Revision 286873 of "Asian elephant" on siwiki

{{db-foreign|si:Asian elephant}}
{{Taxobox
| name = ආසියානු අලි<ref name=MSW>{{MSW3 Proboscidea |id=11500004 |page=90}}</ref>
| status = EN
| status_system = iucn3.1
| status_ref = <ref name=iucn/>
| image = Elephas maximus (Bandipur).jpg
| image_caption=A male Asian elephant in the wild at [[Bandipur National Park]] in India
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Proboscidea]]
| familia = [[Elephantidae]]
| genus = ''[[Elephas]]''
| species = '''''E. maximus'''''
| binomial = ''Elephas maximus''
| binomial_authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]]
| range_map = Asian Elephant area.png
| range_map_caption = Asian elephant range<br/>(brown — native, black — origin uncertain)
| fossil_range = Late [[Pliocene]] – recent<ref name=Haynes1993/>
}}

The '''Asian''' or '''Asiatic elephant''' (''Elephas maximus'') is the only living species of the genus ''[[Elephas]]'' and is distributed in [[Southeast Asia]] from [[India]] in the west to [[Borneo]] in the east. Three subspecies are recognized — ''[[Elephas maximus maximus]]'' from [[Sri Lanka]], the [[Indian elephant|Indian elephant or ''E. m. indicus'']] from mainland Asia, and ''[[Sumatran Elephant|E. m. sumatranus]]'' from the island of [[Sumatra]].<ref name=MSW/> Asian elephants are the largest living land animals in [[Asia]].<ref name="Shoshani82">{{cite journal |author=Shoshani, J, Eisenberg, J. F. |year=1982 |title=Elephas maximus |journal=Mammalian Species |volume=182 |pages=1–8 |url=http://www.science.smith.edu/msi/pdf/i0076-3519-182-01-0001.pdf |jstor=3504045 |doi=10.2307/3504045}}</ref>

Since 1986, ''E. maximus'' has been listed as [[endangered species|endangered]] by [[IUCN]] as the population has declined by at least 50% over the last three generations, estimated to be 60–75 years. The species is pre-eminently threatened by habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation.<ref name=iucn>{{IUCN |assessors=Choudhury, A., Lahiri Choudhury, D.K., Desai, A., Duckworth, J.W., Easa, P.S., Johnsingh, A.J.T., Fernando, P., Hedges, S., Gunawardena, M., Kurt, F., Karanth, U., Lister, A., Menon, V., Riddle, H., Rübel, A., Wikramanayake, E. |year=2008 |id=7140 |taxon=Elephas maximus |version=2010.4 }}</ref> In 2003, the wild population was estimated at between 41,410 and 52,345 individuals. Female captive elephants have lived beyond 60 years when kept in seminatural situations, such as forest camps. In zoos, elephants die at a much younger age and are declining due to a low birth and high death rate.<ref name=Sukumar2003>{{cite book |author= Sukumar, R. |year=2003 |title=The Living Elephants: Evolutionary Ecology, Behavior, and Conservation |publisher=Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK |url=http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=P_IS80OBWTgC&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&ots=VS04CbKb15&sig=yhJWx6IDJ4hE8qRWCVEuBAdqXb4}}</ref>

The genus ''Elephas'' originated in [[Sub-Saharan Africa]] during the [[Pliocene]] ranging throughout Africa into southern Asia.<ref name=Haynes1993>Haynes, G. (1993) [http://books.google.com/books?id=PRrZ-TK91LMC&lpg=PR7&ots=NqPUixL1-h&lr&pg=PA8#v=onepage&q&f=true ''Mammoths, mastodonts, and elephants: biology, behavior, and the fossil record'']. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge</ref>
The earliest indications of [[domestication]] of Asian elephants are engravings on seals of the [[Indus Valley civilization]] dated as third millennium [[Anno Domini|BC]].<ref name=sukumar93>Sukumar, R. (1993) [http://books.google.com/books?id=95MoRwdQlcYC&printsec=frontcover&hl=en#v=onepage&q&f=true ''The Asian Elephant: Ecology and Management''] Second edition. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-43758-X</ref>

== Characteristics ==
[[File:ElephantSkelLyd2.png|thumb|Illustration of an elephant skeleton<ref name=lydekker/>]]
In general, the Asian elephant is smaller than the [[African elephant]] and has the highest body point on the head. The back is convex or level. The [[ear]]s are small with dorsal borders folded laterally. It has up to 20 pairs of ribs and 34 [[caudal vertebrae]]. The feet have more nail-like structures than those of African elephants — five on each forefoot, and four on each hind foot.<ref name="Shoshani82"/>

===Size===
As is common with large animals, the dimensions of the Asian elephant are often exaggerated, on average, the shoulder height of males rarely exceeds {{convert|2.7|m|ft|abbr=on|sigfig=1}} and that of the females, {{convert|2.4|m|ft|abbr=on|sigfig=1}}.<ref name=lydekker>{{cite book |author = Lydekker, R. |year = 1894 |title = The Royal Natural History. Volume 2 |url=http://www.archive.org/stream/royalnaturalhist02lydeuoft#page/542/mode/2up |publisher =Frederick Warne and Co., London}}</ref> Average height of females is {{convert|2.24|m|ft|abbr=on}}, and average weight {{convert|2.72|t|ST|abbr=on}} rarely exceeding {{convert|4.16|t|ST|abbr=on}}. Large bulls weigh up to {{convert|5.4|t|ST|abbr=on}} and are {{convert|3.2|m|ft|abbr=on}} at the shoulder. Length of body and head including trunk is {{convert|5.5|-|6.5|m|ft|abbr=on}} with the tail being {{convert|1.2|-|1.5|m|ft|abbr=on}} long.<ref name="Shoshani82"/> The largest bull elephant ever recorded was shot by the [[Maharajah]] of Susang in the Garo Hills of [[Assam]], [[India]] in 1924, it weighed {{convert|8|t|ST}}, stood {{convert|3.35|m|ft|abbr=on|sigfig=2}} tall at the shoulders and was {{convert|8.06|m|ft|abbr=on}} long from head to tail.<ref>Wood, G.L. (1982) The Guinness book of animal facts and feats. Guinness Superlatives. ISBN 0-85112-235-3</ref> There are reports of larger individuals as tall as {{convert|3.7|m|ft|abbr=on}}.<ref name=lydekker/>

=== Trunk ===
[[File:Asian Elephant, Royal Chitwan National Park.jpg|thumb|left|Indian elephant drinking water]]
The distinctive trunk is an elongation of the nose and upper lip combined; the nostrils are at its tip, which has a one finger-like process. The trunk contains as many as 60,000 muscles, which consist of longitudinal and radiating sets. The longitudinals are mostly superficial and subdivided into anterior, lateral and posterior. The deeper muscles are best seen as numerous distinct [[fasciculi]] in a cross-section of the trunk. The trunk is a multipurpose prehensile organ and highly sensitive, innervated by the [[Maxillary nerve|maxillary division]] of the [[trigeminal nerve]] and by the [[facial nerve]]. The acute sense of smell uses both the trunk and [[Jacobson's organ]]. Elephants use their trunks for breathing, watering, feeding, touching, dusting, sound production and communication, washing, pinching, grasping, defense and offense.<ref name="Shoshani82"/>

The '[[proboscis]]' or trunk consists wholly of muscular and [[membranous tissue]], and is a tapering muscular structure of nearly circular cross-section extending proximally from attachment at the anterior nasal orifice, and ending distally in a tip or finger. The length may vary from {{convert|1.5|to|2|m|in|abbr=on}} or longer depending on the species and age. Four basic muscle masses—the radial, the longitudinal and two oblique layers—and the size and attachments points of the [[tendon]] masses allow the shortening, extension, bending, and twisting movements accounting for the ability to hold, and manipulate loads of up to {{convert|300|kg|lb|abbr=on}}. Muscular and tendinous ability combined with nervous control allows extraordinary strength and agility movements of the trunk, such as sucking and spraying of water or dust and directed air flow blowing.<ref>Rasmussen, L. E. L. (2006) [http://books.google.com/books?id=oCpiZA61tyQC&pg=PA409&ei=YFatTrCOCs_0-gaZkoDwDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&f=false#v=onepage&q&f=false Chapter 32. ''Chemical, Tactile, and Taste Sensory Systems'']. In: Fowler, M. E., Mikota, S. K. ''Biology, medicine, and surgery of elephants''. Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford, UK. ISBN 978-0-8138-0676-1. Page 409 ff.</ref>

The trunk can hold about four litres of water. Elephants will playfully wrestle with each other using their trunks, but generally use their trunks only for gesturing when fighting.<ref>{{cite book |last=Spinage |first=C. A. |year=1994 |title=Elephants |publisher=T & A D Poyser |location=London |isbn=0856610887 }}</ref>

=== Tusks ===
[[File:2010-kabini-tusker-bark.jpg|thumb|Tusker debarking a tree]]
[[elephant tusk|Tusks]] serve to dig for water, salt, and rocks, to debark trees, as levers for maneuvering fallen trees and branches, for work, for display, for [[territorial marking|marking trees]], as weapon for offense and defense, as trunk-rests, as protection for the trunk. They are known to be right or left tusked.<ref name="Shoshani82"/>

Female Asian elephants usually lack [[tusk]]s; if tusks  — in that case called "tushes" — are present, they are barely visible, and only seen when the mouth is open. The [[Tooth enamel|enamel plates]] of the [[molars]] are greater in number and closer together in Asian elephants. Some males may also lack tusks; these individuals are called "filsy makhnas", and are especially common among the Sri Lankan elephant population. Furthermore, the forehead has two hemispherical bulges, unlike the flat front of the African elephant. Unlike African elephants which rarely use their forefeet for anything other than digging or scraping soil, Asian elephants are more agile at using their feet in conjunction with the trunk for manipulating objects. They can sometimes be known for their violent behavior.<ref name="Clutton-Brock">{{cite book |author=Clutton-Brock, J. |title=A Natural History of Domesticated Mammals |year=1987 |pages=208 |isbn=0-521-34697-5 |publisher=British Museum (Natural History) | location = London}}</ref>

A record tusk described by [[George P. Sanderson]] measured {{convert|5|ft|m|abbr=on}} along the curve, with a girth of {{convert|16|in|cm|abbr=on}} at the point of emergence from the jaw, the weight being {{convert|104+1/2|lb|kg|abbr=on}}. This was from an elephant killed by Sir Brooke and measured {{convert|8|ft|m|abbr=on}} in length, and nearly {{convert|17|in|cm|abbr=on}} in circumference, and weighed {{convert|90|lb|kg|abbr=on}}. The tusk's weight was, however, exceeded by the weight of a shorter tusk of about {{convert|6|ft|m|abbr=on}} in length which weighed {{convert|100|lb|kg|abbr=on}}.<ref name=lydekker/>

=== Skin ===
[[File:Elephant - Guruvayur.JPG|thumb|left|Depigmented skin on the forehead and ears of an Asian elephant]]
[[File:Asian Elephant at Corbett National Park4.jpg|thumb|Tusker at Corbett National Park taking a mud bath]]
Skin color is usually gray, and may be masked by soil because of dusting and wallowing. Their wrinkled skin is movable and contains many nerve centers. It is smoother than of African elephants, and may be [[Depigmentation|depigmented]] on the trunk, ears, or neck. The [[epidermis (zoology)|epidermis]] and [[dermis]] of the body average {{convert|18|mm|in|abbr=on}} thick; skin on the [[dorsum (biology)|dorsum]] is {{convert|30|mm|in|abbr=on}} thick providing protection against bites, bumps, and adverse weather. Its folds increase surface area for heat dissipation. They can tolerate cold better than excessive heat. Skin temperature varies from {{convert|24|to|32.9|C|F|abbr=on}}. Body temperature averages {{convert|35.9|C|F|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Shoshani82"/>

===Intelligence===
{{main|Elephant intelligence}}
Asian elephants are highly intelligent and self-aware.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Aldous, P. |title=Elephants see themselves in the mirror | publisher=New Scientist |date=2006-10-30 |url=http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn10402-elephants-see-themselves-in-the-mirror.html}}
</ref> They have a very large and highly convoluted [[neocortex]], a trait also shared by [[humans]], [[apes]] and certain [[dolphin]] species. Asian elephants have the greatest volume of [[cerebral cortex]] available for [[cognitive]] processing of all existing land animals. Elephants have a volume of [[cerebral cortex]] available for cognitive processing that exceeds that of any [[primate]] species, and extensive studies place elephants in the category of [[great apes]] in terms of cognitive abilities for tool use and tool making.<ref name=Hart>{{cite journal |author=Hart, B.L., Hart, L.A., McCoy, M., Sarath, C.R. |title=Cognitive behaviour in Asian elephants: use and modification of branches for fly switching | journal=Animal Behaviour |volume=62 |issue=5 |pages=839–847 |publisher=Academic Press |month=November |year=2001 |url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/ap/ar/2001/00000062/00000005/art01815 |doi=10.1006/anbe.2001.1815 }}</ref> Elephants are reported to go to safer ground during natural disasters like tsunamis and earthquakes, although there have been no scientific records of this.

== Distribution and habitat ==
[[File:An elephant herd at Jim Corbett National Park.jpg|thumb|A herd of elephants in the grasslands of [[Jim Corbett National Park]]]]
[[File:Elephant_herd_at_Nagarahole_wildlife_sanctuary.jpg|thumb|A herd of elephants in the [[Nagarahole National Park]]]]
Asian elephants inhabit grasslands, [[tropical evergreen forest]]s, semi-evergreen forests, moist [[deciduous forest]]s, dry deciduous forests and dry thorn forests, in addition to cultivated and secondary forests and scrublands. Over this range of habitat types elephants are seen from sea level to over {{convert|3000|m|ft|abbr=on}}. In the Eastern [[Himalaya]] in northeast India, they regularly move up above {{convert|3000|m|ft|abbr=on}} in summer at a few sites.<ref name="Choudhury99">Choudhury, A. U. (1999) ''Status and Conservation of the Asian elephant Elephas maximus in north-eastern India''. Mammal Review 29: 141–173.</ref>

Three subspecies are recognized:<ref name=iucn/><ref name="Shoshani82"/>
* the [[Sri Lankan elephant]] lives in [[Sri Lanka]];
* the [[Indian elephant]] lives in mainland Asia: [[India]], [[Nepal]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Bhutan]], [[Myanmar]], [[Thailand]], [[Malay Peninsular]], [[Vietnam]], [[Cambodia]], [[Laos]], and [[China]];
* the [[Sumatran elephant]] lives in [[Sumatra]] and [[Borneo]].

In China, Asian elephants survive only in the prefectures of [[Xishuangbanna]], [[Simao District|Simao]], and [[Lincang]] of southern [[Yunnan]]. In Bangladesh, only isolated populations survive in the [[Chittagong Hills]].<ref name=sukumar93 />

==Ecology and behavior==
[[File:Baby elephants in an elephant sancuary 01.jpg|thumb|A 5 months old calf and its 17 months old cousin in a sanctuary in Laos]]
Elephants are [[crepuscular]].<ref name="Shoshani82"/> They are classified as [[megaherbivore]]s and consume up to {{convert|150|kg|lb|abbr=on}} of plant matter per day.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Samansiri |first=K. A. P. |last2=Weerakoon |first2=D. K. |year=2007 |url=http://www.asesg.org/PDFfiles/Gajah/27-27-Samansiri.pdf |title=Feeding Behaviour of Asian Elephants in the Northwestern Region of Sri Lanka |journal=Gajah: Journal of the IUCN/SSC Asian Elephant Specialist Group |volume=2 |issue= |pages=27–34 |doi= }}</ref> They are generalist feeders, and both [[Grazing|grazers]] and [[Browsing (predation)|browsers]], and were recorded to feed on 112 different plant species, most commonly of the order [[Malvales]], and the [[Leguminosae|legume]], [[Palmae|palm]], [[Cyperaceae|sedge]] and [[Graminae|true grass]] families.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sukumar |first=R. |year=1990 |url=http://www.asiannature.org/pdf_resources/JournalofTropicalEcologyB1989.pdf |title=Ecology of the Asian Elephant in southern India. II. Feeding habits and crop raiding patterns |journal=Journal of Tropical Ecology |volume=6 |issue= |pages=33–53 |doi= }}</ref> They browse more in the dry season with bark constituting a major part of their diet in the cool part of that season.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Pradhan |first=N. M. B. |last2=Wegge |first2=P. |last3=Moe |first3=S. R. |last4=Shrestha |first4=A. K. |year=2008 |title=Feeding ecology of two endangered sympatric megaherbivores: Asian elephant Elephas maximus and greater one-horned rhinoceros Rhinoceros unicornis in lowland Nepal |journal=Wildlife Biology |volume=14 |issue= |pages=147–154 |doi= }}</ref> They drink at least once a day and are never far from a permanent source of fresh water.<ref name="Shoshani82"/> They need 80–200 litres of water a day and use even more for bathing. At times, they scrape the soil for clay or minerals.

Adult females and calves may move about together as groups, but adult males disperse from their mothers upon reaching adolescence. Bull elephants may be solitary or form temporary 'bachelor groups'.<ref name="McKay1973">{{cite journal |last=McKay |first=G. M. |year=1973 |title=Behavior and ecology of the Asiatic elephant in southeastern Ceylon |journal=Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology |volume=125 |issue= |pages=1–113 |doi= }}</ref>

Cow-calf unit sizes generally tend to be small, typically consisting of three adult females which are most likely related,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Fernando |first=P. |last2=Lande |first2=R. |title=Molecular genetic and behavioral analysis of social organization in the Asian elephant (''Elephas maximus'') |journal=Behav Ecol Sociobiol |year=2000 |volume=48 |issue=1 |pages=84–91 |doi=10.1007/s002650000218 }}</ref> and their offspring; however, larger groups containing as many as 15 adult females may occur.<ref name="deSilva1">{{cite journal |last=de Silva |first=S. |last2=Wittemyer |first2=G. |year=2012 |title=A Comparison of Social Organization in Asian Elephants and African Savannah Elephants |journal=International Journal of Primatology |volume=Forthcoming |issue= |pages= |doi=10.1007/s10764-011-9564-1 }}</ref>  There can also be seasonal aggregations containing 100 individuals at a time, including calves and subadults. Until recently, Asian elephants, like African elephants, were thought to typically follow the leadership of older adult females, or [[matriarchs]], but females can form extensive and very fluid social networks, with individual variation in the degree of [[gregariousness]].<ref name="deSilva2">{{cite journal |last=de Silva |first=S. |last2=Ranjeewa |first2=A. D. G. |last3=Kryazhimskiy |first3=S. |year=2011 |title=The dynamics of social networks among female Asian elephants |journal=BMC Ecology |volume=11 |issue= |pages=17 |doi=10.1186/1472-6785-11-17 }}</ref> Social ties generally tend to be weaker than in African elephants.<ref name="deSilva1" />

Elephants are able to distinguish low amplitude sounds.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Heffner |first=R. |last2=Heffner |first2=H. |year=1980 |title=Hearing in the elephant (''Elephas maximus'') |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=208 |issue=4443 |pages=518–520 |doi=10.1126/science.7367876 }}</ref> They use [[infrasound]] to communicate; this was first noted by the Indian naturalist [[Madhaviah Krishnan|Krishnan]] and later studied by [[Katharine Payne|Payne]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Payne, K. |year=1998 |title=Silent Thunder |publisher=Simon & Schuster |isbn=0-684-80108-6}}</ref>

[[Bengal tiger|Tiger]] predation on Asian elephants is rare and restricted to small calves.<ref>Karanth, K. U. and Nichols, J. D. (1998). [http://repository.ias.ac.in/89442/1/3-P.pdf ''Estimation of tiger densities in India using photographic captures and recaptures'']. Ecology, 79 (8): 2852–2862.</ref>

=== Reproduction ===
{{see also|Elephant#Mating}}
[[File:Two-Elephants.JPG|thumb|left|Indian elephants in the [[Coimbatore district|Coimbatore]] Forests, [[Tamil Nadu]]]]
[[File:Baby asian elephant (with his mother) born in the Lao Elephant Conservation Center in Sayaboury.jpg|thumb|A calf with its mother in a conservation center in Laos]]
Bulls will fight one another to get access to estrous females.  Strong fights over access to females are extremely rare. Bulls reach sexual maturity around the age of 12–15. Between the age of 10 and 20 years, bulls undergo an annual phenomenon known as "[[musth]]". This is a period where the [[testosterone]] level is up to 100 times greater than nonmusth periods, and they become extremely aggressive. Secretions containing [[pheromones]] occur during this period, from the paired temporal glands located on the head between the lateral edge of the eye and the base of the ear.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Jainudeen |first=M. R. |last2=McKay |first2=G. M. |last3=Eisenberg |first3=J. F. |year=1972 |title=Observation on musth in the domesticated Asiatic elephant (Elephas maximus) |journal=Mammalia |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=247–261 |doi=10.1515/mamm.1972.36.2.247 }}</ref>

The [[gestation period]] is 18–22 months, and the female gives birth to one [[calf]], only occasionally [[twin]]s. The calf is fully developed by the 19th month, but stays in the [[Uterus|womb]] to grow so that it can reach its mother to feed. At birth, the calf weighs about {{convert|100|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, and is [[Lactation|suckled]] for up to three years. Once a female gives birth, she usually does not breed again until the first calf is weaned, resulting in a 4– to 5-year birth interval. Females stay on with the herd, but mature males are chased away.{{Citation needed|date=October 2011}}

Elephants' [[life expectancy]] has been exaggerated in the past; they live on average for 60 years in the wild and 80 in captivity.<ref name="Shoshani82"/>

Females produce sex [[pheromone]]s; a principal component thereof, (Z)-7-dodecen-1-yl acetate, has also been found to be a sex pheromone in numerous species of insects.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Rasmussen |first=L. E. L. |last2=Lee |first2=T. D. |last3=Zhang |first3=A. J. |last4=Roelofs |first4=W. L. |last5=Daves |first5=G. D. |year=1997 |title=Purification, identification, concentration and bioactivity of (Z)-7-dodecen-1-yl acetate: sex pheromone of the female Asian elephant, ''Elephas maximus'' |journal=Chemical Senses |volume=22 |issue=4 |pages=417–437 |doi=10.1093/chemse/22.4.417 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Rasmussen |first=L. E. L. |last2=Lee |first2=T. D. |last3=Roelofs |first3=W. L. |last4=Zhang |first4=A. J. |last5=Daves |first5=G. D. |year=1996 |title=Insect pheromone in elephants |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=379 |issue=6567 |pages=684 |doi=10.1038/379684a0 }}</ref>

== Interaction with humans ==
[[File:Indian-Elephant-444.jpg|thumb|left|Elephants are used for safari tourism throughout Asia]]
[[File:Mahout1 crop.jpg|thumb|[[Mahout]]s washing an elephant, [[Thrissur]], [[Kerala]]]]
[[File:The good luck elephant.jpg|thumb|Sri Lankan elephants at [[Esala Perahera]]]]
[[File:ElephantTrainingCamp.jpg|thumb|At this elephant training camp, [[Captivity (animal)|captive]] elephants are taught to handle logs.]]
At most seasons of the year, Asian elephants are timid and much more ready to flee from a foe than to attack. However, solitary [[rogue_elephant#Elephant_rage|rogues]] are frequently an exception to this rule, and sometimes make unprovoked attacks on passers-by. Rogue elephants sometimes take up a position near a road, making it impassable to travellers. Females with calves are at all times dangerous to approach. When an Asian elephant makes a charge, it tightly curls up its trunk and attacks by trampling its victim with feet or knees, or, if a male, by pinning it to the ground with its tusks. During [[musth]], bulls are highly dangerous, not only to human beings, but also to other animals. At the first indications, trained elephants are secured tightly to prevent any mishaps. <!-- encyclopedic?  A grander animated object than a wild elephant in full charge can hardly be imagined.--> The cocked ears and broad forehead present an immense frontage; the head is held high, with the trunk curled between the tusks, to be uncoiled in the moment of attack; the massive forelegs come down with the force and regularity of ponderous machinery; and the whole figure is rapidly foreshortened, and appears to double in size with each advancing stride. The trunk being curled and unable to emit any sound, the attack is made in silence, after the usual premonitory shriek, which adds to its impressiveness. The usual pictorial representations of the Indian elephant charging with upraised trunk are accordingly quite incorrect.<ref name=lydekker/>

=== Domestication ===
{{Further|Elephants in captivity}}
The first historical record of the domestication of Asian elephants was in [[Indus Valley Civilization|Harappan]] times.<ref>McIntosh, J. (2008) [http://books.google.co.in/books?id=1AJO2A-CbccC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false ''The ancient Indus Valley: new perspectives'']. ABC-CLIO.</ref> Ultimately, the elephant went on to become a siege engine, a mount in war, a status symbol, a work animal, and an elevated platform for hunting during historical times in [[South Asia]].<ref name="IWH3">Rangarajan, M. (2001) [http://books.google.com/books?id=a89yMml_etQC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false ''The Forest and the Field in Ancient India'']. In: ''India's Wildlife History''. Permanent Black, Delhi</ref>

Elephants have been captured from the wild and tamed for use by humans. Their ability to work under instruction makes them particularly useful for carrying heavy objects. They have been used particularly for timber-carrying in jungle areas. Other than their work use, they have been used in war, in ceremonies, and for carriage. They have been used for their ability to travel over difficult terrain by hunters, for whom they served as mobile hunting platforms. The same purpose is met in safaris in modern times.{{Citation needed|date=October 2011}}

===Imitating human speech===
Koshik, a 22-year-old Asian elephant, reportedly can imitate six words of Korean speech. In a controlled test, native Korean speakers were able to understand exactly what Koshik said. Koshik "speaks" by "[placing] his trunk inside his mouth, modulating the shape of the vocal tract during controlled phonation".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.voanews.com/content/south-korean-zoo-elephant-mimics-human-speech/1537520.html |title=Researchers Verify Elephant Mimics Human Speech |deadurl=no |accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref>

==Threats==
The pre-eminent threats to Asian elephants today are loss, degradation and fragmentation of habitat, leading in turn to increasing conflicts between humans and elephants. They are [[Poaching|poached]] for [[ivory]] and a variety of other products including meat and [[leather]].<ref name=iucn/>

=== Human–elephant conflict ===
[[File:Jhum.jpg|thumb|Prime elephant habitat cleared for ''[[jhum]]'' – a type of [[shifting cultivation]] practiced in [[Arunachal Pradesh]]]]
One of the major instigators of human–wildlife conflict is competition for space. [[Deforestation_by_region#Southeast_Asia|Destruction of forests]] through [[logging]], encroachment, [[slash-and-burn]], [[shifting cultivation]], and [[monoculture]] tree plantations are major threats to the survival of elephants. Human–elephant conflicts occur when elephants raid crops of shifting cultivators in fields, which are scattered over a large area interspersed with forests. [[Depredation]] in human settlements is another major area of human–elephant conflict occurring in small forest pockets, encroachments into elephant habitat, and on elephant migration routes.<ref name=Choudhury2003>Choudhury, A. U. (2003). [http://webpub.allegheny.edu/employee/t/tbensel/FSENV201S2010/Wildlife_Readings/HumanElephantConflictIndia04.pdf ''Human-Elephant conflicts in Northeast India'']. Human Dimensions of Wildlife 9 (4): 261–270.</ref> Studies in Sri Lanka indicate that traditional slash-and-burn agriculture creates optimal habitat for elephants by creating a mosaic of successional-stage vegetation. Populations inhabiting small habitat fragments are much more liable to come into conflict with humans.<ref>Fernando, P. (2000). [http://www.ccrsl.org/Downloads/Fernando-00-ElephantsSriLanka.pdf ''Elephants in Sri Lanka: past present and future'']. Loris 22 (2): 38–44.</ref>

Human-elephant conflict is categorized into:<ref name=Barua2010>{{citation |author=Barua, M. |year=2010 |title=Whose issue? Representations of human-elephant conflict in Indian and international media |place=Science Communication 32 (1): 55–75 |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&pid=sites&srcid=ZGVmYXVsdGRvbWFpbnxtYWFuYmFydWF8Z3g6MzA5MTlkMjU2YjllMWVhMw}}</ref>
*ultimate causes including growing human population, large-scale development projects and poor top-down [[governance]];
*proximate causes including habitat loss due to deforestation, disruption of elephant migratory routes, expansion of [[agriculture]] and illegal encroachment into protected areas.

Development such as border fencing along the India-Bangladesh border has become a major impediment to the free movement of elephants.<ref>Choudhury, A. U. (2007). [http://www.asesg.org/PDFfiles/Gajah/26-27-Choudhury.pdf ''Impact of border fence along India – Bangladesh border on elephant movement'']. Gajah 26: 27–30.</ref> In [[Assam]], more than 1,150 humans and 370 elephants died as a result of human-elephant conflict between 1980 and 2003.<ref name=Choudhury2003/>
In India alone, over 400 people are killed by elephants every year, affecting nearly 500,000 families across the country.<ref name=Rangarajan2010>Rangarajan, M., Desai, A., Sukumar, R., Easa, P. S., Menon, V., Vincent, S., Ganguly, S., Talukdar, B. K., Singh, B., Mudappa, D., Chowdhary, S., Prasad, A. N. (2010). [http://www.moef.nic.in/downloads/public-information/ETF_REPORT_FINAL.pdf ''Gajah: Securing the future for elephants in India'']. Report of the Elephant Task Force. Ministry of Environment and Forests, New Delhi.</ref>  Moreover, elephants are known to destroy crops worth up to US$ 2-3 million annually.<ref name=Bist2006>Bist, S. S. (2006). [http://www.asesg.org/PDFfiles/Gajah/25-27-Bist.pdf ''Elephant conservation in India - an overview'']. Gajah 25: 27–35.</ref> This has major impacts on the welfare and livelihoods of local communities, as well as the future conservation of this species.<ref name=Barua2010/>

=== Poaching ===
[[File:Indian - Powder Flask - Walters 71419 - Back.jpg|thumb|left|18th century ivory powder flask]]
[[File:Chopsticks.jpg|thumb|left|Ivory chopsticks]]
The demand for [[ivory]] as a result of rapid economic development during the 1970s and 1980s, particularly in [[East Asia]], led to rampant [[poaching]] and the serious decline of elephants in many Asian and African range countries. In [[Thailand]], the [[Wildlife trade#Illegal_wildlife_trade|illegal trade]] in live elephants and ivory still flourishes. Although the quantity of worked ivory seen openly for sale has decreased substantially since 2001, Thailand still has one of the largest and most active ivory industries seen anywhere in the world. Tusks from Thai poached elephants also enter the market; between 1992 and 1997 at least 24 male elephants were killed for their tusks. Young elephants are captured and illegally imported from [[Myanmar]] for use in the tourism industry; calves are used mainly in
amusement parks and are trained to perform various stunts for tourists.<ref>Stiles, D. (2009). [http://www.traffic.org/species-reports/traffic_species_mammals50.pdf ''The elephant and ivory trade in Thailand.''] TRAFFIC Southeast Asia, Petaling Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia.</ref>
The calves are often subjected to a 'breaking in' process, which may involve being tied up, confined, starved, beaten and tortured; as a result, two-thirds may perish.<ref name=guard120724>{{cite news |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2012/jul/24/tourism-elephant-trade-burma-thailand |title=Tourism driving illegal elephant trade in Burma and Thailand – video |work=guardian.co.uk |date=24 July 2012}}</ref>

Up to the early 1990s, Vietnamese ivory craftsmen used exclusively Asian elephant ivory from Vietnam and neighbouring Lao PDR and Cambodia. Before 1990, there were few tourists and the low demand for worked ivory could be supplied by domestic elephants. Economic liberalization and an increase in tourism raised both local and visitors’ demands for worked ivory, which resulted in heavy poaching.<ref>Stiles, D. (2009). ''The status of ivory trade in Thailand and Vietnam.'' [http://www.traffic.org/traffic-bulletin/traffic_pub_bulletin_22_2.pdf TRAFFIC Bulletin 22 (2):] 83–91.</ref>

== Conservation ==
''Elephas maximus'' is listed on [[CITES Appendix I]].<ref name=iucn/>

Asian elephants are quintessential [[flagship species]], deployed to catalyze a range of conservation goals, including:
*habitat conservation at landscape scales<ref name="Barua Mutiny">Barua, M., Tamuly, J., Ahmed, R.A. (2010). ''Mutiny or Clear Sailing? Examining the Role of the Asian Elephant as a Flagship Species''. Human Dimensions of Wildlife 15(2): 145–160.</ref><ref name="Bowen Jones">{{cite journal |last=Bowen-Jones |first=E. |last2=Entwistle |first2=A. |year=2002 |title=Identifying appropriate flagship species: The importance of culture and local contexts |journal=[[Oryx (journal)|Oryx]] |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=189–195 |doi=10.1017/S0030605302000261 }}</ref>
*generating public awareness of conservation issues<ref name="Barua Media">{{cite book |author=Barua, M. |year=2010 |title=Whose issue? Representations of human-elephant conflict in Indian and international media |place=Science Communication 32(1): 55–75 |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&pid=sites&srcid=ZGVmYXVsdGRvbWFpbnxtYWFuYmFydWF8Z3g6MzA5MTlkMjU2YjllMWVhMw}}</ref>
*mobilization as a popular cultural icon both in India and the West<ref name="Barua Mutiny"/><ref name="Bowen Jones" />

=== In captivity ===
[[File:Devi AsianElephant SanDiegoZoo 20071230 RockingBehaviour.gif|thumb|This stereotypical rhythmic swaying behaviour is not reported in free ranging wild elephants, and may be symptomatic of psychological disorders.]]
About half of the global zoo elephant population is kept in European zoos, where they have about half the median life span of [[conspecifics]] in protected populations in range countries. This discrepancy is clearest in Asian elephants: infant mortality is twice that seen in Burmese timber camps, and its adult survivorship in zoos has not improved significantly in recent years. One risk factor for Asian zoo elephants is being moved between institutions, with early removal from the mother tending to have additional adverse effects. Another risk factor is being born into a zoo rather than being imported from the wild, with poor adult survivorship in zoo-born Asians apparently being conferred prenatally or in early infancy. Likely causes for compromised survivorship is [[Stress (biology)|stress]] and/or [[obesity]].<ref>Clubb, R., Rowcliffe, M., Lee, P., Mar, K. U., Moss, C. and Mason, G. J. (2008) [https://dspace.stir.ac.uk/bitstream/1893/974/1/Clubbtext.pdf ''Compromised Survivorship in Zoo Elephants'']. Science 322 (5908): 1649.</ref>

Demographic analysis of the captive Asian elephants in [[North America]] indicates that the population is not self-sustaining. First year mortality is nearly 30%, and the [[fecundity]] is extremely low throughout the prime reproductive years.<ref>Wiese, R. J. (2000) ''Asian elephants are not self-sustaining in North America''. Zoo Biology, 19: 299–309. doi: 10.1002/1098-2361(2000)19:5<299::AID-ZOO2>3.0.CO;2-Z</ref>
Data from North American and European regional [[studbook]]s from 1962 to 2006 were analysed for deviation of the birth and juvenile death sex ratio. Of 349 captive calves born, 142 died prematurely. They died within 1 month of birth; major causes being [[stillbirth]] and [[infanticide]] by either the calf's own mother or by one of the exhibition mates. The sex ratio of stillbirths in Europe was found to have a tendency for excess of males.<ref>Saragusty, J., Hermes, R., Goritz, F,. Schmitt, D.L., Hildebrandt, T. B. (2009) [http://www.elephantsincanada.com/reports-and-papers/skewed-birth-sex-ratio-and-premature-mortality-in-elephants ''Skewed Birth Sex Ratio and Premature Mortality in Elephants''] . Animal Reproduction Science 115(1-4): 247–254.</ref>

== Taxonomy ==
[[File:Sri Lanka Elephants 03.jpg|thumb|Sri Lankan elephants]]
[[File:Borneo-elephant-PLoS Biology.jpg|thumb|Borneo elephant]]
[[Carl Linnaeus]] first described the genus ''Elephas'' and an elephant from [[Ceylon]] under the [[Binomial nomenclature|binomial]] ''Elephas maximus'' in 1758.<ref>Linnaei, C. (1760) [http://www.archive.org/stream/carolilinnaeisys11linn#page/n80/mode/1up ''Elephas maximus''] In: ''Caroli Linnæi Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis''. Tomus I. Halae Magdeburgicae. Page 33</ref> In 1798, [[Georges Cuvier]] first described the Indian elephant under the binomial ''Elephas indicus''.<ref>Cuvier, G. (1798) [http://www.archive.org/stream/tableaulmen00cuvi#page/148/mode/2up ''Tableau elementaire de l’histoire naturelle des animaux'']. Baudouin, Paris</ref> In 1847, [[Coenraad Jacob Temminck]] first described the Sumatran elephant under the binomial ''Elephas sumatranus''.<ref>Temminck, C. J. (1847) [http://www.archive.org/stream/coupdoeilgnrals03temmgoog#page/n103/mode/2up ''Coup-d'oeil général sur les possessions néerlandaises dans l'Inde archipélagique. Tome second'']. A. Arnz and Comp., Leide</ref> [[Frederick Nutter Chasen]] classified all three as subspecies of the Asian elephant in 1940.<ref>Chasen, F.H. (1940) [http://rmbr.nus.edu.sg/rbz/biblio/15/15brmiii-209.pdf ''A handlist of Malaysian mammals'']. Bulletin of the Raffles Museum 15: iii–209.</ref>

In 1950, [[Paules Edward Pieris Deraniyagala]] described the Borneo elephant under the [[Trinominal nomenclature|trinomial]] ''[[Borneo Elephant|Elephas maximus borneensis]]'', taking as his type an illustration in the National Geographical Magazine, but not a living elephant in accordance with the rules of the [[International Code of Zoological Nomenclature]].<ref name="Cranbrook08">Cranbrook, E., Payne, J., Leh, C.M.U. (2008) [http://assets.panda.org/downloads/pages_from_originofelephants_in_borneofinal2oct07_2.pdf ''Origin of the elephants Elephas maximus L. of Borneo'']. Sarawak Museum Journal.</ref> ''E. m. borneensis'' lives in northern [[Borneo]] and is smaller than all the other [[Subspecies (biology)|subspecies]], but with larger ears, a longer tail, and straight tusks. Results of [[genetic analysis]] indicate that its ancestors separated from the mainland population about 300,000 years ago.<ref name=Fernando>Fernando, P., Vidya, T. N. C., Payne, J., Stuewe, M., Davison, G., Alfred, R. J., Andau, P., Bosi, E., Kilbourn, A., Melnick, D. J. (2003) [http://biology.plosjournals.org/perlserv?request=get-document&doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0000006 ''DNA Analysis Indicates That Asian Elephants Are Native to Borneo and Are Therefore a High Priority for Conservation'']. PLoS Biol 1 (1): e6</ref>

The population in [[Vietnam]] and [[Laos]] was tested to determine if it is a subspecies, as well. This research is considered vital, as less than 1300 wild Asian elephants remain in [[Laos]].<ref>[http://www.elefantasia.org/spip.php?rubrique3&lang=en Elefantasia 2008, ''Assist Us'', 1 January 2008]</ref>
In addition, two [[extinct]] subspecies are considered to have existed:
*The [[Chinese elephant]] is sometimes separated as ''E. m. rubridens'' (pink-tusked elephant); it disappeared after the 14th century BC.{{Citation needed|date=October 2011}}

*The [[Syrian elephant]] (''E. m. asurus''), the westernmost and the largest subspecies of the Asian elephant, became extinct around 100 BC. This population, along with the Indian elephant, was considered the best [[war elephant]] in antiquity, and was found superior to the smallish [[North African elephant]] (''Loxodonta africana pharaoensis'') used by the armies of [[Carthage]].{{Citation needed|date=October 2011}}

== In culture ==
[[File:Art hastividyarnava 2.jpg|thumb|left|A folio from the [[Hastividyarnava]] manuscript]]
The elephant plays an important part in the culture of the subcontinent and beyond, featuring prominently in [[Jataka]] tales and the [[Panchatantra]]. They play a major role in [[Hinduism]]: the god [[Ganesha]]'s head is that of an elephant, and the "blessings" of a temple elephant are highly valued. Elephants have been used in processions in [[Kerala]], where the animals are adorned with festive outfits.{{Citation needed|date=October 2011}}

The elephant is depicted in several Indian manuscripts and treatises.  Notable amongst these is the Matanga Lila of Rameswara Pandita and the [[Hastividyarnava]] of Sukumar Barkaith.  The latter manuscript is from [[Assam]] in northeast India.

==See also==
*[[Khedda]]
*[[Ivory trade]]
*[[Endangered Species]]
*[[Mela shikar]]
*[[White elephant]]

{{clear}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
<!-- Biol. Lett.2:451 doi:10.1098/rsbl.2006.0467 molecular data confirms validity and distinctness of asurus. Paper had controversy (BiolLett3:55,57,60) but not about asurus data -->

<!--Please inline this citation
* {{cite journal | author = Bandara, Ranjith  and Clem Tisdell | year = 2004 | title = The net benefit of saving the Asian elephant a policy and contingent valuation study | journal = Ecological Economics | volume = 48 | issue = 1 | pages = 93 | doi = 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2003.01.001}}
-->

==Further reading==
*Gilchrist, W. (1851) ''A Practical Treatise on the Treatment of the Diseases of the Elephant, Camel & Horned Cattle: with instructions for improving their efficiency; also, a description of the medicines used in the treatment of their diseases; and a general outline of their anatomy''. Calcutta: Military Orphan Press
*{{cite book| author=Miall, L. C., Greenwood, F. |year=1878 |title=Anatomy of the Indian Elephant |publisher= Macmillan and Co.| place= London| url=http://www.archive.org/details/anatomyofindiane00mial}}
*Barua, M., Tamuly, J. and Ahmed, R.A. (2010) [https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&pid=sites&srcid=ZGVmYXVsdGRvbWFpbnxtYWFuYmFydWF8Z3g6MzY0YTEyN2M1NjFkYjFmZA ''Mutiny or Clear Sailing? Examining the Role of the Asian Elephant as a Flagship Species'']. Human Dimensions of Wildlife, 15(2): 145-160.
*Barua, M. (2010) [https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&pid=sites&srcid=ZGVmYXVsdGRvbWFpbnxtYWFuYmFydWF8Z3g6MzA5MTlkMjU2YjllMWVhMw ''Whose issue? Representations of human-elephant conflict in Indian and international media'']. Science Communication, 32(1): 55-75.

==External links==
{{commons category|Elephas maximus}}
{{wikispecies|Elephas maximus}}
*[http://www.saveelephant.org/ Save Elephant Foundation]
*[http://www.elephantconservation.org International Elephant Foundation]
*[http://www.elephantresearch.org/ Elephant Research International]
*[http://www.elefantasia.org ElefantAsia: ''Protecting the Asian elephant'']
*[http://www.asianelephant.net/ Asian Elephants at the Zoological Gardens of the World]
*[http://elephant.elehost.com/ Elephant Information Repository]
*[http://panda.org/elephants/asian WWF - Asian elephant species profile]
*[http://nationalzoo.si.edu/Animals/AsianElephants/ National Zoo Facts on Asian Elephant and a Webcam of the Asian Elephant exhibit]
*[http://www.chaffeezoo.org/animals/elephant.html The Chaffee Zoo Asian Elephant Fact Sheet]
*[http://ecos.fws.gov/species_profile/servlet/gov.doi.species_profile.servlets.SpeciesProfile?spcode=A059 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Species Profile]
*[http://www.eia-international.org/our-work/environmental-crime-and-governance/illegal-wildlife-trade/elephants Environmental Investigation Agency: ''Illegal Wildlife Trade'' : ''Elephants'']
*[http://plainofjars.net/elephant.htm Plain of Jars: ''The Asian Elephant'']

{{Proboscidea}}
{{Symbols of Thailand}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2011}}

[[Category:Elephants]]
[[Category:EDGE species]]
[[Category:Fauna of Southeast Asia]]
[[Category:Mammals of South Asia]]
[[Category:Mammals of Asia]]
[[Category:Mammals of Bangladesh]]
[[Category:Mammals of Nepal]]
[[Category:Mammals of India]]
[[Category:Megafauna of Eurasia]]
[[Category:National symbols of Laos]]
[[Category:National symbols of Thailand]]
[[Category:Animals described in 1758]]
[[Category:Mammals of Malaysia]]
[[Category:Wildlife of Yunnan]]
[[Category:Mammals of China]]

{{Link GA|ru}}
{{Link FA|fi}}