Revision 374128 of "Élmu" on suwiki

'''Élmu''' sakaligus ngarupakeun prosés ngumpulkeun pangaweruh jeung wangunan pangaweruh nu kakumpulkeun ku prosés ieu. ''Prosés ilmiah'' ngarupakeun ''akuisisi sistematik'' [[pangaweruh]] anyar ngeunaan hiji [[sistem]]. Akuisisi sistematik ieu sacara umum mah [[métode ilmiah]], sedengkeun sistemna umumna [[alam]]. Élmu ogé ngarupakeun ''pangaweruh ilmiah'' nu sacara sistematik kaala ku ''prosés ilmiah'' ieu. 

Sabaraha papanggihan élmu bisa ''[[counter-intuitive]]'' pisan. [[Téori atom]], misalna, nunjukkeun yén guruntulan granit nu katémbong beurat, teuas, padet, abu-abu, jsb. sabenerna ngarupakeun campuran [[fisika partikel|partikel]] subatomik nu saeutik gé teu mibanda sipat-sipat éta, nu gerak cepet pisan dina hiji rohangan nu lolobana kosong.

== Modél, téori, jeung hukum ilmiah ==
''Artikel utama:'' [[métode ilmiah]]

Istilah "[[hipotésis]]", "[[modél]]", "[[téori]]", jeung "[[hukum fisika|hukum]]" dina élmu mibanda larapan nu béda jeung istilah umum. Élmuwan migunakeun istilah ''modél'' nujul ka dadaran hiji hal, hususna nu ditujukeun pikeun nyieun pangira nu bisa diuji ku dicoba atawa panenget/observasi. ''Hipotésis'' nyaéta hiji anggepan nu henteu (tacan) dirojong sagemblengna atawa diatur ku eksperimen. ''Hukum fisika'' atawa ''hukum alam'' nyaéta hiji generalisasi ilmiah nu dumasar kana tengetan empiris. 

Kalolobaan jalma nu lain elmuwan henteu sadar yen naon anu ku ku elmuwan dianggep minangka "teori" teh mangrupakeun naon-naon nu ku kalolobaan jelema dianggep "fakta". Masarakat umum make istilah ''teori'' keur nujul kana ide nu henteu mibanda bukti atawa rojongan nu teges tur kuat; sabalikna, elmuwan mah biasana make kecap ieu keur nujul ukur kana ide anu tetep tahan sanggeus diuji bulak-balik. Ku kituna, nalika elmuwan nujul kana teori [[evolusi|evolusi biologis]], [[elektromagnetisme]], jeung [[relativitas]], maranehna sabenerna nujul kana ide nu geus tahan pisan diuji. Tapi aya oge kajaban, kawas ''[[string theory]]'', nu katingalina jadi hiji model nu ngajangjikeun tapi kiwari tacan aya bukti empiris nu nyababkeun teori ieu leuwih unggul batan model sainganana. 
{{tarjamahkeun|Inggris}}
Especially fruitful theories that have withstood the test of time are considered to be "proven" in the scientific sense-- that it is true and factual but of course can still be falsified.  This includes many theories, such as universally accepted ones such as [[heliocentric theory]] and controversial ones such as [[evolution]], which are backed by many observations and experimental data.  Theories are always open to revision if new evidence is provided or directly contradicts predictions or other evidence.  As scientists do not claim absolute knowledge, even the most basic and fundamental theories may turn out to be incorrect if new data and observations contradict older ones.

[[Isaac Newton|Newton]]'s [[Newtonian mechanics|law of gravitation]] is a famous example of a law falsified by experiments regarding motions at high speeds and in close proximity to strong gravitational fields. Outside of those conditions, Newton's Laws remain excellent accounts of motion and gravity. Because [[general relativity]] accounts for all of the phenomena that Newton's Laws do, and more, general relativity is currently regarded as our best account of gravitation.

== Matematika jeung métode ilmiah ==
[[Matematik]] ''esensial'' pikeun élmu, mangpaat pangpentingna nyaéta dina éksprési/ngawujudkeun ''modél'' ilmiah. Nengetan tur ngumpulkeun ukuran-ukuran, ogé nyieun hipotésis jeung pangduga, biasana merlukeun modél matematis sarta maké matematik kalawan éksténsif. Cabang matematik nu pangmindengna dipaké dina élmu di antarana [[kalkulus]] jeung [[statistik]], najan sabenerna sakabéh cabang matematik boga larapanana, kaasup wewengkon "murni" saperti [[téori wilangan]] jeung [[topologi]].

Some thinkers see mathematicians as scientists, regarding physical experiments as inessential or mathematical proofs as equivalent to experiments. Others do not see mathematics as a science, since it does not require experimental test of its theories and hypotheses. In either case, the fact that mathematics is such a useful tool in describing the universe is a central issue in the [[philosophy of mathematics]].

Tempo: [[Eugene Wigner]] [[The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences|The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics]]. 

[[R.P. Feynman]] nyarita "Matematik mah teu nyata, tapi '''asa''' nyata. Di mana nya perenahna?".

== Tujuan élmu ==
Despite popular impressions of science, it is not the goal of science to answer all questions, only those that pertain to physical reality (measurable empirical experience). Also, science cannot possibly address all possible questions, so the choice of which questions to answer becomes important. Science does not and can not produce absolute and unquestionable truth. Rather, science consistently tests the currently best hypothesis about some aspect of the physical world, and when necessary revises or replaces it in light of new observations or data.

Science does not make any statements about how nature actually "is"; science can only make conclusions about our ''observations'' of nature.  The developments of quantum mechanics in the early 20th century showed that observations are not independent of interactions, and the implications of wave-particle duality have challenged the traditional notion of "objectivity" in science.

Science is not a source of subjective value judgements, though it can certainly speak to matters of ethics and public policy by pointing to the likely consequences of actions. However, science can't tell us which of those consequences to desire or which is 'best'. What one projects from the currently most reasonable scientific hypothesis onto other realms of interest is not a scientific issue, and the scientific method offers no assistance for those who wish to do so. Scientific justification (or refutation) for many things is, nevertheless, often claimed.

== Perenahna élmu ==
Élmu dipraktékkeun di [[universitas]] jeung lembaga ilmiah séjénna; najan ngarupakeun cocooan para [[akademia]], ogé dipraktékkeun ku [[amatir]], hususna dina bagean elmu [[observasi]]onal.

Sababaraha pagawe di laboratorium riset nu mibanda badan hukum (korporasi) mraktekkeun oge metoda ilmiah tur ahirna kasohor dina widangna sarta tuluy dipigawe oge di akademia. Sabalikna, sababaraha akademisi cukup kasohor pikeun jadi konsultan industri ku cara nerapkeun timuananan dina sababaraha [[tehnologi]].

== Widang élmu ==
=== Élmu fisik jeung hirup ===
* [[Arkéologi]]
* [[Biologi]]
** [[Élmu tatanén]]
** [[Anatomi]]
** [[Antropologi]]
** [[Astrobiologi]]
** [[Biokimia]]
** [[Bioinformatik]] 
** [[Biofisik]]
** [[Botani]]
** [[Biologi sél]]
** [[Kladistik]]
** [[Sitologi]]
** [[Developmental biology]] 
** [[Ékologi]]
** [[Éntomologi]]
** [[Épidemiologi]]
** [[Évolusi]] (Biologi évolusioner) 
** [[Biologi pertumbuhan évolusionér]] ("''Evo-devo''" atawa évolusi pertumbuhan)
** [[Biologi cai seger]]
** [[Genetik]] ([[Genetik populasi]], [[Genomik]], [[Protéomik]])
** [[Élmu Kaséhatan]]
*** [[Dentistry]]
*** [[Tatamba]]
*** [[Farmakologi]]
*** [[Toksikologi]]
*** [[Tatamba ingon]]
** [[Histologi]]
** [[Imunologi]] 
** [[Biologi laut]]
** [[Mikrobiologi]]
** [[Biologi Molekular]]
** [[Morfologi]]
** [[Élmu saraf]]
** [[Onkologi]] (ulikan ngeunaan kanker)
** [[Ontogeni]]
** [[Paléontologi]]
** [[Patologi]]
** [[Fikologi]] (Algologi) 
** [[Filogeni]]
** [[Fisiologi]]
** [[Biologi struktural]]
** [[Taksonomi]]
** [[Toksikologi]]
** [[Virologi]]
** [[Zoologi]]
* [[Élmu Bumi]]
** [[Géologi]]
** [[Météorologi]]
** [[Oséanografi]]
** [[Séismologi]]
* [[Fisika]]
** [[Akustik]]
** [[Astronomi]]
** [[Astrofisik]]
** [[Fisika Atomik, Molekular, jeung Optis]]
** [[Biofisik]]
** [[Fisika komputasi]]
** [[Fisika zat padet]]
** [[Kriogenik]]
** [[Éléktronik]]
** [[Rékayasa]]
** [[Dinamika cairan]]
** [[Fisika polimér]]
** [[Optik]] 
** [[Fisika bahan]]
** [[Fisika matematis]]
** [[Fisika inti]]
** [[Fisika plasma]]
** [[Fisika partikel]] (atawa Fisika énergi luhur) 
** [[Dinamika kendaraan]] 
* [[Kimia]] 
** [[Kimia analitik]]
** [[Biokimia]]
** [[Kimia komputasi]]
** [[Éléktrokimia]]
** [[Kimia anorganik]]
** [[Élmu bahan]]
** [[Kimia organik]]
** [[Kimia fisik]]
** [[Kimia kuantum]]
** [[Spéktroskopi]]
** [[Stéréokimia]]
** [[Térmokimia]]

=== Komputer jeung élmu informasi ===
* [[Élmu komputer]]
* [[Élmu kognitif]]
* [[Sistem kognitf]]
* ''[[Cybernetics]]''
* [[Téori sistem]]
* [[Téknologi Informasi]]

=== [[Élmu sosial]] ===
* [[Ékonomi]]
* [[Linguistik]]
* [[Étimologi]]
* [[Psikologi]]
* Psikopatologi
* [[Sosiologi]]
* [[Atikan]]
* [[Gawé Sosial]]

== Filosofi ==
Science’s effectiveness has made it a subject of much [[philosophy|philosophical]] speculation. The [[philosophy of science]] seeks to understand the nature and justification of scientific knowledge, and its ethical implications. It has proved remarkably difficult to provide an [[Scientific method#Philosophical Issues|account of the scientific method]] that can serve to distinguish science from non-science.

== Jejer nu patali ==
* Organisasi jeung prakték élmu: [[International Council of Science]] (ICSU)
* Pikeun dadaran kumaha tumuwuhna ieu widang, tempo [[Sajarah Élmu jeung Téhnologi]].  
* Tempo ogé [[élmuwan]] pikeun katalog jalma-jalma nu giat dina widang-widangna.

== Baca ogé ==
[[Tiori dasar élmu]] -
[[Élmu runtah]] - 
[[Patafisik]] - 
[[Élmu patologis]] - 
[[Filosofi élmu]] -
[[Protosains]] - 
[[Pseudosains]] - 
[[Atikan élmu]] - 
[[Scientific enterprise]] -
[[Scientific misconduct]] -
[[Scientific materialism]] -
[[Métode ilmiah]] -
[[Révolusi ilmiah]] -
[[Hubungan antara agama jeung élmu]] - 
[[Patarosan sadidinten]] - 
[[Daptar publikasi ilmiah]]

== Tumbu kaluar ==
* [http://unisci.com/science2.shtml UniSci: Naha Bet Élmu?]
* [http://www.mit.edu/~bkrupa/whyscience.html Boris Krupa: Naha Bet Élmu?]
* [http://www.people.virginia.edu/~rjh9u/studysci.html Keur Naon Ngulik Élmu?]
* [http://www.scienceandyou.org/articles/ess_01.shtml Naha Bet Élmu & Anjeun]
* [http://www.epinions.com/content_2841616516 Naha élmu teu bisa démokratis]
* [http://physicsweb.org/article/world/13/5/2 Why science thrives on criticism]
* [http://www.edge.org/documents/archive/edge53.html Is Science Killing the soul? A discussion between Steven Pinker and Richard Dawkins]
* [http://www.thehumanist.org/humanist/articles/dawkins.html Richard Dawkins essay: Is Science a Religion?]
* [http://textbook.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Science Wikibooks - GSCE science textbook]
* [http://science.shumans.com Daily Science News]
* Alphabetized and ordered list of sciences adapted from the Internet-Encyclopedia article, "Science" [http://www.internet-encyclopedia.info/wiki.phtml?title=Science Internet-Encyclopedia March 14, 2003]

[[Kategori:Élmu]]

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