (2000), "Medieval contributions to the search for truth in clinical medicine", ''Perspectives in Biology and Medicine'' '''43''' (4), p. 530–540 [536], [[Johns Hopkins University Press]].</ref>
and [[clinical pharmacology]],<ref>D. Craig Brater and Walter J. Daly (2000), "Clinical pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Principles that presage the 21st century", ''Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics'' '''67''' (5), p. 447-450 [448].</ref>
the importance of dietetics and the influence of climate and environment on health,<ref>[http://www.unani.com/avicenna%20story%203.htm The Canon of Medicine], The American Institute of Unani Medicine, 2003.</ref> the distinction of [[mediastinitis]] from [[pleurisy]], the contagious nature of [[phthisis]] and [[tuberculosis]], the distribution of [[disease]]s by [[water]] and [[soil]], and the first careful descriptions of [[skin]] troubles, [[sexually transmitted disease]]s, [[perversion]]s, and [[Nervous system|nervous]] [[ailment]]s,<ref name=Sarton/> as well the use of [[ice]] to treat [[fever]]s, and the separation of [[medicine]] from [[pharmacology]], which was important to the development of the [[pharmaceutical sciences]].<ref name=Saad/>
<!-- letakkan Ibnu Sina di atas selepas diterjemah -->
<!-- Algazel -->

== Formal sciences ==

=== Logic ===
{{Main|Logic in Islamic philosophy}}

Early [[Islamic law]] placed importance on formulating standards of [[argument]], which gave rise to a novel approach to [[logic]] in [[Kalam]], but this approach was later influenced by ideas from [[Greek philosophy]] and [[Hellenistic philosophy]] with the rise of the [[Mu'tazili]] theologians, who highly valued [[Aristotle]]'s ''[[Organon]]''. The works of Hellenistic-influenced [[Early Islamic philosophy|Islamic philosophers]] were crucial in the reception of Aristotelian logic in medieval Europe, along with the commentaries on the ''Organon'' by [[Averroes]]. The works of [[al-Farabi]], [[Avicenna]], [[al-Ghazali]] and other Muslim logicians who often criticized and corrected Aristotelian logic and introduced their own forms of logic, also played a central role in the subsequent development of medieval European logic.

Islamic logic not only included the study of formal patterns of [[inference]] and their validity but also elements of the philosophy of language and elements of [[epistemology]] and [[metaphysics]]. Due to disputes with [[Arabic grammar]]ians, Islamic philosophers were very interested in working out the relationship between logic and language, and they devoted much discussion to the question of the subject matter and aims of logic in relation to reasoning and speech. In the area of formal logical analysis, they elaborated upon the theory of terms, [[proposition]]s and [[syllogism]]s. They considered the syllogism to be the form to which all rational argumentation could be reduced, and they regarded syllogistic theory as the focal point of logic. Even [[poetics]] was considered as a syllogistic art in some fashion by many major Islamic logicians.

Important developments made by Muslim logicians included the development of "[[Logic in Islamic philosophy#Avicennian logic|Avicennian logic]]" as a replacement of Aristotelian logic. [[Avicenna]]'s system of logic was responsible for the introduction of [[hypothetical syllogism]],<ref name=Goodman>Lenn Evan Goodman (2003), ''Islamic Humanism'', p. 155, [[Oxford University Press]], ISBN 0-19-513580-6.</ref> [[Temporal logic|temporal]] [[modal logic]],<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article-65928 History of logic: Arabic logic], ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''.</ref><ref>Dr. Lotfollah Nabavi, [http://public.ut.ac.ir/html/fac/lit/articles.html Sohrevardi's Theory of Decisive Necessity and kripke's QSS System], ''Journal of Faculty of Literature and Human Sciences''.</ref> and [[Inductive reasoning|inductive logic]].<ref>[http://www.islamherald.com/asp/explore/science/science_muslim_scientists.asp Science and Muslim Scientists], Islam Herald.</ref><ref>Wael B. Hallaq (1993), ''Ibn Taymiyya Against the Greek Logicians'', p. 48. [[Oxford University Press]], ISBN 0-19-824043-0.</ref> Other important developments in Islamic philosophy include the development of a strict [[scientific citation|science of citation]], the [[isnad]] or "backing", and the development of a [[scientific method|scientific method of open inquiry]] to disprove claims, the [[ijtihad]], which could be generally applied to many types of questions. From the 12th century, despite the logical sophistication of [[al-Ghazali]], the rise of the [[Ash'ari|Asharite]] school in the late Middle Ages slowly limited original work on logic in the Islamic world, though it did continue into the 15th century.

=== Mathematics ===
{{Main|Islamic mathematics}}
[[Fail:1983_CPA_5426.jpg|thumb|right|[[Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī|Al-Khwarizmi]], seorang peneroka [[algebra]] dan [[algoritma]].]]

John J. O'Connor and Edmund F. Robertson wrote in the ''[[MacTutor History of Mathematics archive]]'':
{{quote|"Recent research paints a new picture of the debt that we owe to Islamic [[mathematics]]. Certainly many of the ideas which were previously thought to have been brilliant new conceptions due to European mathematicians of the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries are now known to have been developed by Arabic/Islamic mathematicians around four centuries earlier."<ref>John J. O'Connor and Edmund F. Robertson (1999). [http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Arabic_mathematics.html Arabic mathematics: forgotten brilliance?] ''[[MacTutor History of Mathematics archive]]''.</ref>}}

[[Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī|Al-Khwarizmi]] (780-850), from whose name the word [[algorithm]] derives, contributed significantly to [[algebra]], which is named after his book, ''[[The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing|Kitab al-Jabr]]'', the first book on [[elementary algebra]].<ref>{{Harv|Eglash|1999|p=61}}</ref> He also introduced what is now known as [[Arabic numerals]], which originally came from [[Indian mathematics|India]], though Muslim mathematicians did make several refinements to the number system, such as the introduction of [[Decimal separator|decimal point]] notation. [[Al-Kindi]] (801-873) was a pioneer in [[cryptanalysis]] and [[cryptology]]. He gave the first known recorded explanations of [[cryptanalysis]] and [[Frequency analysis (cryptanalysis)|frequency analysis]] in ''A Manuscript on Deciphering Cryptographic Messages''.<ref>Simon Singh, ''The Code Book'', p. 14-20.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=372 |title=Al-Kindi, Cryptgraphy, Codebreaking and Ciphers |accessdate=2007-01-12 |format=HTML}}</ref>

The first known [[Mathematical proof|proof]] by [[mathematical induction]] appears in a book written by [[Al-Karaji]] around 1000 AD, who used it to prove the [[binomial theorem]], [[Pascal's triangle]], and the sum of [[integral]] [[Cube (algebra)|cubes]].<ref>Victor J. Katz (1998). ''History of Mathematics: An Introduction'', p. 255-259. [[Addison-Wesley]]. ISBN 0-321-01618-1.</ref> The [[historian]] of mathematics, F. Woepcke,<ref>F. Woepcke (1853). ''Extrait du Fakhri, traité d'Algèbre par Abou Bekr Mohammed Ben Alhacan Alkarkhi''. [[Paris]].</ref> praised Al-Karaji for being "the first who introduced the [[theory]] of [[algebra]]ic [[calculus]]." [[Ibn al-Haytham]] was the first mathematician to derive the formula for the sum of the [[fourth power]]s, and using the method of induction, he developed a method for determining the general formula for the sum of any integral [[Exponentiation|powers]], which was fundamental to the development of integral calculus.<ref>Victor J. Katz (1995). "Ideas of Calculus in Islam and India", ''Mathematics Magazine'' '''68''' (3), p. 163-174.</ref> The 11th century [[Persian literature|poet]]-mathematician [[Omar Khayyám]] was the first to find general [[geometry|geometric]] solutions of [[cubic equation]]s and laid the foundations for the development of [[analytic geometry]], [[algebraic geometry]] and [[non-Euclidean geometry]]. [[Sharaf al-Din al-Tusi]] (1135-1213) found algebraic and [[Numerical analysis|numerical]] solutions to cubic equations and was the first to discover the [[derivative]] of [[Cubic function|cubic polynomials]], an important result in differential calculus.<ref>J. L. Berggren (1990). "Innovation and Tradition in Sharaf al-Din al-Tusi's Muadalat", ''Journal of the American Oriental Society'' '''110''' (2), p. 304-309.</ref>

Other achievements of Muslim mathematicians include the invention of [[spherical trigonometry]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Syed |first=M. H. |title=Islam and Science |year=2005 |publisher=Anmol Publications PVT. LTD. |isbn=8-1261-1345-6 |pages=71}}</ref> the discovery of all the [[trigonometric function]]s besides sine and cosine, early inquiry which aided the development of [[analytic geometry]] by [[Ibn al-Haytham]], the first refutations of [[Euclidean geometry]] and the [[parallel postulate]] by [[Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī]], the first attempt at a [[non-Euclidean geometry]] by Sadr al-Din, the development of [[Mathematical notation|symbolic algebra]] by [[Abū al-Hasan ibn Alī al-Qalasādī]],<ref>{{MacTutor Biography|id=Al-Qalasadi|title=Abu'l Hasan ibn Ali al Qalasadi}}</ref> and numerous other advances in algebra, [[arithmetic]], calculus, [[cryptography]], [[geometry]], [[number theory]] and [[trigonometry]].

== Natural sciences ==
=== Astrology ===
{{Main|Islamic astrology}}

Islamic astrology, in [[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''ilm al-nujum'' is the study of the heavens by early [[Muslim]]s. In early Arabic sources, ''ilm al-nujum'' was used to refer to both [[astronomy]] and [[astrology]]. In [[medieval]] sources, however, a clear distinction was made between ''ilm al-nujum'' (science of the stars) or ''ilm al-falak'' (science of the celestial orbs), referring to astrology, and'' ilm al-haya'' (science of the figure of the heavens), referring to astronomy. Both fields were rooted in [[Greece|Greek]], [[Persian Empire|Persian]], and [[Indian subcontinent|Indian]] traditions. Despite consistent critiques of astrology by scientists and religious scholars, astrological prognostications required a fair amount of exact scientific knowledge and thus gave partial incentive for the study and development of astronomy.

The first [[semantic]] distinction between astronomy and [[astrology]] was given by [[al-Biruni]] in the 11th century, though he himself refuted the study of astrology.<ref name = "Isis-55">S. Pines (September 1964). "The Semantic Distinction between the Terms Astronomy and Astrology according to al-Biruni", ''Isis'' '''55''' (3), p. 343-349.</ref> The study of astrology was also refuted by other Muslim astronomers at the time, including [[al-Farabi]], [[Ibn al-Haytham]], [[Avicenna]] and [[Averroes]]. Their reasons for refuting astrology were both due to the methods used by astrologers being [[conjectural]] rather than [[empirical]] and also due to the views of astrologers conflicting with orthodox [[Islam]].<ref>{{Harv|Saliba|1994|pp=60 & 67-69}}</ref>

=== Ilmu falak ===
{{Main|Ilmu falak Islam}}
{{see also|Balai cerap Maragheh|Balai cerap Istanbul al-Din|Senarai ahli falak Islam|Senarai nama bintang Arab}}
[[Fail:Al-Tusi Nasir.jpeg|thumb|right|150px|[[Nasir al-Din Tusi]] adalah seorang [[polymath]] yang menyelesaikan masalah penting pada [[Model geocentric|sistem Ptolemaik]] dengan [[Tusi-couple]], yang memainkan suatu pernan penting pada [[Copernican heliocentrism]].]]

In [[astronomy]], the works of [[Egyptians|Egyptian]]/[[Greek astronomy|Greek]] astronomer [[Ptolemy]], particularly the ''[[Almagest]]'', and the [[Indian astronomy|Indian]] work of [[Brahmagupta]], were significantly refined over the years by [[Muslim]] astronomers. The astronomical tables of [[Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī|Al-Khwarizmi]] and of [[Maslamah Ibn Ahmad al-Majriti]] served as important sources of information for [[Latin]]ized European thinkers rediscovering the works of astronomy, where extensive interest in astrology was discouraged.

In the 11th century, Muslim astronomers began questioning the [[Ptolemaic system]], beginning with [[Ibn al-Haytham]], and they were the first to conduct elaborate [[experiment]]s related to astronomical phenomena, beginning with [[Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī]]'s introduction of the [[scientific method|experimental method]] into astronomy.<ref name=Zahoor>Dr. A. Zahoor (1997), [http://www.unhas.ac.id/~rhiza/saintis/biruni.html Abu Raihan Muhammad al-Biruni], [[Hasanuddin University]].</ref> Many of them made changes and corrections to the Ptolemaic model and proposed alternative non-
Ptolemaic models within a [[geocentrism|geocentric]] framework. In particular, the corrections and critiques of [[al-Battani]], [[Ibn al-Haytham]], and [[Averroes]], and the non-Ptolemaic models of the [[Maragheh observatory|Maragha astronomers]], [[Nasir al-Din al-Tusi]] ([[Tusi-couple]]), [[Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi]] (Urdi lemma), and [[Ibn al-Shatir]], were later adapted into the [[Copernican heliocentrism|heliocentric Copernican model]],<ref>M. Gill (2005). [http://www.chowk.com/show_article.cgi?aid=00005502&channel=university%20ave Was Muslim Astronomy the Harbinger of Copernicanism?]</ref><ref>Richard Covington (May-June 2007). "Rediscovering Arabic science", ''[[Saudi Aramco World]]'', p. 2-16.</ref> and that [[Copernicus]]' arguments for the [[Earth's rotation]] were similar to those of al-Tusi and [[Ali al-Qushji]].<ref name=Ragep/> Some have referred to the achievements of the Maragha school as a "Maragha Revolution", "Maragha School Revolution", or "Scientific Revolution before the Renaissance".<ref name=Saliba-1994/>

Other contributions from Muslim astronomers include [[Biruni]] speculating that the [[Milky Way]] [[galaxy]] is a collection of numerous [[Nebula|nebulous]] [[star]]s,<ref name=Zahoor/> the development of a planetary model without any [[Deferent and epicycle|epicycles]] by [[Ibn Bajjah]] (Avempace),<ref>Bernard R. Goldstein (March 1972). "Theory and Observation in Medieval Astronomy", ''Isis'' '''63''' (1), p. 39-47 [40-41].</ref> the optical writings of Ibn al-Haytham having laid the foundations for the later European development of [[telescope|telescopic]] astronomy,<ref>O. S. Marshall (1950). "Alhazen and the Telescope", ''Astronomical Society of the Pacific Leaflets'' '''6''', pp. 4-11.</ref>
the development of universal [[astrolabe]]s,<ref>{{cite book |last=Krebs |first=Robert E. |title=Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance |year=2004 |publisher=Greenwood Press |isbn=0-3133-2433-6 |pages=196}}</ref> the invention of numerous other astronomical instruments, continuation of inquiry into the motion of the planets, [[Ja'far Muhammad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir]]'s discovery that the [[Astronomical object|heavenly bodies]] and [[celestial spheres]] are subject to the same [[physical law]]s as [[Earth]],<ref name=Saliba>[[George Saliba]] (1994). "Early Arabic Critique of Ptolemaic Cosmology: A Ninth-Century Text on the Motion of the Celestial Spheres", ''Journal for the History of Astronomy'' '''25''', p. 115-141 [116].</ref>
the first elaborate [[experiment]]s related to astronomical phenomena and the first [[semantic]] distinction between astronomy and [[astrology]] by [[Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī]],<ref name = "Isis-55"/>
the use of exacting [[empirical]] observations and experimental techniques,<ref>Toby Huff, ''The Rise of Early Modern Science'', p. 326. [[Cambridge University Press]], ISBN 0-521-52994-8.</ref>
the discovery that the [[celestial spheres]] are not [[solid]] and that the heavens are less dense than the air by Ibn al-Haytham,<ref>Edward Rosen (1985), "The Dissolution of the Solid Celestial Spheres", ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' '''46''' (1), p. 13-31 [19-20, 21].</ref>
the separation of [[natural philosophy]] from astronomy by Ibn al-Haytham<ref>Roshdi Rashed (2007). "The Celestial Kinematics of Ibn al-Haytham", ''Arabic Sciences and Philosophy'' '''17''', p. 7-55. [[Cambridge University Press]].</ref> and al-Qushji,<ref name=Ragep/>
the rejection of the Ptolemaic model on empirical rather than [[philosophical]] grounds by Ibn al-Shatir,<ref name=Saliba-1994/>
and the first empirical [[observation]]al evidence of the [[Earth's rotation]] by al-Tusi and al-Qushji.<ref name=Ragep>F. Jamil Ragep (2001), "Tusi and Copernicus: The Earth's Motion in Context", ''Science in Context'' '''14''' (1-2), p. 145–163. [[Cambridge University Press]].</ref> Several Muslim astronomers also discussed the possibility of a [[heliocentrism|heliocentric]] model with [[ellipse|elliptical]] orbits,<ref>Seyyed [[Hossein Nasr]] (1964), ''An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines,'' (Cambridge: Belknap Press of the Harvard University Press), p. 135-136</ref> such as [[Ja'far ibn Muhammad Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi]], [[Ibn al-Haytham]], [[Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī]], [[al-Sijzi]], 'Umar al-Katibi al-[[Qazwini]], and [[Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi]].<ref>A. Baker and L. Chapter (2002), "Part 4: The Sciences". In M. M. Sharif, "A History of Muslim Philosophy", ''Philosophia Islamica''.</ref>

=== Kimia ===
{{main|Alkimia dan kimia dalam Islam}}
{{see|Reka cipta dalam dunia Islam}}
[[Fail:Jabir ibn Hayyan.jpg|thumb|right|[[Geber|Jabir ibn Hayyan]] (Geber) adalah seorang [[polymath]] yang dianggap seorang peneroka [[kimia]] dan [[minyak wangi]].]]

The 9th century [[chemist]], [[Geber]] (Jabir ibn Hayyan), is considered a pioneer of [[chemistry]],<ref>{{citation|first=Zygmunt S.|last=Derewenda|year=2007|title=On wine, chirality and crystallography|journal=Acta Crystallographica Section A: Foundations of Crystallography|volume=64|pages=246–258 [247]|doi=10.1107/S0108767307054293}}</ref><ref>John Warren (2005). "War and the Cultural Heritage of Iraq: a sadly mismanaged affair", ''Third World Quarterly'', Volume 26, Issue 4 & 5, p. 815-830.</ref><ref name=Vallely>Paul Vallely, [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4158/is_20060311/ai_n16147544 How Islamic Inventors Changed the World], ''[[The Independent]]'', 11 March 2006.</ref> for introducing an early [[experiment]]al method for chemistry, as well as the [[alembic]], [[still]], [[retort]], pure [[distillation]], [[liquefaction]], [[crystallisation]], [[purification]], [[oxidisation]], [[evaporation]], and [[filtration]].<ref name=Vallely/>

[[Al-Kindi]] was the first to refute the study of traditional [[alchemy]] and the theory of the [[Philosopher's stone|transmutation of metals]],<ref>Felix Klein-Frank (2001), "Al-Kindi", in [[Oliver Leaman]] & [[Hossein Nasr]], ''History of Islamic Philosophy'', p. 174. London: [[Routledge]].</ref> followed by [[Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī]],<ref>Michael E. Marmura (1965). "''An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines. Conceptions of Nature and Methods Used for Its Study by the Ikhwan Al-Safa'an, Al-Biruni, and Ibn Sina'' by Seyyed [[Hossein Nasr]]", ''Speculum'' '''40''' (4), p. 744-746.</ref> [[Avicenna]],<ref>[[Robert Briffault]] (1938). ''The Making of Humanity'', p. 196-197.</ref> and [[Ibn Khaldun]]. Avicenna also invented [[steam distillation]] and produced the first [[essential oil]]s, which led to the development of [[aromatherapy]]. [[Rhazes|Razi]] first distilled [[petroleum]], invented [[kerosene]] and [[kerosene lamp]]s, [[soap bar]]s and modern recipes for [[soap]], and [[antiseptic]]s. In his ''Doubts about Galen'', al-Razi was also the first to prove both [[Aristotle]]'s theory of [[classical element]]s and [[Galen]]'s theory of [[humorism]] wrong using an experimental method.<ref name=Stolyarov/> In the 13th century, [[Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī]] stated an early version of the law of [[conservation of mass]], noting that a body of [[matter]] is able to change, but is not able to disappear.<ref>Farid Alakbarov (Summer 2001). [http://azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/92_folder/92_articles/92_tusi.html A 13th-Century Darwin? Tusi's Views on Evolution], ''Azerbaijan International'' '''9''' (2).</ref>

[[Will Durant]] wrote in ''[[The Story of Civilization]] IV: The Age of Faith'':
{{quote|"Chemistry as a science was almost created by the [[Muslim|Moslems]]; for in this field, where the [[Greeks]] (so far as we know) were confined to industrial experience and vague [[hypothesis]], the [[Saracen]]s introduced precise [[observation]], [[Scientific control|controlled experiment]], and careful records. They invented and named the [[alembic]] (al-anbiq), chemically analyzed innumerable [[substance]]s, composed [[Lapidary|lapidaries]], distinguished [[alkali]]s and [[acid]]s, investigated their affinities, studied and manufactured hundreds of [[drug]]s. Alchemy, which the Moslems inherited from Egypt, contributed to chemistry by a thousand incidental discoveries, and by its method, which was the most scientific of all medieval operations."<ref name=Durant>[[Will Durant]] (1980). ''The Age of Faith ([[The Story of Civilization]], Volume 4)'', p. 162-186. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-671-01200-2.</ref>}}

[[George Sarton]] wrote in the ''Introduction to the History of Science'':
{{quote|"We find in his (Jabir, Geber) writings remarkably sound views on methods of chemical research, a theory on the [[geology|geologic]] formation of [[metal]]s (the six metals differ essentially because of different proportions of [[sulfur|sulphur]] and [[mercury (element)|mercury]] in them); preparation of various substances (e.g., basic [[Cerussite|lead carbonatic]], [[arsenic]] and [[antimony]] from their [[Sulfide|sulphides]])."<ref name=Zahoor>Dr. A. Zahoor and Dr. Z. Haq (1997). [http://www.cyberistan.org/islamic/Introl1.html ''Quotations From Famous Historians of Science''], [http://www.cyberistan.org Cyberistan].</ref>}}

=== Sains Bumi ===
{{main|Geografi Islam}}
{{see|Revolusi Pertanian Islam}}



Muslim scientists made a number of contributions to the [[Earth science]]s. [[Alkindus]] was the first to introduce [[experiment]]ation into the Earth sciences.<ref name=Plinio>Plinio Prioreschi, "Al-Kindi, A Precursor Of The Scientific Revolution", ''Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine'', 2002 (2): 17-19.</ref> [[Biruni]] is considered a pioneer of [[geodesy]] for his important contributions to the field,<ref name=Ahmed/><ref>H. Mowlana (2001). "Information in the Arab World", ''Cooperation South Journal'' '''1'''.</ref> along with his significant contributions to [[geography]] and [[geology]].

Among his writings on geology, Biruni wrote the following on the [[geology of India]]:
{{quote|"But if you see the soil of [[India]] with your own eyes and meditate on its nature, if you consider the rounded stones found in earth however deeply you dig, stones that are huge near the mountains and where the rivers have a violent current: stones that are of smaller size at a greater distance from the mountains and where the streams flow more slowly: stones that appear pulverised in the shape of sand where the streams begin to stagnate near their mouths and near the sea - if you consider all this you can scarcely help thinking that India was once a sea, which by degrees has been filled up by the alluvium of the streams."<ref>[[Abdus Salam|A. Salam]] (1984), "Islam and Science". In C. H. Lai (1987), ''Ideals and Realities: Selected Essays of Abdus Salam'', 2nd ed., World Scientific, Singapore, p. 179-213.</ref>}}

John J. O'Connor and Edmund F. Robertson write in the ''[[MacTutor History of Mathematics archive]]'':
{{quote|"Important contributions to geodesy and geography were also made by al-Biruni. He introduced techniques to measure the earth and distances on it using [[triangulation]]. He found the [[radius]] of the earth to be 6339.6 km, a value not obtained in the [[Western world|West]] until the 16th century. His ''Masudic canon'' contains a table giving the coordinates of six hundred places, almost all of which he had direct knowledge."<ref name=Biruni/>}}

[[Fielding H. Garrison]] wrote in the ''History of Medicine'':
{{quote|"The [[Saracen]]s themselves were the originators not only of [[algebra]], [[chemistry]], and [[geology]], but of many of the so-called improvements or refinements of civilization..."}}

[[George Sarton]] wrote in the ''Introduction to the History of Science'':
{{quote|"We find in his (Jabir, Geber) writings remarkably sound views on methods of chemical research, a theory on the [[geology|geologic]] formation of [[metal]]s (the six metals differ essentially because of different proportions of [[sulfur|sulphur]] and [[mercury (element)|mercury]] in them)..."<ref name=Zahoor/>}}

In [[geology]], [[Avicenna]] hypothesized on two causes of [[mountain]]s in ''[[The Book of Healing]]'' (1027) and developed the  [[law of superposition]] and concept of [[Uniformitarianism (science)|uniformitarianism]].<ref>Toulmin, S. and Goodfield, J. (1965), ''The Ancestry of science: The Discovery of Time'', Hutchinson & Co., London, p. 64 ([[cf.]] [http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=319 Contribution of Ibn Sina to the development of Earth Sciences])</ref><ref name=Hassani>{{cite web|author=Munim M. Al-Rawi and [[Salim Al-Hassani]]|title=The Contribution of Ibn Sina (Avicenna) to the development of Earth sciences|publisher=FSTC|url=http://www.muslimheritage.com/uploads/ibnsina.pdf|date=November 2002|accessdate=2008-07-01}}</ref> In [[cartography]], the [[Piri Reis map]] drawn by the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] cartographer [[Piri Reis]] in 1513, was one of the earliest [[world map]]s to include the [[Americas]], and perhaps the first to include [[Antarctica]]. His map of the world was considered the most accurate in the 16th century.

The earliest known treatises dealing with [[environmentalism]] and [[environmental science]], especially [[pollution]], were Arabic treatises written by [[al-Kindi]], [[al-Razi]], [[Ibn Al-Jazzar]], [[al-Tamimi]], [[al-Masihi]], [[Avicenna]], [[Ali ibn Ridwan]], [[Abd-el-latif]], and [[Ibn al-Nafis]]. Their works covered a number of subjects related to pollution such as [[air pollution]], [[water pollution]], [[soil contamination]], [[municipal solid waste]] mishandling, and [[environmental impact assessment]]s of certain localities.<ref>L. Gari (2002), "Arabic Treatises on Environmental Pollution up to the End of the Thirteenth Century", ''Environment and History'' '''8''' (4), pp. 475-488.</ref> [[Córdoba, Spain|Cordoba]], [[al-Andalus]] also had the first [[waste container]]s and [[waste disposal]] facilities for [[litter]] collection.<ref>S. P. Scott (1904), ''History of the Moorish Empire in Europe'', 3 vols, J. B. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia and London. <br /> F. B. Artz (1980), ''The Mind of the Middle Ages'', Third edition revised, [[University of Chicago Press]], pp 148-50. <br /> ([[cf.]] [http://www.1001inventions.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=main.viewSection&intSectionID=441 References], 1001 Inventions)</ref>

=== Physics ===
{{main|Islamic physics}}
{{see|Book of Optics}}
[[Fail:Ibn Sahl manuscript.jpg|thumb|Sehelai halaman manuskrip [[Ibn Sahl]] menunjuk penemuannya pada hukum [[pembiasan]] ([[Hukum Snell]]).]]

In the [[optics]] field of [[physics]], [[Ibn Sahl]] (c. 940-1000), a mathematician and physicist connected with the court of [[Baghdad]], wrote a treatise ''On Burning Mirrors and Lenses'' in 984 in which he set out his understanding of how [[curved mirror]]s and [[lens (optics)|lenses]] bend and focus [[light]]. Ibn Sahl is now credited with first discovering the law of [[refraction]], usually called [[Snell's law]].<ref>K. B. Wolf, "Geometry and dynamics in refracting systems", ''European Journal of Physics'' '''16''', p. 14-20, 1995.</ref><ref name=rashed90>R. Rashed, "A pioneer in anaclastics: Ibn Sahl on burning mirrors and lenses", ''[[Isis (journal)|Isis]]'' '''81''', p. 464–491, 1990.</ref> He used this law to work out the shapes of lenses that focus light with no geometric aberrations, known as [[anaclastic lens]]es.

[[Ibn al-Haytham]] (Alhazen) (965-1039), who is considered a pioneer of [[optics]] and the [[scientific method]], developed a broad theory of [[light]] and [[optics]] in his ''[[Book of Optics]]'' which explained [[Visual perception|vision]], using [[geometry]] and [[anatomy]], and stated that each point on an illuminated area or object radiates [[light]] rays in every direction, but that only one ray from each point, which strikes the eye perpendicularly, can be seen. The other rays strike at different angles and are not seen. He used the example of the [[camera obscura]] and [[pinhole camera]], which produces an inverted image, to support his argument. This contradicted Ptolemy's theory of vision that objects are seen by rays of light emanating from the eyes. Alhacen held light rays to be streams of minute particles that travelled at a [[Speed of light|finite speed]]. He improved accurately described the [[History of optics|refraction of light]], and discovered the laws of [[refraction]]. He dealt at length with the theory of various physical phenomena like [[shadow]]s, [[eclipse]]s, and the [[rainbow]]. He also attempted to explain [[binocular vision]] and the [[moon illusion]]. Through these extensive researches on optics, he is considered a pioneer of modern [[optics]]. His ''[[Book of Optics]]'' was later translated into [[Latin]], and has been ranked alongside [[Isaac Newton]]'s ''[[Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica]]'' as one of the most influential books in the [[history of physics]],<ref> H. Salih, M. Al-Amri, M. El Gomati (2005). "The Miracle of Light", ''A World of Science'' '''3''' (3). [[UNESCO]].</ref> for initiating a [[Scientific Revolution|revolution]] in [[optics]]<ref name=Hogendijk>{{citation|last1=Sabra|first1=A. I.|author1-link=A. I. Sabra|last2=Hogendijk|first2=J. P.|title=The Enterprise of Science in Islam: New Perspectives|pages=85–118|publisher=[[MIT Press]]|isbn=0262194821}}</ref> and [[visual perception]].<ref name=Hatfield>{{Citation |last=Hatfield |first=Gary |contribution=Was the Scientific Revolution Really a Revolution in Science? |editor1-last=Ragep |editor1-first=F. J. |editor2-last=Ragep |editor2-first=Sally P. |editor3-last=Livesey |editor3-first=Steven John |year=1996 |title=Tradition, Transmission, Transformation: Proceedings of Two Conferences on Pre-modern Science held at the University of Oklahoma |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |isbn=9004091262 |pages=500}}</ref>

[[Avicenna]] (980-1037) agreed that the [[speed of light]] is finite, as he "observed that if the perception of light is due to the emission of some sort of particles by a luminous source, the speed of light must be finite."<ref>[[George Sarton]], ''Introduction to the History of Science'', Vol. 1, p. 710.</ref> [[Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī]] (973-1048) also agreed that light has a finite speed, and he was the first to discover that the speed of light is much faster than the [[speed of sound]].<ref name=Biruni/> [[Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi]] (1236-1311) and [[Kamāl al-Dīn al-Fārisī]] (1260-1320) gave the first correct explanations for the [[rainbow]] phenomenon.<ref>{{MacTutor|id=Al-Farisi|title=Al-Farisi}}</ref>

In [[mechanics]], [[Ja'far Muhammad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir]] (800-873) of the [[Banū Mūsā]] hypothesized that [[Astronomical object|heavenly bodies]] and [[celestial spheres]] were subject to the same [[Physical law|laws of physics]] as [[Earth]],<ref name=Saliba/> and in his ''Astral Motion'' and ''The Force of Attraction'', he also hypothesized that there was a [[force]] of [[Gravitation|attraction]] between [[Astronomical object|heavenly bodies]].<ref>K. A. Waheed (1978). ''Islam and The Origins of Modern Science'', p. 27. Islamic Publication Ltd., Lahore.</ref> [[Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī]] (973-1048), and later [[al-Khazini]], developed [[experiment]]al [[scientific method]]s for mechanics, especially the fields of [[statics]] and [[dynamics]], particularly for determining [[specific weight]]s, such as those based on the theory of [[balance]]s and [[Weighing scale|weighing]]. Muslim physicists unified statics and dynamics into the science of mechanics, and they combined the fields of [[hydrostatics]] with dynamics to give birth to [[hydrodynamics]]. They applied the mathematical theories of [[ratio]]s and [[infinitesimal]] techniques, and introduced [[algebra]]ic and fine [[calculation]] techniques into the field of statics. They were also generalized the theory of the [[centre of gravity]] and applied it to [[Three-dimensional space|three-dimensional]] bodies. They also founded the theory of the [[wiktionary:ponderable|ponderable]] [[lever]] and created the "science of [[gravity]]" which was later further developed in medieval Europe.<ref>Mariam Rozhanskaya and I. S. Levinova (1996), "Statics", p. 642, in {{Harv|Morelon|Rashed|1996|pp=614-642}}: {{quote|"Using a whole body of mathematical methods (not only those inherited from the antique theory of ratios and infinitesimal techniques, but also the methods of the contemporary algebra and fine calculation techniques), Arabic scientists raised statics to a new, higher level. The classical results of Archimedes in the theory of the centre of gravity were generalized and applied to three-dimensional bodies, the theory of ponderable lever was founded and the 'science of gravity' was created and later further developed in medieval Europe. The phenomena of statics were studied by using the dynamic apporach so that two trends - statics and dynamics - turned out to be inter-related withina single science, mechanics. The combination of the dynamic apporach with Archimedean hydrostatics gave birth to a direction in science which may be called medieval hydrodynamics. [...] Numerous fine experimental methods were developed for determining the specific weight, which were based, in particular, on the theory of balances and weighing. The classical works of al-Biruni and al-Khazini can by right be considered as the beginning of the application of experimental methods in [[medieval science]]."}}</ref> Al-Biruni also theorized that [[acceleration]] is connected with non-uniform motion.<ref name=Biruni/>

In mechanics, [[Ibn al-Haytham]] discussed the theory of [[Gravitation|attraction]] between [[mass]]es, and it seems that he was aware of the [[Magnitude (mathematics)|magnitude]] of [[acceleration]] due to [[gravity]], and he stated that the heavenly bodies "were accountable to the [[Physical law|laws of physics]]".<ref>Duhem, Pierre (1908, 1969). ''To Save the Phenomena: An Essay on the Idea of Physical theory from Plato to Galileo'', p. 28. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.</ref> Ibn al-Haytham also enunciated the law of [[inertia]] when he stated that a body moves [[perpetual motion|perpetually]] unless an external force stops it or changes its direction of motion.<ref name=Bizri>Dr. [[Nader El-Bizri]], "Ibn al-Haytham or Alhazen", in Josef W. Meri (2006), ''Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopaedia'', Vol. II, p. 343-345, [[Routledge]], New York, London.</ref> He also developed the concept of [[momentum]],<ref>Seyyed [[Hossein Nasr]], "The achievements of Ibn Sina in the field of science and his contributions to its philosophy", ''Islam & Science'', December 2003.</ref> though he did not quantify this concept mathematically. [[Avicenna]] (980-1037) developed the concept of [[momentum]], referring to [[impetus]] as being proportional to [[weight]] times [[velocity]].<ref name=Sayili>A. Sayili (1987), "Ibn Sīnā and Buridan on the Motion of the Projectile", ''Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences'' '''500''' (1), p. 477–482:
{{quote|"Thus he considered impetus as proportional to weight times velocity. In other words, his conception of impetus comes very close to the concept of momentum of Newtonian mechanics."}}</ref> His theory of motion was also consistent with the concept of [[inertia]] in [[classical mechanics]].<ref name=Sayili/>

In 1121, [[al-Khazini]], in ''The Book of the Balance of Wisdom'', proposed that the [[gravity]] and [[gravitational potential energy]] of a body varies depending on its distance from the centre of the Earth,<ref>Mariam Rozhanskaya and I. S. Levinova (1996), "Statics", p. 621, in {{Harv|Morelon|Rashed|1996|pp=614-642}}</ref> and in [[statics]], he clearly differentiated between [[force]], [[mass]] and [[weight]].<ref>Salah Zaimeche PhD (2005). [http://www.muslimheritage.com/uploads/Merv.pdf Merv], p. 5-7. Foundation for Science Technology and Civilization.</ref> [[Ibn Bajjah|Avempace]] (d. 1138) argued that there is always a [[Reaction (physics)|reaction]] force for every force exerted,<ref>[[Shlomo Pines]] (1964), "La dynamique d’Ibn Bajja", in ''Mélanges Alexandre Koyré'', I, 442-468 [462, 468], Paris
<br />([[cf.]] Abel B. Franco (October 2003), "Avempace, Projectile Motion, and Impetus Theory", ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' '''64''' (4): 521-546 [543])</ref> though he did not refer to the reaction force as being equal to the exerted force.<ref>Abel B. Franco (October 2003), "Avempace, Projectile Motion, and Impetus Theory", ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' '''64''' (4):521-546 [543])</ref> His theory of motion had an important influence on later physicists like [[Galileo Galilei]].<ref>Ernest A. Moody (1951). "Galileo and Avempace: The Dynamics of the Leaning Tower Experiment (I)", ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' '''12''' (2): 163-193 [.</ref> [[Hibat Allah Abu'l-Barakat al-Baghdaadi]] (1080-1165) wrote a critique of [[Aristotelian physics]] entitled ''al-Mu'tabar'', where he negated [[Aristotle]]'s idea that a constant [[force]] produces uniform motion, as he theorized that a force applied continuously produces [[acceleration]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia  |last=[[Shlomo Pines]]  |title=Abu'l-Barakāt al-Baghdādī , Hibat Allah  | encyclopedia = [[Dictionary of Scientific Biography]]  |volume=1  |pages=26-28   |publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons  |location=New York  |date=1970  |isbn=0684101149}}
<br />([[cf.]] Abel B. Franco (October 2003). "Avempace, Projectile Motion, and Impetus Theory", ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' '''64''' (4), p. 521-546 [528].)</ref> He also described acceleration as the rate of change of [[velocity]].<ref>A. C. Crombie, ''Augustine to Galileo 2'', p. 67.</ref> [[Averroes]] (1126–1198) defined and measured [[force]] as "the rate at which [[Mechanical work|work]] is done in changing the [[Kinetic energy|kinetic]] condition of a material [[Physical body|body]]"<ref>Ernest A. Moody (June 1951). "Galileo and Avempace: The Dynamics of the Leaning Tower Experiment (II)", ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' '''12''' (3), p. 375-422 [375].</ref> and correctly argued "that the effect and measure of force is change in the kinetic condition of a materially [[Friction|resistant]] [[mass]]."<ref>Ernest A. Moody (June 1951). "Galileo and Avempace: The Dynamics of the Leaning Tower Experiment (II)", ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' '''12''' (3), p. 375-422 [380].</ref> In the early 16th century, [[al-Birjandi]] developed a hypothesis similar to "circular inertia."<ref name=Ragep/> The Muslim developments in mechanics laid the foundations for the later development of [[classical mechanics]] in early modern Europe.<ref>Mariam Rozhanskaya and I. S. Levinova (1996), "Statics", p. 642, in {{Harv|Morelon|Rashed|1996|pp=614-642}}: {{quote|"Arabic statics was an essential link in the progress of world science. It played an important part in the prehistory of classical mechanics in medieval Europe. Without it classical mechanics proper could probably not have been created."}}</ref>

=== Zoology ===
{{see|Islamic medicine|Early Islamic philosophy}}

In the [[zoology]] field of [[biology]], Muslim biologists developed theories on [[evolution]] which were widely taught in medieval Islamic schools. [[John William Draper]], a contemporary of [[Charles Darwin]], considered the "Mohammedan theory of evolution" to be developed "much farther than we are disposed to do, extending them even to [[Inorganic compound|inorganic]] or [[mineral]] things." According to [[al-Khazini]], ideas on evolution were widespread among "common people" in the Islamic world by the 12th century.<ref>[[John William Draper]] (1878). ''History of the Conflict Between Religion and Science'', p. 154-155, 237. ISBN 1-60303-096-4.</ref>

The first Muslim biologist to develop a theory on evolution was [[al-Jahiz]] (781-869). He wrote on the effects of the environment on the likelihood of an animal to survive, and he first described the [[The Origin of Species#Struggle for existence, and natural selection|struggle for existence]].<ref>Conway Zirkle (1941). Natural Selection before the "Origin of Species", ''Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society'' '''84''' (1), p. 71-123.</ref><ref>Mehmet Bayrakdar (Third Quarter, 1983). "Al-Jahiz And the Rise of Biological Evolutionism", ''The Islamic Quarterly''. [[London]].</ref> Al-Jahiz was also the first to discuss [[food chain]]s,<ref>Frank N. Egerton, "A History of the Ecological Sciences, Part 6: Arabic Language Science - Origins and Zoological", ''Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America'', April 2002: 142-146 [143]</ref>
and was also an early adherent of [[environmental determinism]], arguing that the environment can determine the physical characteristics of the inhabitants of a certain community and that the origins of different [[human skin color]]s is the result of the environment.<ref>Lawrence I. Conrad (1982), "Taun and Waba: Conceptions of Plague and Pestilence in Early Islam", ''Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient'' '''25''' (3), pp. 268-307 [278].</ref>

[[Ibn al-Haytham]] wrote a book in which he argued for [[evolutionism]] (although not natural selection), and numerous other Islamic scholars and scientists, such as [[Ibn Miskawayh]], the [[Brethren of Purity]], [[al-Khazini]], [[Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī]], [[Nasir al-Din Tusi]], and [[Ibn Khaldun]], discussed and developed these ideas. Translated into Latin, these works began to appear in the West after the [[Renaissance]] and appear to have had an impact on Western science.

[[Ibn Miskawayh]]'s ''al-Fawz al-Asghar'' and the [[Brethren of Purity]]'s ''[[Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity]]'' (''The Epistles of Ikhwan al-Safa'') expressed evolutionary ideas on how species evolved from [[matter]], into [[vapor]], and then [[water]], then [[mineral]]s, then [[plant]]s, then [[animal]]s, then [[ape]]s, and then [[human]]s. These works were known in Europe and likely had an influence on [[Darwinism]].<ref name=Hamidullah>[[Muhammad Hamidullah]] and Afzal Iqbal (1993), ''The Emergence of Islam: Lectures on the Development of Islamic World-view, Intellectual Tradition and Polity'', p. 143-144. Islamic Research Institute, Islamabad.</ref>

== Sains masyarakat ==
{{main|Sosiologi Islam|Sosiologi Islam Awal}}
{{see|Ekonomi Islam sedunia|Historiografi Islam awal}}

=== Sosiologi dan Antropologi ===

[[Fail:Ibn Khaldoun.jpg|thumb|[[Ibn Khaldun]], dianggap seorang pelopor beberapa [[sains masyarakat]] seperti [[demografi]], [[ekonomik]], [[sosiologi]], [[historiography]], [[sejarah budaya]] dan [[falsafah sejarah]].]]

Significant contributions were made to the [[social sciences]] in the Islamic civilization. [[Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī]] (973-1048) has been described as "the first [[anthropology|anthropologist]]".<ref name=Ahmed>Akbar S. Ahmed (1984). "Al-Beruni: The First Anthropologist", ''RAIN'' '''60''', p. 9-10.</ref> He wrote detailed comparative studies on the [[anthropology]] of peoples, religions and cultures in the [[Middle East]], [[Mediterranean Basin|Mediterranean]] and [[South Asia]]. Biruni's anthropology of religion was only possible for a scholar deeply immersed in the lore of other nations.<ref>J. T. Walbridge (1998). "Explaining Away the Greek Gods in Islam", ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' '''59''' (3), p. 389-403.</ref> 
Biruni has also been praised by several scholars for his [[Islam]]ic anthropology.<ref>Richard Tapper (1995). "Islamic Anthropology" and the "Anthropology of Islam", ''Anthropological Quarterly'' '''68''' (3), Anthropological Analysis and Islamic Texts, p. 185-193.</ref> Biruni is also considered a pioneer of [[Indology]].<ref>Zafarul-Islam Khan, [http://milligazette.com/Archives/15-1-2000/Art5.htm At The Threshhold Of A New Millennium – II], ''The Milli Gazette''.</ref> [[Al-Saghani]] (d. 990) wrote some of the earliest comments on the [[history of science]], which included a comparison between the more theoretical approach of the "ancients" (including the [[ancient Egypt]]ians, [[Babylonia]]ns, [[Greeks]] and [[History of India|Indians]]) to that of the more [[experiment]]al approach of the "modern scholars" (the Muslim scientists of his time).<ref>[[Franz Rosenthal]] (1950). "Al-Asturlabi and as-Samaw'al on Scientific Progress", ''Osiris'' '''9''', p. 555-564 [559].</ref> [[Al-Muqaddasi]] (b. 945) also made contributions to the social sciences.

[[Ibn Khaldun]] (1332-1406) is considered a forerunner of several [[social sciences]]<ref>Akbar Ahmed (2002). "Ibn Khaldun’s Understanding of Civilizations and the Dilemmas of Islam and the West Today", ''Middle East Journal'' '''56''' (1), p. 25.</ref> such as [[demography]],<ref name=Mowlana>H. Mowlana (2001). "Information in the Arab World", ''Cooperation South Journal'' '''1'''.</ref> [[cultural history]],<ref>Mohamad Abdalla (Summer 2007). "Ibn Khaldun on the Fate of Islamic Science after the 11th Century", ''Islam & Science'' '''5''' (1), p. 61-70.</ref> [[historiography]],<ref>Salahuddin Ahmed (1999). ''A Dictionary of Muslim Names''. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. ISBN 1-85065-356-9.</ref> the [[philosophy of history]],<ref name=Akhtar>Dr. S. W. Akhtar (1997). "The Islamic Concept of Knowledge", ''Al-Tawhid: A Quarterly Journal of Islamic Thought & Culture'' '''12''' (3).</ref> [[sociology]],<ref name=Mowlana/><ref name=Akhtar/> and [[economics]].<ref>I. M. Oweiss (1988), "Ibn Khaldun, the Father of Economics", ''Arab Civilization: Challenges and Responses'', [[New York University Press]], ISBN 0-88706-698-4.</ref><ref>Jean David C. Boulakia (1971), "Ibn Khaldun: A Fourteenth-Century Economist", ''The Journal of Political Economy'' '''79''' (5): 1105-1118.</ref> He is best known for his ''[[Muqaddimah]]'' ([[Latin]]ized as ''Prolegomenon''). Some of the ideas he introduced in the ''Muqaddimah'' include [[social philosophy]], [[social conflict]] theories, [[Structural cohesion|social cohesion]], [[social capital]], [[social network]]s, [[dialectic]]s, the [[Laffer curve]], the [[historical method]], [[systemic bias]], the rise and fall of [[civilization]]s, [[feedback]] loops, [[systems theory]], and [[corporate social responsibility]]. He also introduced the scientific method into the social sciences.<ref name=Franz>[[Ibn Khaldun]], Franz Rosenthal, N. J. Dawood (1967), ''The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History'', p. x, [[Princeton University Press]], ISBN 0-691-01754-9.</ref>

[[Franz Rosenthal]] wrote in the ''History of Muslim Historiography'':
{{quote|"Muslim [[historiography]] has at all times been united by the closest ties with the general development of scholarship in Islam, and the position of historical knowledge in MusIim education has exercised a decisive influence upon the intellectual level of historicai writing....The Muslims achieved a definite advance beyond previous historical writing in the [[sociology|sociological]] understanding of [[history]] and the systematisation of historiography. The development of modern historical writing seems to have gained considerably in speed and substance through the utilization of a Muslim Literature which enabled western historians, from the seventeenth century on, to see a large section of the world through foreign eyes. The Muslim historiography helped indirectly and modestly to shape present day historical thinking."<ref>[http://members.tripod.com/~salems2/historiography.htm Historiography]. The Islamic Scholar.</ref>}}

=== Psychology ===
<!-- fair use image with no rationale for this article.  Hopefully a free one can be found. [[Image:Rhazes.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Al-Razi]] (Rhazes), a pioneer of [[pediatrics]], made significant advances in [[psychiatry]] and wrote early texts on [[psychotherapy]], [[mental health]], and [[mental disorder]]s.]]-->
{{main|Islamic psychology}}

"Islamic [[psychology]]"<ref>{{citation|title=Health and Illness from an Islamic Perspective|first=Majed A.|last=Ashy|journal=Journal of Religion and Health|volume=38|issue=3|date=Fall 1999|pages=241–57|doi=10.1023/A:1022984718794}}</ref> or ''Ilm-al Nafsiat''<ref name=Amber-358/> refers to the study of the ''[[Nafs]]'' ("[[Self (philosophy)|self]]" or "[[Psyche (psychology)|psyche]]")<ref name=Talib/> in the Islamic world and encompassed a "broad range of topics including the ''[[qalb]]'' (heart), the ''[[ruh]]'' (spirit), the ''[['Aql|aql]]'' (intellect) and ''irada'' ([[Will (philosophy)|will]])."<ref name=Amber-358>Amber Haque (2004), "Psychology from Islamic Perspective: Contributions of Early Muslim Scholars and Challenges to Contemporary Muslim Psychologists", ''Journal of Religion and Health'' '''43''' (4): 357-377 [358]</ref> [[Al-Kindi]] (Alkindus) was the first to experiment with [[music therapy]],<ref name=Saoud>{{cite web |url=http://www.muslimheritage.com/uploads/Music2.pdf |title=The Arab Contribution to the Music of the Western World |accessdate=2007-01-12 |format=PDF |author=Saoud, R}}</ref> and [[Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari]] was the first to practice '''al-‘ilaj al-nafs'' ("[[psychotherapy]]").<ref name=Amber>Amber Haque (2004), "Psychology from Islamic Perspective: Contributions of Early Muslim Scholars and Challenges to Contemporary Muslim Psychologists", ''Journal of Religion and Health'' '''43''' (4): 357-377 [361-363]</ref> The concepts of ''al-tibb al-ruhani'' ("[[mental health|spiritual health]]") and "mental hygiene" were introduced by [[Ahmed ibn Sahl al-Balkhi]],<ref name=Talib>Nurdeen Deuraseh and Mansor Abu Talib (2005), "Mental health in Islamic medical tradition", ''The International Medical Journal'' '''4''' (2), p. 76-79.</ref> who was "probably the first [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]] and [[Medical psychology|medical psychologist]] to clearly differentiate between [[neuroses]] and [[psychoses]], to classify neurotic disorders, and to show in detail how rational and spiritual [[Cognitive therapy|cognitive therapies]] can be used to treat each one of his classified disorders."<ref name=Amber/> [[Al-Razi]] (Rhazes) made significant advances in [[psychiatry]] in his landmark texts ''El-Mansuri'' and ''Al-Hawi'', which presented definitions, symptoms and treatments for [[mental illnesses]] and problems related to mental health. He also ran the [[psychiatric ward]] of a [[Baghdad]] hospital. Such institutions could not exist in Europe at the time because of fear of [[demonic possession]]s.<ref name=Syed>Ibrahim B. Syed PhD, "Islamic Medicine: 1000 years ahead of its times", ''Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine'', 2002 (2), p. 2-9 [7].</ref>

[[Al-Farabi]] wrote the first treatises on [[social psychology]] and dealt with [[consciousness]] studies.<ref name=Amber/> In [[al-Andalus]], [[Abulcasis]] pioneered  [[neurosurgery]], while [[Ibn Zuhr]] (Avenzoar) gave the first accurate descriptions on [[neurological]] disorders and contributed to modern [[neuropharmacology]], and [[Averroes]] suggested the existence of [[Parkinson's disease]].<ref>Martin-Araguz, A.; Bustamante-Martinez, C.; Fernandez-Armayor, Ajo V.; Moreno-Martinez, J. M. (2002). "Neuroscience in al-Andalus and its influence on medieval scholastic medicine", ''Revista de neurología'' '''34''' (9), p. 877-892.</ref> [[Ali ibn Abbas al-Majusi]] discussed  "the relationship between certain psychological events to the physiological changes in the body",<ref name=Talib/> while [[Avicenna]] anticipated the [[word association]] test,<ref name=Syed/> discussed [[neuropsychiatry]] in ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'',<ref>S Safavi-Abbasi, LBC Brasiliense, RK Workman (2007), "The fate of medical knowledge and the neurosciences during the time of Genghis Khan and the Mongolian Empire", ''Neurosurgical Focus'' '''23''' (1), E13, p. 3.</ref> and described the first [[thought experiment]]s on [[self-awareness]] and [[self-consciousness]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Nasr|first=Seyyed Hossein|authorlink=Seyyed Hossein Nasr|coauthors=[[Oliver Leaman]]|title=History of Islamic Philosophy|pages=315 & 1022-1023|publisher=Routledge|year=1996|isbn=0415131596}}</ref>

[[Ibn al-Haytham]] (Alhazen) is considered by some a forerunner of [[experimental psychology]],<ref name=Khaleefa>Omar Khaleefa (Summer 1999). "Who Is the Founder of Psychophysics and Experimental Psychology?", ''American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences'' '''16''' (2).</ref> for his experimental work on the psychology of [[visual perception]] in the ''[[Book of Optics]]'',<ref name=Steffens/> where he was the first [[scientist]] to argue that vision occurs in the brain, rather than the eyes. He pointed out that personal experience has an effect on what people see and how they see, and that vision and perception are subjective.<ref name=Steffens>Bradley Steffens (2006). ''Ibn al-Haytham: First Scientist'', Chapter 5. Morgan Reynolds Publishing. ISBN 1-59935-024-6.</ref> He was also the first to combine physics and psychology to form psychophysics, and his investigations and experiments on psychology and visual perception included [[sensation]], variations in [[sensitivity]], sensation of [[touch]], [[perception]] of colours, perception of [[darkness]], the psychological explanation of the [[moon illusion]], and [[binocular vision]].<ref name=Khaleefa/> [[Biruni]] was also a pioneer of [[experimental psychology]], as he was the first to [[empirical]]ly describe the concept of [[reaction time]].<ref>[[Muhammad Iqbal]], ''[[The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam]]'', "The Spirit of Muslim Culture" ([[cf.]] [http://www.allamaiqbal.com/works/prose/english/reconstruction] and [http://www.witness-pioneer.org/vil/Books/MI_RRTI/chapter_05.htm])</ref>

== Historiography of Islamic science ==
{{see also|Islam and science|Historiography of early Islam|Early Muslim sociology}}

The history of science in the Islamic world, like all history, is filled with questions of interpretation. Historians of science generally consider that the study of Islamic science, like all history, must be seen within the particular circumstances of time and place.  [[A. I. Sabra]] opened a recent overview of Arabic science by noting, "I trust no one would wish to contest the proposition that all of history is local history ... and the history of science is no exception."<ref>A. I. Sabra, Situating Arab Science: Locality versus Essence," ''Isis'', 87(1996):654-70; reprinted in Michael H. Shank, ed., The Scientific Enterprise in Antiquity and the Middle Ages," (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Pr., 2000), pp. 215-231.</ref>

Some scholars avoid such local historical approaches and seek to identify essential relations between [[Islam and science]] that apply at all times and places. The [[Pakistan]]i physicist, [[Pervez Hoodbhoy]], portrayed "religious fanaticism to be the dominant relation of religion and science in Islam". Sociologist Toby Huff claimed that Islam lacked the "rationalist view of man and nature" that became dominant in Europe. The Persian philosopher and historian of science, Seyyed [[Hossein Nasr]] saw a more positive connection in "an Islamic science that was spiritual and antisecular" which "point[ed] the way to a new 'Islamic science' that would avoid the dehumanizing and despiritualizing mistakes of Western science."<ref>F. Jamil Ragep, "Freeing Astronomy from Philosophy: An Aspect of Islamic Influence on Science," ''Osiris'', topical issue on ''Science in Theistic Contexts: Cognitive Dimensions'', n.s. 16(2001):49-50, note 3</ref><ref>{{citation|last=Nasr|first=Seyyed Hossein|author-link=Hossein Nasr|chapter=The Principles of Islam|title=Science and Civilization in Islam|year=1968|publisher=[[Harvard University Press]]|url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/med/nasr.html|accessdate=2008-02-03}}</ref> 

Nasr identified a distinctly Muslim approach to science, flowing from Islamic monotheism and the related theological prohibition against portraying graven images. In science, this is reflected in a philosophical disinterest in describing individual material objects, their properties and characteristics and instead a concern with the ideal, the Platonic form, which exists in matter as an expression of the will of the Creator. Thus one can "see why mathematics was to make such a strong appeal to the Muslim: its abstract nature furnished the bridge that Muslims were seeking between multiplicity and unity."<ref>[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/med/nasr.html Seyyed Hossein Nasr, ''Science and Civilization in Islam''.]</ref>

Some historians of science, however, question the value of drawing boundaries that label the sciences, and the scientists who practice them, in specific cultural, civilizational, or linguistic terms. Consider the case of [[Nasir al-Din Tusi]] (1201–1274), who invented his mathematical theorem, the [[Tusi-couple|Tusi Couple]], while he was director of [[Maragheh]] observatory. Tusi's patron and founder of the observatory was the non-Muslim [[Mongol]] conqueror of Baghdad, [[Hulagu Khan]]. The Tusi-couple "was first encountered in an Arabic text, written by a man who spoke Persian at home, and used that theorem, like many other astronomers who followed him and were all working in the "Arabic/Islamic" world, in order to reform classical Greek astronomy, and then have his theorem in turn be translated into Byzantine Greek towards the beginning of the fourteenth century, only to be used later by Copernicus and others in Latin texts of Renaissance Europe."<ref>[[George Saliba]] (1999). [http://www.columbia.edu/%7Egas1/project/visions/case1/sci.1.html Whose Science is Arabic Science in Renaissance Europe?]</ref>

== Lihat pula ==
*[[Garis masa sains dan teknologi Islam]]
*[[Senarai ahli sains Islam]]
**[[Senarai ahli sains dan sarjana Arab]]
**[[Senarai ahli sains dan sarjana Iran]]
**[[Senarai ahli falsafah dan ahli sains Turki]]
*[[Zaman Kegemilangan Islam]]
**[[Falsafah Islam Awal]]
**[[Reka cipta dalam dunia Islam]]
**[[Revolusi Pertanian Islam]]
**[[Zaman Kegemilangan budaya Yahudi di Sepanyol]]
*[[Kajian Islam]]
*[[Terjemahan bahasa Latin pada abad ke-12]]
*[[Kesarjanaan]]
*[[Al-Quran dan sains]]

== Nota ==
{{reflist|3}}

== Rujukan ==
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* d'Alverny, Marie-Thérèse.  "Translations and Translators", in Robert L. Benson and Giles Constable, eds., ''Renaissance and Renewal in the Twelfth Century'', p. 421-462. Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Pr., 1982.
*{{Harvard reference |last=Eglash |first=Ron |year=1999 |title=African Fractals: Modern Computing and Indigenous Design |publisher=Rutgers University Press |isbn=0-8135-2614-0}}
*{{Harvard reference
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*{{cite book |last=Graham |first=Mark |title=How Islam Created the Modern World |publisher=Amana Publication |year=2006 |id=ISBN 1-59008-043-2}}
*{{cite book |last=Hobson |first=John M. |authorlink=John Hobson |title=The Eastern Origins of Western Civilisation |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2004 |id=ISBN 0-521-54724-5}}
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*{{Harvard reference |last=Huff |first=Toby E. |title=The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China, and the West |year=2003 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |id=ISBN 0-521-52994-8}}
* Joseph, George G. (2000). ''The Crest of the Peacock''. [[Princeton University Press]]. ISBN 0-691-00659-8.
* Katz, Victor J. (1998). ''A History of Mathematics: An Introduction''. [[Addison Wesley]]. ISBN 0-321-01618-1.
*{{cite book |last=Levere |first=Trevor Harvey |title=Transforming Matter: A History of Chemistry from Alchemy to the Buckyball |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |year=2001 |id=ISBN 0-8018-6610-3}}
*{{cite book |last=Mintz |first=Sidney W. |title=Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in Modern History |year=1986 |publisher=Penguin (Non-Classics) | edition=Reprint |id=ISBN 978-0-14-009233-2}}
*{{Harvard reference |last1=Morelon |first1=Régis |last2=Rashed |first2=Roshdi |year=1996 |title=[[Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science]] |volume=3 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=0415124107}}
*{{cite book |last=Phillips |first=William D. |authorlink=William D. Phillips |coauthors=Carla Rahn Phillips, Jr. Phillips |title=The Worlds of Christopher Columbus |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1992|id=ISBN 0-521-44652-X}}
*{{Harvard reference
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*{{Harvard reference |last=Turner |first=Howard R. |title=Science in Medieval Islam: An Illustrated Introduction | 
publisher=University of Texas Press |year=1997 |isbn=0292781490}}

== Bacaan lanjut ==
<div class="references-2column">
*{{cite book |last=Deen |first=S M |year=2007 |title=Science Under Islam: Rise, Decline, Revival |publisher=LULU|id=ISBN 978-1-84799-942-9}} More information at [http://www.scienceunderislam.com]
* {{cite book|first=Ali Abdullah al-|last=Daffa|first2=J.J.|last2=Stroyls|title=Studies in the exact sciences in medieval Islam|publisher=Wiley|location=New York|year=1984|id=ISBN 0-471-90320-5}}
*{{cite book |last=Hogendijk |first=Jan P. |coauthors=Abdelhamid I. Sabra |year=2003 |title=The Enterprise of Science in Islam: New Perspectives|publisher=MIT Press|id=ISBN 0-262-19482-1}} Reviewed by Robert G. Morrison at [http://www.ircps.org/publications/aestimatio/pdf/2004-02-02_Morrison.pdf]
* [[Donald Routledge Hill|Hill, Donald Routledge]], ''Islamic Science And Engineering'', Edinburgh University Press (1993), ISBN 0-7486-0455-3
* Huff, Toby E. (1993, 2nd edition 2003), ''The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China and the West''. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-52994-8. Reviewed by [[George Saliba]] at [http://www.riifs.org/review_articles/review_v1no2_sliba.htm Seeking the Origins of Modern Science?]
* Huff, Toby E. (2000), "Science and Metaphysics in the Three Religions of the Books", ''Intellectual Discourse'' '''8''' (2): 173-198.
*{{cite journal|last=Kennedy|first=Edward S.|title=The Arabic Heritage in the Exact Sciences|journal=Al-Abhath|volume=23|year=1970|pages=327–344}}
*{{cite book|first=Edward S.|last=Kennedy|title=Studies in the Islamic Exact Sciences|year=1983|publisher=Syracuse University Press|id=ISBN 0-8156-6067-7}}
*{{Harvard reference
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 }}
*{{cite book|first=George|last=Saliba|authorlink=George Saliba|title=Islamic Science and the Making of the European Renaissance|publisher=The MIT Press|year=2007|id=ISBN 0-262-19557-7}}
*{{cite book|last=Seyyed Hossein Nasr|title=Islamic Science: An Illustrated Study|year=1976|publisher=Kazi Publications|id=ISBN 1-56744-312-5}}
*{{cite book|last=Seyyed Hossein Nasr|title=Science & Civilization in Islam|year=2003|edition=2nd|publisher=Islamic Texts Society|id=ISBN 1-903682-40-1}}
*{{cite book|last=Sezgin|first=Fuat|title=Geschichte Des Arabischen Schrifttums '''1''': Quranwissenschaften, Hadit, Geschichte, Fiqh, Dogmatik, Mystik|year=1997|language=German|publisher=Brill|id=ISBN 90-04-04153-2}}
*{{cite book|last=Sezgin|first=Fuat|title=Geschichte Des Arabischen Schrifttums '''2''': Poesie. Bis CA. 430 H|year=1997|language=German|publisher=Brill|id=ISBN 90-04-03131-6}}
*{{cite book|last=Sezgin|first=Fuat|title=Geschichte Des Arabischen Schrifttums '''3''': Medizin-Pharmazie Zoologie-Tierheilkunde|year=1997|language=German|publisher=Brill|id=ISBN 90-04-03131-6}}
*{{cite book|last=Sezgin|first=Fuat|title=Geschichte Des Arabischen Schrifttums '''4''': Alchimie-Chemie Botanik-Agrikultur|year=1997|language=German|publisher=Brill|id=ISBN 90-04-02009-8}}
*{{cite book|last=Sezgin|first=Fuat|title=Geschichte Des Arabischen Schrifttums '''5''': Mathematik|year=1997|language=German|publisher=Brill|id=ISBN 90-04-04153-2}}
*{{cite book|last=Sezgin|first=Fuat|title=Geschichte Des Arabischen Schrifttums '''6''': Astronomie|year=1997|language=German|publisher=Brill|id=ISBN 90-04-05878-8}}
*{{cite book|last=Sezgin|first=Fuat|title=Geschichte Des Arabischen Schrifttums '''7''': Astrologie-Meteorologie Und Verwandtes|year=1997|language=German|publisher=Brill|id=ISBN 90-04-06159-2}}
*{{cite book|last=Sezgin|first=Fuat|title=Geschichte Des Arabischen Schrifttums '''8''': Lexikographie. Bis CA. 430 H|year=1997|language=German|publisher=Brill|id=ISBN 90-04-06867-8}}
*{{cite book|last=Sezgin|first=Fuat|title=Geschichte Des Arabischen Schrifttums '''9''': Grammatik. Bis CA. 430 H|year=1997|language=German|publisher=Brill|id=ISBN 90-04-07261-6}}
*{{cite book|last=Sezgin|first=Fuat|title=Geschichte Des Arabischen Schrifttums '''X''': Mathematische Geographie und Kartographie im Islam und ihr Fortleben im Abendland. Historische Darstellung. Teil 1|year=2000|language=German|location=Frankfurt am Main}}
*{{cite book|last=Sezgin|first=Fuat|title=Geschichte Des Arabischen Schrifttums '''XI''': Mathematische Geographie und Kartographie im Islam und ihr Fortleben im Abendland. Historische Darstellung. Teil 2|year=2000|language=German|location=Frankfurt am Main}}
*{{cite book|last=Sezgin|first=Fuat|title=Geschichte Des Arabischen Schrifttums '''XII''': Mathematische Geographie und Kartographie im Islam und ihr Fortleben im Abendland. Historische Darstellung. Teil 3|year=2000|language=German|location=Frankfurt am Main}}
* {{cite book|last=Suter|first=Heinrich|title=Die Mathematiker und Astronomen der Araber und ihre Werke|series=Abhandlungen zur Geschichte der Mathematischen Wissenschaften Mit Einschluss Ihrer Anwendungen, X Heft|location=Leipzig|year=1900}}
</div>

== Pautan luar ==
* Richard Covington, [http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200703/rediscovering.arabic.science.htm Rediscovering Arabic Science], ''[[Saudi Aramco World]]'', May-June 2007
*{{cite web|url=http://www.columbia.edu/~gas1/project/visions/case1/sci.1.html|title=Whose Science is Arabic Science in Renaissance Europe?|first=George|last=Saliba|authorlink=George Saliba}}
*Habibi, Golareh. [http://www.scq.ubc.ca/?p=574 Review article], ''Science Creative Quarterly''.
*[http://www.classicalislam.com/pages/history/heroes.htm An interactive guide to Muslim scientists whose multi-disciplinary contributions sparked the flame of learning and productivity]
*[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/introduction/woi_knowledge.html Islam, Knowledge, and Science]
*[http://www.history-science-technology.com/ History of Science and Technology in Islam]
* [http://www.cyberistan.org/ Islamic Civilization]
*[http://www.smi.uib.no/paj/Stenberg.html The Islamization of science or the marginalization of Islam]
*[http://www.muslimheritage.com/ Muslimheritage]
*[http://www.1001inventions.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=main.viewSection&intSectionID=309 1001inventions]
*[http://www.science-islam.net/sommaire.php3?lang=en Science and religion in Islam]
*Keith L. Moore, {{YouTube|id=Rb0uZefwQnc|title=The Developing Human}}

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