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Difference between revisions 418107 and 418131 on test2wiki==eolgi== <br> eolgi = interstate <br> izdami6969 [[Interstate 69|eolgi 69]] [[Puerto Rico Highway 53|53 teodoro, tititateodoro]] [[Puerto Rico Highway 66|66 brea, brea]] [[Lladró|MEIKE ÎÎÎÎÎÍÍÍÍÍIIIII]] [[cathode-ray tube|Vacuum del televisor]] <br> gabinete __NOEDITSECTION____NOTOC__ <div id="mw-blocked-text" style="margin:0 auto 6px auto;padding: 0.2em; width:100%; box-sizing: border-box; border:2px solid #000; "> <div style="width:100%; margin:auto; text-align:center;"><div style="font-size:180%; color:#ff0000;"><br>'''You are currently unable to edit Wikipedia.'''</div> '''''You are still able to view pages''', but you are not currently able to edit, move, or create them.'' </div> <div style="margin:auto; width:70%;"> <div style="text-align:justify;"> Editing from {{{7|$7}}} has been '''[[Wikipedia:Blocking policy|blocked]]''' (disabled) by {{{1|$1}}} for the following reason(s):<div style="clear: both;"></div> <div style="margin:1em; padding:5px; border:3px #666 double;">{{{2|$2}}}</div> This block has been set to expire: '''{{{6|$6}}}'''. Even if blocked, you will ''usually'' still be able to edit your [[Special:Mytalk|user talk page]] and [[Wikipedia:Emailing users|email]] other editors and administrators. </div> </div> </div> <div style="margin:6px auto; padding: 0.2em; width:100%; box-sizing: border-box; border:2px solid #000; text-align:center; font-size:110%;"> Other useful links: [[Wikipedia:Blocking policy|Blocking policy]] · [[Wikipedia:Username policy|Username policy]] · Appealing blocks: [[Wikipedia:Appealing a block|policy]] and [[WP:Guide to appealing blocks|guide]] <div style="color:red; border:solid red 1px;max-width:95%;margin:0 auto 1em auto;padding:0 3px;display:inline-block; font-weight:bold;">If the block notice is unclear, or it does not appear to relate to your actions, please ask for assistance as described at <span class="nowrap">[[Help:I have been blocked]]</span>.</div> </div> {{Other uses}} {{Electrical Wiring Sidebar}} {{Infobox electronic component | component = Circuit Breaker | photo = | invented = | first_produces = | photo_caption = Symbol of Circuit Breaker | symbol = [[File:BreakerSymbols.svg]] }} [[File:AEG Circuit breaker type ME 800 (1).JPG|thumb|An air circuit breaker for low-voltage (less than 1,000 volt) power distribution switchgear]] [[File:Jtecul.jpg|thumb|A two-pole miniature circuit breaker]] [[File:Four 1 pole circuit breakers fitted in a meter box.jpg|thumb|Four one-pole miniature circuit breakers]] A '''circuit breaker''' is an automatically operated [[electricity|electrical]] [[switch]] designed to protect an [[Electrical network|electrical circuit]] from damage caused by excess current from an overload or [[short circuit]]. Its basic function is to interrupt current flow after a fault is detected. Unlike a [[fuse (electrical)|fuse]], which operates once and then must be replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset (either manually or automatically) to resume normal operation. Circuit breakers are made in varying sizes, from small devices that protect low-current circuits or individual household appliance, up to large [[switchgear]] designed to protect [[high voltage]] circuits feeding an entire city. The generic function of a circuit breaker, or [[fuse (electrical)|fuse]], as an automatic means of removing power from a faulty system is often abbreviated as OCPD (Over Current Protection Device). ==Origins== An early form of circuit breaker was described by [[Thomas Edison]] in an 1879 patent application, although his commercial power distribution system used [[fuse (electrical)|fuses]].<ref>Robert Friedel and Paul Israel, ''Edison's Electric Light: Biography of an Invention'', Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick New Jersey USA,1986 {{ISBN|0-8135-1118-6}} pp.65-66</ref> Its purpose was to protect lighting circuit wiring from accidental short circuits and overloads. A modern miniature circuit breaker similar to the ones now in use was patented by [[Brown, Boveri & Cie]] in 1924. Hugo Stotz, an engineer who had sold his company to [[ABB|BBC]], was credited as the inventor on DRP (''Deutsches Reichspatent'') 458392.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.abb.de/cawp/deabb201/061462650496e146c12570880035eede.aspx|title = "1920-1929 Stotz miniature circuit breaker and domestic appliances", ABB, 2006-01-09, accessed 4 July 2011}}></ref> Stotz's invention was the forerunner of the modern thermal-magnetic breaker commonly used in household load centers to this day. Interconnection of multiple generator sources into an electrical grid required the development of circuit breakers with increasing voltage ratings and increased ability to safely interrupt the increasing short-circuit currents produced by networks. Simple air-break manual switches produced hazardous arcs when interrupting high voltages; these gave way to oil-enclosed contacts, and various forms using the directed flow of pressurized air, or of pressurized oil, to cool and interrupt the arc. By 1935, the specially constructed circuit breakers used at the [[Boulder Dam]] project use eight series breaks and pressurized oil flow to interrupt faults of up to 2,500 MVA, in three cycles of the AC power frequency.<ref>{{cite book |editor-first=Charles H. |editor-last=Flurscheim |title=Power Circuit Breaker Theory and Design |edition=Second |publisher=[[Institution of Engineering and Technology (professional society)|IET]] |year=1982 |isbn=0-906048-70-2 |chapter=Chapter 1}}</ref> ==Operation== All circuit breaker systems have common features in their operation, but details vary substantially depending on the voltage class, current rating and type of the circuit breaker. The circuit breaker must first detect a fault condition. In small mains and [[low voltage]] circuit breakers, this is usually done within the device itself. Typically, the heating or magnetic effects of electric current are employed. Circuit breakers for large currents or high voltages are usually arranged with [[protective relay]] pilot devices to sense a fault condition and to operate the opening mechanism. These typically require a separate power source, such as a [[battery (electricity)|battery]], although some high-voltage circuit breakers are self-contained with [[current transformer]]s, [[protective relay]]s, and an internal control power source. Once a fault is detected, the circuit breaker contacts must open to interrupt the circuit; this is commonly done using mechanically stored energy contained within the breaker, such as a spring or compressed air to separate the contacts. Circuit breakers may also use the higher current caused by the fault to separate the contacts, such as thermal expansion or a magnetic field. Small circuit breakers typically have a manual control lever to switch off the load or reset a tripped breaker, while larger units use [[solenoid]]s to trip the mechanism, and [[electric motor]]s to restore energy to the springs. The circuit breaker contacts must carry the load current without excessive heating, and must also withstand the heat of the arc produced when interrupting (opening) the circuit. Contacts are made of copper or copper alloys, silver alloys and other highly conductive materials. Service life of the contacts is limited by the erosion of contact material due to arcing while interrupting the current. Miniature and molded-case circuit breakers are usually discarded when the contacts have worn, but power circuit breakers and high-voltage circuit breakers have replaceable contacts. When a high current or voltage is interrupted, an [[electric arc|arc]] is generated. The length of the arc is generally proportional to the voltage while the intensity (or heat) is proportional to the current. This arc must be contained, cooled and extinguished in a controlled way, so that the gap between the contacts can again withstand the voltage in the circuit. Different circuit breakers use [[Vacuum interrupter|vacuum]], air, [[insulating gas]], or [[transformer oil|oil]] as the medium the arc forms in. Different techniques are used to extinguish the arc including: *Lengthening or deflecting the arc *Intensive cooling (in jet chambers) *Division into partial arcs *Zero point quenching (contacts open at the zero current time crossing of the [[alternating current|AC]] waveform, effectively breaking no load current at the time of opening. The zero crossing occurs at twice the line frequency; i.e., 100 times per second for 50 Hz and 120 times per second for 60 Hz AC.) *Connecting [[capacitor]]s in parallel with contacts in [[direct current|DC]] circuits. Finally, once the fault condition has been cleared, the contacts must again be closed to restore power to the interrupted circuit. ==Arc interruption== Low-voltage miniature circuit breakers (MCB) use air alone to extinguish the arc. These circuit breakers contain so-called arc chutes, a stack of mutually insulated parallel metal plates that divide and cool the arc. By splitting the arc into smaller arcs the arc is cooled down while the arc voltage is increased and serves as an additional [[electrical impedance|impedance]] that limits the current through the circuit breaker. The current-carrying parts near the contacts provide easy deflection of the arc into the arc chutes by a magnetic force of a current path, although [[magnetic blowout]] coils or [[permanent magnets]] could also deflect the arc into the arc chute (used on circuit breakers for higher ratings). The number of plates in the arc chute is dependent on the short-circuit rating and nominal voltage of the circuit breaker. In larger ratings, oil circuit breakers rely upon vaporization of some of the oil to blast a jet of oil through the arc.<ref>{{Cite book |first=B. M. |last=Weedy |title=Electric Power Systems |edition=Second |publisher=John Wiley and Sons |location=London |year=1972 |isbn=0-471-92445-8 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/electricpowersys0000weed/page/428 428–430] |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/electricpowersys0000weed/page/428 }}</ref> Gas (usually [[sulfur hexafluoride]]) circuit breakers sometimes stretch the arc using a magnetic field, and then rely upon the [[dielectric strength]] of the sulfur hexafluoride (SF<sub>6</sub>) to quench the stretched arc. [[Vacuum]] circuit breakers have minimal arcing (as there is nothing to ionize other than the contact material). The arc quenches when it is stretched a very small amount (less than {{convert|2|-|3|mm|in|sigfig=1|abbr=on}}). Vacuum circuit breakers are frequently used in modern medium-voltage switchgear to 38,000 volts. Air circuit breakers may use [[compressed air]] to blow out the arc, or alternatively, the contacts are rapidly swung into a small sealed chamber, the escaping of the displaced air thus blowing out the arc. Circuit breakers are usually able to terminate all current very quickly: typically the arc is extinguished between 30 ms and 150 ms after the mechanism has been tripped, depending upon age and construction of the device. The maximum current value and let-through energy determine the quality of the circuit breakers. ==Short-circuit== Circuit breakers are rated both by the normal current that they are expected to carry, and the maximum short-circuit current that they can safely interrupt. This latter figure is the '''ampere interrupting capacity''' ('''AIC''') of the breaker. Under short-circuit conditions, the calculated or measured maximum [[prospective short-circuit current]] may be many times the normal, rated current of the circuit. When electrical contacts open to interrupt a large current, there is a tendency for an [[electric arc|arc]] to form between the opened contacts, which would allow the current to continue. This condition can create conductive ionized gases and molten or vaporized metal, which can cause further continuation of the arc, or creation of additional short circuits, potentially resulting in the explosion of the circuit breaker and the equipment that it is installed in. Therefore, circuit breakers must incorporate various features to divide and extinguish the arc. The maximum short-circuit current that a breaker can interrupt is determined by testing. Application of a breaker in a circuit with a prospective short-circuit current higher than the breaker's interrupting capacity rating may result in failure of the breaker to safely interrupt a fault. In a worst-case scenario the breaker may successfully interrupt the fault, only to explode when reset. Typical domestic panel circuit breakers are rated to interrupt {{val|10|ul=kA}} ({{val|10000|u=A}}) short-circuit current.<!-- Other common values are 6 kA and 25 kA--> Miniature circuit breakers used to protect control circuits or small appliances may not have sufficient interrupting capacity to use at a panel board; these circuit breakers are called "supplemental circuit protectors" to distinguish them from distribution-type circuit breakers. ==Standard current ratings== [[File:Standard_Trip_Characteristic_of_a_Thermomagnetic_Circuit_Breaker.svg|thumb|Time till trip versus current as multiple of nominal current]] Circuit breakers are manufactured in standard sizes, using a system of [[preferred numbers]] to cover a range of ratings. Miniature circuit breakers have a fixed trip setting; changing the operating current value requires changing the whole circuit breaker. Larger circuit breakers can have adjustable trip settings, allowing standardized elements to be applied but with a setting intended to improve protection. For example, a circuit breaker with a 400 ampere "frame size" might have its overcurrent detection set to operate at only 300 amperes, to protect a feeder cable. [[International Standard]]s, IEC 60898-1 and [[European Standard]] EN 60898-1, define the ''rated current'' ''I''<sub>n</sub> of a circuit breaker for low voltage distribution applications as the maximum current that the breaker is designed to carry continuously (at an ambient air temperature of 30 °C). The commonly available preferred values for the rated current are 1{{nbsp}}A, 2{{nbsp}}A, 4{{nbsp}}A, 6 A, 10 A, 13 A, 16 A, 20 A, 25 A, 32 A, 40 A, 50 A, 63 A, 80 A, 100 A,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.consumerunitworld.co.uk/what-is-an-mcb-and-how-does-it-work-328-c.asp|title=What is an MCB and how does it work?|date=16 September 2016|website=Consumer Unit World}}</ref> and 125 A (similar to the R10 [[Renard series]], but using 6, 13, and 32 instead of 6.3, 12.5, and 31.5 – it includes the 13 A current limit of British [[BS 1363]] sockets). The circuit breaker is labeled with the rated current in [[ampere]]s, but excluding the unit symbol, A. Instead, the ampere figure is preceded by a letter, ''B'', ''C'', or ''D'', which indicates the ''instantaneous tripping current'' — that is, the minimum value of current that causes the circuit breaker to trip without intentional time delay (i.e., in less than 100 ms), expressed in terms of ''I''<sub>n</sub>: {| class="wikitable" ! Type ! Instantaneous tripping current |- | B | Above 3 ''I''<sub>n</sub> |- | C | Above 5 ''I''<sub>n</sub> up to and including 10 ''I''<sub>n</sub> |- | D | Above 10 ''I''<sub>n</sub> up to and including 20 ''I''<sub>n</sub> |- | K | Above 8 ''I''<sub>n</sub> up to and including 12 ''I''<sub>n</sub> For the protection of loads that cause frequent short duration (approximately 400 ms to 2 s) current peaks in normal operation. |- | Z | Above 2 ''I''<sub>n</sub> up to and including 3 ''I''<sub>n</sub> for periods in the order of tens of seconds. For the protection of loads such as semiconductor devices or measuring circuits using current transformers. |} Circuit breakers are also rated by the maximum fault current that they can interrupt; this allows use of more economical devices on systems unlikely to develop the high short-circuit current found on, for example, a large commercial building distribution system. In the United States, [[Underwriters Laboratories]] (UL) certifies equipment ratings, called Series Ratings (or "integrated equipment ratings") for circuit breaker equipment used for buildings. Power circuit breakers and medium- and high-voltage circuit breakers used for industrial or electric power systems are designed and tested to [[ANSI]] or [[IEEE]] standards in the C37 series. ==Types== [[File:LargeCircuitBreaker.jpg|thumb|Front panel of a 1250 A air circuit breaker manufactured by ABB. This low-voltage power circuit breaker can be withdrawn from its housing for servicing. Trip characteristics are configurable via [[DIP switch]]es on the front panel.]] Many classifications of circuit breakers can be made, based on their features such as voltage class, construction type, interrupting type, and structural features. ===Low-voltage=== Low-voltage (less than 1,000 V<sub>AC</sub>) types are common in domestic, commercial and industrial application, and include: *Miniature circuit breaker (MCB)—rated current up to 125 A. Trip characteristics normally not adjustable. Thermal or thermal-magnetic operation. Breakers illustrated above are in this category. *Molded Case Circuit Breaker (MCCB)—rated current up to 1,600 A. Thermal or thermal-magnetic operation. Trip current may be adjustable in larger ratings. *Low-voltage power circuit breakers can be mounted in multi-tiers in low-voltage switchboards or [[switchgear]] cabinets. The characteristics of low-voltage circuit breakers are given by international standards such as IEC 947. These circuit breakers are often installed in draw-out enclosures that allow removal and interchange without dismantling the switchgear. Large low-voltage molded case and power circuit breakers may have electric motor operators so they can open and close under remote control. These may form part of an [[automatic transfer switch]] system for standby power. Low-voltage circuit breakers are also made for direct-current (DC) applications, such as DC for subway lines. Direct current requires special breakers because the arc is continuous—unlike an AC arc, which tends to go out on each half cycle. A direct current circuit breaker has blow-out coils that generate a magnetic field that rapidly stretches the arc. Small circuit breakers are either installed directly in equipment, or are arranged in a [[distribution board|breaker panel]]. [[File:Circuitbreaker.jpg|thumb|Inside of a circuit breaker]]The [[DIN rail]]-mounted thermal-magnetic miniature circuit breaker is the most common style in modern domestic [[consumer unit]]s and commercial electrical [[distribution board]]s throughout [[Europe]]. The design includes the following components: #Actuator [[lever]] - used to manually trip and reset the circuit breaker. Also indicates the status of the circuit breaker (On or Off/tripped). Most breakers are designed so they can still trip even if the lever is held or locked in the "on" position. This is sometimes referred to as "free trip" or "positive trip" operation. #Actuator mechanism - forces the contacts together or apart. #Contacts - allow current when touching and break the current when moved apart. #Terminals #Bimetallic strip - separates contacts in response to smaller, longer-term overcurrents #Calibration [[screw]] - allows the [[manufacturer]] to precisely adjust the trip current of the device after assembly. #Solenoid - separates contacts rapidly in response to high overcurrents #Arc divider/extinguisher ===Solid state=== ''Solid-state circuit breakers'', also known as ''digital circuit breakers'' are a technological innovation which promises advance circuit breaker technology out of the mechanical level, into the electrical. This promises several advantages, such as cutting the circuit in fractions of microseconds, better monitoring of circuit loads and longer lifetimes.<ref name="eeweb">https://www.eeweb.com/app-notes/solid-state-circuit-breaker</ref> ===Magnetic=== ''Magnetic circuit breakers'' use a [[solenoid]] ([[electromagnet]]) whose pulling force increases with the [[electric current|current]]. Certain designs utilize electromagnetic forces in addition to those of the solenoid. The circuit breaker contacts are held closed by a latch. As the current in the solenoid increases beyond the rating of the circuit breaker, the solenoid's pull releases the latch, which lets the contacts open by spring action. They are the most commonly used circuit breakers in the USA. ===Thermal-magnetic=== [[File:SHT-06.jpg|thumb|Shihlin Electric MCCB with SHT]] ''Thermal magnetic circuit breakers'', which are the type found in most [[distribution board]]s in Europe and countries with a similar wiring arrangements, incorporate both techniques with the electromagnet responding instantaneously to large surges in current (short circuits) and the bimetallic strip responding to less extreme but longer-term over-current conditions. The thermal portion of the circuit breaker provides a time response feature, that trips the circuit breaker sooner for larger over currents but allows smaller overloads to persist for a longer time. This allows short current spikes such as are produced when a motor or other non-resistive load is switched on. With very large over-currents during a short-circuit, the magnetic element trips the circuit breaker with no intentional additional delay.<ref>John Matthews ''Introduction to the Design and Analysis of Building Electrical Systems'' Springer 1993 0442008740 page 86</ref> ===Magnetic-hydraulic=== A ''magnetic-hydraulic'' circuit breaker uses a solenoid coil to provide operating force to open the contacts. Magnetic-hydraulic breakers incorporate a hydraulic time delay feature using a viscous fluid. A spring restrains the core until the current exceeds the breaker rating. During an overload, the speed of the solenoid motion is restricted by the fluid. The delay permits brief current surges beyond normal running current for motor starting, energizing equipment, etc. Short-circuit currents provide sufficient solenoid force to release the latch regardless of core position thus bypassing the delay feature. Ambient temperature affects the time delay but does not affect the current rating of a magnetic breaker.<ref>Hwaiyu Geng, ''Data Center Handbook'', John Wiley & Sons,2014 page 542</ref> Large power circuit breakers, applied in circuits of more than 1000 volts, may incorporate hydraulic elements in the contact operating mechanism. Hydraulic energy may be supplied by a pump, or stored in accumulators. These form a distinct type from oil-filled circuit breakers where oil is the arc extinguishing medium.<ref>G R Jones (ed), ''Electrical Engineer's Reference Book'', Butterworth - Heinemann Ltd, 1993, page 25/14</ref> ===Common trip (ganged) breakers=== [[File:Breaker3phase2a proc.jpg|thumb|Three-pole common trip breaker for supplying a three-phase device. This breaker has a 2 A rating.]] To provide simultaneous breaking on multiple circuits from a fault on any one, circuit breakers may be made as a ganged assembly. This is a very common requirement for 3 phase systems, where breaking may be either 3 or 4 pole (solid or switched neutral). Some makers make ganging kits to allow groups of single phase breakers to be interlinked as required. In the US, where split phase supplies are common, in branch circuits with more than one live conductor, each live conductor must be protected by a breaker pole. To ensure that all live conductors are interrupted when any pole trips, a "common trip" breaker must be used. These may either contain two or three tripping mechanisms within one case, or for small breakers, may externally tie the poles together via their operating handles. Two-pole common trip breakers are common on 120/240-volt systems where 240 volt loads (including [[major appliance]]s or further distribution boards) span the two live wires. Three-pole common trip breakers are typically used to supply [[three-phase electric power]] to large motors or further distribution boards. Separate circuit breakers must never be used for live and neutral, because if the neutral is disconnected while the live conductor stays connected, a very dangerous condition arises: the circuit appears de-energized (appliances don't work), but wires remain live and some [[residual-current device]]s (RCDs) may not trip if someone touches the live wire (because some RCDs need power to trip). This is why only common trip breakers must be used when neutral wire switching is needed. ===Shunt-trip units=== A shunt-trip unit appears similar to a normal breaker and the moving actuators are 'ganged' to a normal breaker mechanism to operate together in a similar way, but the shunt trip is a solenoid intended to be operated by an external constant voltage signal, rather than a current, commonly the local mains voltage or {{nbsp}} DC. These are often used to cut the power when a high risk event occurs, such as a fire or flood alarm, or another electrical condition, such as over voltage detection. Shunt trips may be a user fitted accessory to a standard breaker, or supplied as an integral part of the circuit breaker. ===Medium-voltage=== [[File:Siemens WL II 2500N air circuit breaker.jpg|thumb|An air circuit breaker of Siemens brand mounted on a motor control cubicle]] Medium-voltage circuit breakers rated between 1 and 72{{nbsp}}kV may be assembled into metal-enclosed switchgear line ups for indoor use, or may be individual components installed outdoors in a [[electrical substation|substation]]. Air-break circuit breakers replaced oil-filled units for indoor applications, but are now themselves being replaced by vacuum circuit breakers (up to about 40.5{{nbsp}}kV). Like the high voltage circuit breakers described below, these are also operated by current sensing protective [[relay]]s operated through [[current transformer]]s. The characteristics of MV breakers are given by international standards such as IEC 62271. Medium-voltage circuit breakers nearly always use separate current sensors and [[protective relay]]s, instead of relying on built-in thermal or magnetic overcurrent sensors. Medium-voltage circuit breakers can be classified by the medium used to extinguish the arc: *[[Vacuum interrupter|Vacuum circuit breakers]]—With rated current up to 6,300{{nbsp}}A, and higher for generator circuit breakers application (up to 16,000{{nbsp}}A & 140{{nbsp}}kA). These breakers interrupt the current by creating and extinguishing the arc in a vacuum container - aka "bottle". Long life bellows are designed to travel the 6–10 mm the contacts must part. These are generally applied for voltages up to about 40,500{{nbsp}}V,<ref>A few manufacturers now offer a single-bottle vacuum breaker rated up to 72.5{{nbsp}}kV and even 145{{nbsp}}kV. See https://www.edu-right.com/full-knowledge-about-integrated{{Dead link|date=July 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} Electrical Engineering in India, vol 157 issue 4 pages 13-23</ref> which corresponds roughly to the medium-voltage range of power systems. Vacuum circuit breakers have longer life expectancy between overhaul than do other circuit breakers. In addition their [[global warming potential]] is by far lower than [[Sulfur hexafluoride circuit breaker|SF<sub><big>6</big></sub> circuit breaker]]. *Air circuit breakers—Rated current up to 6,300{{nbsp}}A and higher for generator circuit breakers. Trip characteristics are often fully adjustable including configurable trip thresholds and delays. Usually electronically controlled, though some models are [[microprocessor]] controlled via an integral electronic trip unit. Often used for main power distribution in large industrial plant, where the breakers are arranged in draw-out enclosures for ease of maintenance. *[[Sulfur hexafluoride circuit breaker|SF<sub>6</sub> circuit breakers]] extinguish the arc in a chamber filled with [[sulfur hexafluoride]] gas. Medium-voltage circuit breakers may be connected into the circuit by bolted connections to bus bars or wires, especially in outdoor switchyards. Medium-voltage circuit breakers in switchgear line-ups are often built with draw-out construction, allowing breaker removal without disturbing power circuit connections, using a motor-operated or hand-cranked mechanism to separate the breaker from its enclosure. ===High-voltage=== <!-- [[Fiber optic current sensor]] links here. --> {{Main|High-voltage switchgear}} [[File:Oil circuit breaker MKP-110 Toliatti Russia.jpg|thumb|left|Three single-phase Soviet/Russian 110-kV oil circuit breakers]] [[File:400kv.jpg|thumb|400 kV SF<sub>6</sub> live-tank circuit breakers]] Electrical [[power transmission]] networks are protected and controlled by high-voltage breakers. The definition of ''high voltage'' varies but in power transmission work is usually thought to be 72.5 kV or higher, according to a recent definition by the [[International Electrotechnical Commission]] (IEC). High-voltage breakers are nearly always [[solenoid]]-operated, with current sensing [[protective relay]]s operated through [[current transformer]]s. In [[electrical substation|substation]]s the protective relay scheme can be complex, protecting equipment and buses from various types of overload or ground/earth fault. High-voltage breakers are broadly classified by the medium used to extinguish the arc: * Bulk oil * Minimum oil * Air blast * [[Vacuum interrupter|Vacuum]] * [[Sulfur hexafluoride|SF<sub>6</sub>]] * [[Carbon dioxide|CO<sub>2</sub>]] Due to environmental and cost concerns over insulating oil spills, most new breakers use SF<sub>6</sub> gas to quench the arc. Circuit breakers can be classified as ''live tank'', where the enclosure that contains the breaking mechanism is at line potential, or ''dead tank'' with the enclosure at earth potential. High-voltage AC circuit breakers are routinely available with ratings up to 765 kV. 1,200{{nbsp}}kV breakers were launched by Siemens in November 2011,<ref>{{cite web|title=Siemens launches world's first 1200kV SF6 Circuit Breaker|url=http://www.indiainfoline.com/Markets/News/Siemens-launches-worlds-first-1200-kV-SF6-Circuit-Breaker/5286275764|accessdate=14 November 2011}}</ref> followed by ABB in April the following year.<ref>{{cite web|title=ABB to develop ultra high voltage circuit breaker|url=http://www.utilities-me.com/article-1884-abb-to-develop-ultra-high-voltage-circuit-breaker/|accessdate=14 August 2012}}</ref> High-voltage circuit breakers used on transmission systems may be arranged to allow a single pole of a three-phase line to trip, instead of tripping all three poles; for some classes of faults this improves the system stability and availability. [[High-voltage direct current]] circuit breakers are still a field of research as of 2015. Such breakers would be useful to interconnect HVDC transmission systems.<ref>{{cite web|title=High Voltage DC Switch Enables Supergrids for Renewable Energy, MIT Technology Review|url=http://www.technologyreview.com/featuredstory/513736/supergrids/|accessdate=19 July 2013}}</ref> ===Sulfur hexafluoride (SF<sub>6</sub>) high-voltage=== {{Main|Sulfur hexafluoride circuit breaker}} A sulfur hexafluoride circuit breaker uses contacts surrounded by sulfur hexafluoride gas to quench the arc. They are most often used for transmission-level voltages and may be incorporated into compact gas-insulated switchgear. In cold climates, supplemental heating or de-rating of the circuit breakers may be required due to liquefaction of the SF6 gas. ===Disconnecting circuit breaker (DCB)=== <!-- "Fiber optic current sensor" links here --> <!-- "Disconnector" links here --> The disconnecting circuit breaker (DCB) was introduced in 2000<ref>{{cite web|title=Applications of Disconnecting Circuit Breakers, Michael Faxå, p.1 |url=http://www.labplan.ufsc.br/congressos/td2006/Papers/TD06_525.pdf |accessdate=9 July 2012 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130516021322/http://www.labplan.ufsc.br/congressos/td2006/Papers/TD06_525.pdf |archivedate=16 May 2013 }}</ref> and is a high-voltage circuit breaker modeled after the SF<sub>6</sub>-breaker. It presents a technical solution where the disconnecting function is integrated in the breaking chamber, eliminating the need for separate disconnectors. This increases the [[availability]], since open-air disconnecting switch main contacts need maintenance every 2–6 years, while modern circuit breakers have maintenance intervals of 15 years. Implementing a DCB solution also reduces the space requirements within the substation, and increases the [[reliability engineering|reliability]], due to the lack of separate disconnectors.<ref>{{cite web|title= HPL Disconnecting Circuit Breaker|url=http://www.abb.com/product/db0003db002618/c12573e7003302adc1256e44006c19a3.aspx|accessdate=9 July 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title= Disconnecting Circuit Breakers, Buyer's and Application Guide, p. 10 |url=http://www05.abb.com/global/scot/scot245.nsf/veritydisplay/775535a79394e670c1257c0800202299/$file/1HSM%209543%2023-03en%20DCB%20Application%20Guide%20Ed3%20-%202013-09%20-%20English.pdf|accessdate=15 September 2014}}</ref> In order to further reduce the required space of substation, as well as simplifying the design and engineering of the substation, a [[fiber optic current sensor]] (FOCS) can be integrated with the DCB. A 420 kV DCB with integrated FOCS can reduce a substation's [[ecological footprint|footprint]] with over 50% compared to a conventional solution of [[circuit breaker#High-voltage circuit breakers|live tank breakers]] with [[disconnector]]s and [[current transformer]]s, due to reduced material and no additional insulation medium.<ref>{{cite web|title= 362 – 550 kV Disconnecting Circuit Breaker with FOCS: Small, smart and flexible, p.1|url= http://search-ext.abb.com/library/Download.aspx?DocumentID=1HSM%209543%2021-10en&LanguageCode=en&DocumentPartId=&Action=Launch|accessdate=3 July 2013}}</ref> ===Carbon dioxide (CO<sub>2</sub>) high-voltage=== In 2012 ABB presented a 75{{nbsp}}kV high-voltage breaker that uses carbon dioxide as the medium to extinguish the arc. The carbon dioxide breaker works on the same principles as an SF<sub>6</sub> breaker and can also be produced as a disconnecting circuit breaker. By switching from SF<sub>6</sub> to CO<sub>2</sub> it is possible to reduce the CO<sub>2</sub> emissions by 10 tons during the product's life cycle.<ref>{{cite web|title= Switzerland: ABB breaks new ground with environment friendly high-voltage circuit breaker. |url= http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Switzerland+%3A+ABB+breaks+new+ground+with+environment+friendly...-a0300987882|accessdate=7 June 2013}}</ref> == "Smart" circuit breakers == Several firms have looked at adding monitoring for appliances via electronics or using a digital circuit breaker to monitor the breakers remotely. Utility companies in the United States have been reviewing use of the technology to turn on and off appliances, as well as potentially turning off charging of electric cars during periods of high electrical grid load. These devices under research and testing would have wireless capability to monitor the electrical usage in a house via a smartphone app or other means.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|url=https://www.economist.com/news/science-and-technology/21731610-old-fuse-box-gets-new-lease-life-smart-circuit-breakers|title=Smart circuit-breakers for energy-efficient homes|journal=The Economist|access-date=2018-01-15|date=2017-11-23}}</ref> ==Other breakers== [[File:ABB RCBO.jpg|thumb|[[Residual current circuit breaker]] with overload protection]] The following types are described in separate articles. *Breakers for protections against earth faults too small to trip an over-current device: **RCCB (Residual Current Operated Circuit-Breaker without Integral Overcurrent Protection) as a type of [[Residual-current device]] (RCD, formerly known as a ''residual current device'') — detects current imbalance, but does not provide over-current protection. In the United States and Canada these are called ''ground fault circuit interrupters'' (''GFCI''). **Residual current breaker with over-current protection (RCBO) — combines the functions of an RCD and an MCB in one package. In the United States and Canada these are called GFCI breakers. **[[Earth leakage circuit breaker]] (ELCB) — This detects current in the earth wire directly rather than detecting imbalance. They are no longer seen in new installations as they cannot detect any dangerous condition where the current is returning to earth by another route - such as via a person on the ground or via plumbing. (also called VOELCB in the UK). *[[Recloser]] — A type of circuit breaker that closes automatically after a delay. These are used on overhead [[electric power distribution]] systems, to prevent short duration faults from causing sustained outages. *[[Polyswitch]] (polyfuse) — A small device commonly described as an automatically resetting fuse rather than a circuit breaker. ==See also== {{Portal|Electronics}} *[[Arc-fault circuit interrupter]] *[[Ring Main Unit]] *[[Circuit total limitation]] (CTL) *[[Distribution board]] (Circuit breaker panel) *[[Earthing system]] *[[Hybrid switchgear module]] *[[Insulation monitoring device]] *[[Motor control center]] (MCC) *[[Network protector]] *[[Power distribution center]] (PDC) *[[Power system protection]] *[[Remote racking system]] *[[Sulfur hexafluoride circuit breaker]] ==References== {{Reflist|30em}} ;General *BS [[European Standard|EN]] 60898-1. Electrical accessories — Circuit breakers for over-current protection for household and similar installations. [[British Standards Institution]], 2003. {{Authority control}} {{Electricity delivery}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Circuit Breaker}} [[Category:Electric power distribution]] [[Category:Electric power systems components]] [[Category:Electrical wiring]] [[Category:Safety switches]] [[fi:Sulake#Palautettavia sulakkeita]] {{short description|Government agency in Puerto Rico}} {{Infobox government agency | agency_name = Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority | logo = | logo_width = 186px | formed = {{Start date and years ago|1941|05|02}} | headquarters = [[San Juan, Puerto Rico|San Juan]], [[Puerto Rico]] | chief1_name = Jose Ortiz (Salary: $250.000 Annual) | chief1_position = Executive Director | keydocument1 = [http://www.presupuesto.gobierno.pr/PresupuestosAnteriores/af2008_2009/Tomo_II/suppdocs/baselegal/169/169.pdf Act No. 83 of 1941] | website = {{official URL}} }} The '''Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority''' ('''PREPA''') —Spanish: ''Autoridad de Energía Eléctrica '' ('''AEE''')— is an [[electric power company]] and [[List of government-owned corporations of Puerto Rico|the government-owned corporation of Puerto Rico]] responsible for [[electricity generation]], [[electric power distribution|power distribution]], and [[electric power transmission|power transmission]] on [[Puerto Rico|the island]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.presupuesto.gobierno.pr/PresupuestosAnteriores/af2008_2009/Tomo_II/suppdocs/baselegal/169/169.pdf |format=PDF |title=Ley de la Autoridadf de Energia Electrica de Puerto Rico |publisher=Presupuesto.gobierno.pr |accessdate=2015-03-03}}</ref> PREPA is the only entity authorized to conduct such business in Puerto Rico, making it a [[government monopoly]]. The authority is ruled by a board of directors appointed by [[governor of Puerto Rico|the governor]] with the [[advice and consent]] of [[Senate of Puerto Rico|the Senate]]. Since 2014, PREPA is subject to the [[Puerto Rico Energy Commission]], another government agency whose board of directors is also appointed by the governor. [[Hurricane Maria]] in September 2017 destroyed PREPA's distribution network, creating a blackout in all parts of the island.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theverge.com/2017/9/25/16362410/hurricane-maria-puerto-rico-power-outages-electrical-grid-destroyed |title=Why Hurricane Maria left Puerto Rico completely without power |work=The Verge|access-date=2017-09-28}}</ref> On January 22, 2018 the [[governor of Puerto Rico]], [[Ricardo Rossello]], announced that all assets of the Authority will be sold in a general privatization of PREPA. == History == PREPA was originally named the '''Puerto Rico Water Resources Authority''' (PRWRA)—{{lang-es|Autoridad de las Fuentes Fluviales}} ('''AFF''')—which was created by Law No. 83 of May 2, 1941,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.prepa.com/historia_eng.asp |title=Welcome to PREPA |publisher=Prepa.com |date= |accessdate=2015-03-03}}</ref> during the governorship of [[Rexford G. Tugwell]]. [[List of government-owned corporations of Puerto Rico|Government-owned]], PRWRA unified diverse regional and local electric power companies into one unified electric grid. ===Maintenance budget=== Over the years the budget for maintenance, such as clearing trees near power lines, has diminished: in 2007 it was $251 million and in 2014 it was $202 million.<ref name="PREPA Stmt">{{cite web |title=PREPA Financial Stmts |url=http://www.gdb-pur.com/investors_resources/documents/PREPA-FS-6.30.2014.pdf |website=Gov't Development Bank for Puerto Rico |publisher=Gov't of Puerto Rico |accessdate=25 August 2019}}</ref><ref name="Explore Parts Unknown 2017">{{cite web | title=What you should have been taught about Puerto Rico | website=Explore Parts Unknown | date=5 November 2017 | url=https://explorepartsunknown.com/puerto-rico/what-you-shouldve-been-taught-about-puerto-rico/ | access-date=25 August 2019}}</ref> ===Islandwide outages=== Throughout its history, PREPA has suffered several [[power outage|outages]] that have left the entire island of Puerto Rico without power. One of these islandwide outages occurred on September 20, 2016 due to a fire at one of PREPA's plants—Central Aguirre.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/latino/puerto-rico-power-plant-fire-causes-massive-blackout-n652216|title=Puerto Rico blackout leaves more than 1 million without power|work=NBC News|access-date=2017-12-16|language=en-US}}</ref> All of Puerto Rico was without power for three days. ===Hurricanes Irma and Maria=== [[File:Puerto Rico monthly electricity sales by sector, January 2016 through May 2018 (43165035474).png|thumb|upright=1.3|Hurricanes Irma and Maria sharply reduced the availability of electricity throughout the island]] At the first days of September 2017, the eye of [[Hurricane Irma]] passed north of the island. The strong winds left 1 million residents without power. Power had been restored to 980,000 people by September 20, when [[Hurricane Maria]] struck, leaving nearly the entire island without power. Two weeks later, power had been restored to about 10% of customers.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-puertorico-utility-specialreport/special-report-the-bankrupt-utility-behind-puerto-ricos-power-crisis-idUSKBN1C92B5|title=Special Report: The bankrupt utility behind Puerto Rico’s power crisis|date= 2017-10-05|work=Reuters|access-date=2017-10-06}}</ref> Full restoration was expected to take months, and many Puerto Ricans bought generators.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/07/us/puerto-rico-power-generators.html|title=Minus Electrical Grid, Puerto Rico Becomes Generator Island|last=Fausset|first=Richard|date=2017-10-07|work=The New York Times|access-date=2017-10-11|last2=Robles|first2=Frances|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|last3=Acosta|first3=Deborah}}</ref> Electric companies in unaffected areas ordinarily make contracts for speedy assistance to those hit by disaster, but in this case negotiations took weeks. The initial $300 million contract for power restoration was given to [[Whitefish Energy]], a Montana company which had only two employees on the day the hurricane struck.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://money.cnn.com/2017/10/25/news/economy/whitefish-san-juan-mayor/index.html |title=San Juan's mayor takes on small Montana firm over Puerto Rico power contract |first=Donna |last=Borak |date=October 25, 2017 |newspaper=[[CNN]] }}</ref> The award was controversial on those and other grounds, and was cancelled on October 29. By December 2017, the Army Corps of Engineers had other contractors in place, along with crews brought in through mutual aid agreements with utilities such as [[Con Edison]].<ref name="marketplace1dec2017">{{cite web|title=Working To Get The Lights Back On In Puerto Rico|url=https://www.marketplace.org/2017/12/01/world/crews-new-york-among-those-restoring-puerto-ricos-power|website=Marketplace|accessdate=12 December 2017|date=December 1, 2017}}</ref> Six weeks after Hurricane Maria, 30% of customers had been restored.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2017/10/30/puerto-rico-power-restoration-why-taking-so-long/806747001/|title=Puerto Rico power restoration: Why it is taking so long|work=USA TODAY|access-date=2017-11-01|language=en}}</ref> After two months, almost half had been restored.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.newsweek.com/when-will-puerto-rico-have-power-half-island-still-without-electricity-after-716006|title=When will Puerto Rico have power? Half of island still without electricity after head of power authority resigns|date=2017-11-18|work=Newsweek|access-date=2017-11-24|language=en}}</ref> On January 6, 2018, representatives of [[FEMA]], the [[U.S. Army Corps of Engineers]] and their armed security details entered a Palo Seco warehouse owned by PREPA to obtain and distribute a massive store of spare parts were needed to restore grid power. PREPA has been accused of hoarding the materials and hence delaying the restoration of power. The equipment has since been distributed.<ref>[https://theintercept.com/2018/01/10/puerto-rico-electricity-prepa-hurricane-maria/ Kate Arnoff, “Armed Federal Agents Enter Warehouse in Puerto Rico to Seize Hoarded Electric Equipment”, The Intercept, 10 January 2018]</ref> In January 2018, it had been predicted that generation would reach 95% by the following month, and 100% of customers would be restored by June 2018. On April 18, 2018, an accident at a transmission line knocked out the electrical grid of Puerto Rico. All the island lost power. The following afternoon, PREPA announced that service had been restored to 97% of customers, the same percentage as before this blackout. 40,000 customers were still out of service due to the hurricane seven months earlier.<ref name="Apagón April 2018">{{cite web | title=Apagón en Puerto Rico afecta a toda la isla | website=CNN | date=18 April 2018 | url=https://cnnespanol.cnn.com/2018/04/18/apagon-en-puerto-rico-afecta-a-toda-la-isla/ | language=es | access-date=25 August 2019}}</ref> With June 1 the official start of the 2018 hurricane season, an estimated 11,000+ customers remained without power, possibly for another two months.<ref>{{cite web |title=As hurricane season begins, 11,000 customers in Puerto Rico still without power |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/puerto-rico-hurricane-maria-despair-11000-still-without-power/ |website=CBS News |accessdate=14 June 2018 |language=en}}</ref> Although an estimated $3.8B was spent on power grid work since the September hurricanes, the grid is still considered fragile and vulnerable.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Weissenstein |first1=Michael |title=As hurricane season begins, 11,000 customers in Puerto Rico still without power |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/puerto-rico-hurricane-maria-despair-11000-still-without-power/ |publisher=Associated Press |accessdate=14 June 2018 |language=en}}</ref> PREPA announced a $500M one-year master services agreement with [[MasTec]] for further power grid reconstruction and modernization services.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Lievonen |first1=John |title=MasTec snags $500M contract with utility in Puerto Rico |url=https://www.bizjournals.com/southflorida/news/2018/06/05/mastec-snags-500-million-contract-with-utility-in.html |website=www.bizjournals.com |accessdate=14 June 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Walton |first1=Robert |title=Puerto Rico's utility signs $500M recovery contract with MasTec |url=https://www.utilitydive.com/news/puerto-ricos-utility-signs-500m-recovery-contract-with-mastec/524918/ |website=Utility Dive |accessdate=14 June 2018}}</ref> == Structure == === Board of directors === PREPA's [[board of directors]] serves as the authority's governing body, with a membership that usually consists of private citizens entrusted with representing the public interest and may or may not include exofficio political officeholders (typically the [[Secretary of Economic Development and Commerce of Puerto Rico|Secretary of Economic Development and Commerce]]). Three members of the board are directly elected by consumers by [[plurality-at-large]]; two of them by residential consumers and one by commercial ones. However, when both the [[governor of Puerto Rico|governor]] and the [[Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico|legislature]] belong to [[government trifecta|the same party]], one of the earliest laws amended by the legislature is the one governing PREPA's board composition. The governor is usually required to appoint four members with the [[advice and consent]] of [[Senate of Puerto Rico|the Senate]], who along with the incumbent political officeholders which serve in [[ex officio]] capacity effectively render the authority a partisan tool rather than an electric utility. {{outdated section|date=October 2017}} The last structural change to the board occurred on June 11, 2018 after governor [[Ricardo Rossello]]. {| class="wikitable sortable" style="margin: auto" |+ 2018 PREPA Board of Directors | Autoridad de Acueductos y Alcantarillados de Puerto Rico | Chairman | Public interest | Eli Díaz Atiencia | Vice Chairman | Elected by consumers | [[Vacant]] | Engineer | Secretary | Exofficio | Ralph A. Kreil Rivera | Autoridad de Asesoría Financiera y Agencia Fical de Puerto Rico | At-large | Christian Sobrino | At-large | Elected by Consumers | Vacant |- | At-large | Elected by consumers | [[Vacant]] | Main Access to Infrastructure | At-large | María Palou |} ===Power plants=== PREPA serves close to 1.5 million customers through several power plants:<ref>{{cite web|author= |url=http://www.elnuevodia.com/proponensuspendersubsidiosdelaaeeporseismeses-1782693.html |title=Proponen suspender subsidios de la AEE por seis meses | El Nuevo Día |publisher=Elnuevodia.com |date=2014-06-25 |accessdate=2015-03-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.prepa.com/aeees2_eng.asp |title=Welcome to PREPA |publisher=Prepa.com |date= |accessdate=2015-03-03}}</ref> {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! Power plant ! Capacity ! Energy source ! Ownership ! Owner ! Operator ! Location |- | ''[[AES Ilumina]]''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://aes.com/global/index?page=home_solar&id=02013915b0333013094ad1bf6006fde&view=AES_SOLAR&ch=NEWS&cat=HOME_SOLAR&locale=es |title=Press Release |publisher=AES Solar |date={{date|2011-09-30|mdy}} |accessdate={{date|2013-09-07|mdy}} }}</ref> | data-sort-value=24 | 24 MW | [[solar power]] | private | [[AES Corporation]] | [[AES Corporation]] | [[Guayama, Puerto Rico|Guayama]] |- | ''[[AES Puerto Rico]]''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aespuertorico.com/ |title=AES : Homepage |publisher=Aespuertorico.com |accessdate=2015-03-03}}</ref> | data-sort-value=454 | 454 MW | [[coal]] | private | [[AES Corporation]] | [[AES Corporation]] | [[Guayama, Puerto Rico|Guayama]] |- | ''[[Puerto Rico Aguirre Power Plant|Aguirre Combined Cycle]]''<ref name="central-aguirre">{{cite web |url=http://aeepr.com/AGUIRRE.ASP |title=Central Aguirre |publisher=Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority |accessdate={{date|2013-09-02|mdy}} |language=Spanish }}</ref> | data-sort-value=592 | 592 MW | [[heavy fuel oil]] | publicly owned | PREPA | PREPA | [[Salinas, Puerto Rico|Salinas]] |- | ''[[Puerto Rico Aguirre Power Plant|Aguirre Thermoelectric]]''<ref name="central-aguirre" /> | data-sort-value=900 | 900 MW | [[diesel oil]] | publicly owned | PREPA | PREPA | [[Salinas, Puerto Rico|Salinas]] |- | ''[[Puerto Rico Cambalache Power Plant|Cambalache]]'' | data-sort-value=247 | 247 MW | [[diesel oil]] | publicly owned | PREPA | PREPA | [[Arecibo, Puerto Rico|Arecibo]] |- | ''[[Puerto Rico Costa Sur Power Plant|Costa Sur]]'' | data-sort-value=990 | 990 MW | [[heavy fuel oil]] | publicly owned | PREPA | PREPA | [[Guayanilla, Puerto Rico|Guayanilla]] |- | ''[[EcoEléctrica]]''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ecoelectrica.com/ourfacilities/ourpowerplant.html |title=Our power plant| accessdate=July 28, 2011 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090416233535/http://ecoelectrica.com/ourfacilities/ourpowerplant.html |archivedate=April 16, 2009 }}</ref> | data-sort-value=510 | 510 MW | [[natural gas]] | private | [[Gas Natural|Gas Natural Fenosa, International Power]] | [[Gas Natural|Gas Natural Fenosa]] | [[Peñuelas, Puerto Rico|Peñuelas]] |- |''Oriana Solar Farm''<ref>[http://www.pv-tech.org/news/oriana-and-yarotek-connect-caribbeans-largest-solar-project-to-grid Oriana and Yarotek connect Caribbean's largest solar project to grid], pv-tech, Tom Kenning Sep 15, 2016</ref> | data-sort-value=45 | 45 MW (58MW(<sub>DC</sub>)) | [[solar power]] | private | [[Sonnedix]] | Sonnedix |[[Isabela, Puerto Rico|Isabela]] |- | ''[[Puerto Rico Palo Seco Power Plant|Palo Seco]]'' | data-sort-value=602 | 602 MW | [[heavy fuel oil]] | publicly owned | PREPA | PREPA | [[Cataño, Puerto Rico|Cataño]] |- | ''[http://www.elawan.com/en/business/innovating-projects/punta-lima Punta Lima]'' | data-sort-value=26 | 26 MW | [[wind power]] | private | [[Sovereign Bank]]<ref>{{cite news |url=http://newsismybusiness.com/punta-lima-wind-farm-sold-to-sovereign-bank-for-88m/ |title=Punta Lima wind farm sold to Sovereign Bank for $88M |first=Michelle |last=Kantrow |date={{date|2013-03-12|mdy}} |accessdate={{date|2013-09-07|mdy}} |newspaper=[[News Is My Business]] }}</ref> | [[Gestamp Wind]] | [[Naguabo, Puerto Rico|Naguabo]] |- | ''[[Salinas Solar Park]]''<ref name="salinas-solar-park">{{cite web|title=Sonnedix and Yarotek reach commercial operation of 16 megawatt photovoltaic solar energy project in Puerto Rico | Sonnedix|url=http://www.sonnedix.com/news/sonnedix-and-yarotek-reach-commecial-operation-of-16-megawatt-photovoltaic-solar-energy-project-in-puerto-rico/|website=Sonnedix|accessdate=20 November 2017}}</ref> | data-sort-value=16 | 16 MW | [[solar power]] | private | [[Sonnedix]] | Sonnedix | [[Salinas, Puerto Rico|Salinas]] |- | ''[[Puerto Rico San Juan Power Plant|San Juan Combined Cycle]]''<ref name="central-san-juan">{{cite web |url=http://aeepr.com/SANJUAN.ASP |title=Central San Juan |publisher=Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority |accessdate={{date|2013-09-02|mdy}} |language=Spanish }}</ref> | data-sort-value=464 | 464 MW | [[diesel oil]] | publicly owned | PREPA | PREPA | [[San Juan, Puerto Rico|San Juan]] |- | ''[[Puerto Rico San Juan Power Plant|San Juan Thermoelectric]]''<ref name="central-san-juan" /> | data-sort-value=400 | 400 MW | [[heavy fuel oil]] | publicly owned | PREPA | PREPA | [[San Juan, Puerto Rico|San Juan]] |- | ''[[San Fermin Solar Farm]]''<ref name="administratrion1">[http://www.eia.gov/state/analysis.cfm?sid=RQ PUERTO RICO Puerto Rico Profile, Territory Profile and Energy Estimates], U.S. Energy Information Administratrion, December 18, 2013</ref><ref name="Loíza-manufacturer-details">{{cite web|title=27 MW Photovoltaic Plant|url=http://en.grupotsk.com/proyectos/puerto-rico|website=TSK|accessdate=20 November 2017}}</ref> | data-sort-value=27 | 27 MW | [[solar power]] | private | Uriel Renewables and Coqui Power | Uriel Renewables and Coqui Power | [[Loiza, Puerto Rico|Loiza]] |- | ''[[Santa Isabel Wind Farm]]''<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.elnuevodia.com/funcionandoamaximacapacidadelparqueeolicodesantaisabel-1584008.html |title=Funcionando a máxima capacidad el parque eólico de Santa Isabel |first=Gerardo |last=Alvarado León |date={{date|2013-08-29|mdy}} |accessdate={{date|2013-08-29|mdy}} |language=Spanish |newspaper=[[El Nuevo Día]] }}</ref> | data-sort-value=75 | 75 MW | [[wind power]] | private | [[Pattern Energy]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.patternenergy.com/business/projects/santa_isabel |title=Finca de Viento Santa Isabel |publisher=Pattern Energy |accessdate={{date|2013-08-29|mdy}} }}</ref> | [[Pattern Energy]] | [[Santa Isabel, Puerto Rico|Santa Isabel]] |- | ''[[Windmar Ponce]]''<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.periodicolaperla.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1579:en-ponce-la-finca-fotovoltaica-mas-grande&catid=81:locales&Itemid=198 |title=En Ponce la finca fotovoltaica más grande |accessdate={{date|2013-09-07|mdy}} |language=Spanish |newspaper=[[La Perla del Sur]] }}</ref> | data-sort-value=4.5 | 4.5 MW | [[solar power]] | private | [[Windmar Renewable Energy]] | [[Windmar Renewable Energy]] | [[Ponce, Puerto Rico|Ponce]] |} Puerto Rico has 21 hydroelectric plants.<ref>[https://www.eia.gov/state/analysis.php?sid=RQ], EIA Profile Analysis</ref> ===Subsidiaries=== The public corporation also provides [[fiber optic]] [[broadband]] to private carriers through one of its subsidiary, [[PREPA Networks]]. PREPA is also studying the possibility of selling energy to the [[United States Virgin Islands]] with the installation of an underwater power cable between [[Fajardo, Puerto Rico|Fajardo]] and the island of [[Saint Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands|St. Thomas]]—similar to the power cable with which it services its clients in the island municipalities of [[Vieques]] and [[Culebra, Puerto Rico|Culebra]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.edinenergy.org/pdfs/51294.pdf |title=Integrating Renewable Energy into the Transmission and Distribution System of the U.S. Virgin Islands |accessdate=May 31, 2014 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510150017/http://www.edinenergy.org/pdfs/51294.pdf |archivedate=May 10, 2013 }}</ref> ===Labor unions=== There are four [[labor union]]s that represent the workers from the authority exclusively [[UTIER]], [[UITICE]], [[UEPI]], and [[UPAEE]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aeepr.com/aeees.asp |title=La AEE es |language=Spanish |publisher=Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority |accessdate={{date|2013-08-06|mdy}} }}</ref><ref>{{cite court |url=http://www2.pr.gov/agencias/jrt/AvisosDesestimacion/Documents/Avisos%20de%20desestimacion/2011/Noviembre/CD-2011-01.pdf |litigants=Unión de Trabajadores de la Industria Eléctrica y Riego vs. Héctor Medina Torres |vol=2011 |reporter=CD |opinion=01 |language=Spanish |date={{date|2011-11-07|mdy}} |accessdate={{2013-08-06|mdy}} }}</ref> ==Finances== [[File:Prepa-operating-expenses-fy2013.png|thumb|300px|PREPA's operating expenses for FY2013 denote how fuel purchases take over 58% of the authority's operating expenses.]] As of 2014 the authority carries liabilities of US$10.1 billion against assets of $6 billion.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://issuu.com/vocero.com/docs/v04142014 |title=Edición 14 de Abril 2014 by El Vocero de Puerto Rico |publisher=ISSUU |date= |accessdate=2015-03-03}}</ref> It also operates with a deficit of about $354 million against revenues of $4.8 billion.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://elvocero.com/gobernador-y-junta-gobierno-discuten-finanzas-aee/ |title=Gobernador y Junta Gobierno discuten finanzas AEE | El Vocero de Puerto Rico |publisher=Elvocero.com |date= |accessdate=2015-03-03}}</ref><ref name="prepa-financial-statement">{{cite web|url=http://www2.pr.gov/presupuestos/Presupuesto2014-2015/Estados%20Financieros/EF%20169.pdf |format=PDF |title=Financial Statements, Required Supplementary Information and supplemental Schedules |publisher=Pr.gov |accessdate=2015-03-03}}</ref> In terms of costs, $2.6 billion or about 58% of PREPA's expenses are attributed to fuel purchases alone while salaries and collective bargains represent less than 13% of the authority's expenses.<ref name="prepa-financial-statement" /> On May 23, 2014, Citigroup severely curtailed PREPA's line of credit for fuel purchase, forcing PREPA to run out of cash to pay [[Petrobras]], its main oil supplier. Petrobras, in turn, threatened to cut off further shipments to the authority. This forced the authority to take $100 million out of its Capital Improvements Fund in order to pay its debt to Petrobras. PREPA argues that the different agencies of the [[government of Puerto Rico]] owe them more than $290 million in debt, while an additional $375 million of revenue is lost through subsidies enacted by the Puerto Rican legislature.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.metro.pr/locales/aee-solicita-al-gobierno-que-suelte-dinero-para-que-agencias-puedan-pagar-la-luz/pGXmfh!CIwMfXm2qCrko/ |title=AEE solicita al gobierno que suelte dinero para que agencias puedan pagar la luz – Metro |publisher=Metro.pr |date= |accessdate=2015-03-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.metro.pr/locales/revisaran-subsidios-aee-y-deudas-de-gobierno/pGXneD!gfvF6EsRLbqCs/ |title=Revisarán subsidios AEE y deudas de gobierno – Metro |publisher=Metro.pr |date= |accessdate=2015-03-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.elnuevodia.com/subsidiospor1millonaldia-1623521.html |title=Subsidios por $1 millón al día|accessdate=May 31, 2014 |url-status=dead |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20140531101326/http://www.elnuevodia.com/subsidiospor1millonaldia-1623521.html |archivedate=May 31, 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bajemoslafactura.com/propuesta-4 |title=Propuesta #4 |publisher=Bajemos la factura |date= |accessdate=2015-03-03}}</ref><ref name="end-leg-eval-subs">{{cite news |first=Gerardo |last=Alvarado León |newspaper=[[El Nuevo Día]] |date={{date|2014-06-03|mdy}} |title=Legislatura evaluará los subsidios energéticos |language=Spanish |publisher=printed version }}</ref> An additional $600 million is owed to the authority by residential and commercial consumers, some of them by consumers living in [[Public housing in Puerto Rico|public housing]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bajemoslafactura.com/propuesta-3 |title=Propuesta #3 |publisher=Bajemos la factura |date= |accessdate=2015-03-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author= |url=http://notiuno.com/sube-como-la-espuma-la-deuda-millonaria-que-tiene-los-abonados-de-residenciales-publicos-con-aee/ |title=Sube como la espuma la deuda millonaria que tiene los abonados de residenciales públicos con AEE -NotiUno 630 | Primeros Con La Noticia |publisher=Notiuno.com |date=2014-06-20 |accessdate=2015-03-03}}</ref> The authority argues that it wouldn't have a problem being self-sufficient if it were paid the aforementioned debt and if it weren't forced to give out subsidies. On June 3, 2014, senator [[Ramón Luis Nieves]] admitted publicly that, "part of the financial problem at PREPA was provoked by the government and the Puerto Rican legislature."<ref name="end-leg-eval-subs" /> On June 11, 2014, [[Fitch Ratings]] downgraded its rating on the authority's to speculative non-investment grade ("junk status") from BB+ to BB while putting the authority on negative rating watch.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.reuters.com/article/2014/06/11/usa-puertorico-electricity-idUSL2N0OS1PS20140611 |title=UPDATE 1-Fitch cuts Puerto Rico electricity authority's rating again |publisher=Reuters |date=2014-06-11 |accessdate=2015-03-03}}</ref> PREPA filed for bankruptcy in July 2017.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/07/02/business/puerto-ricos-electric-power-authority-effectively-files-for-bankruptcy.html|title=Puerto Rico’s Power Authority Effectively Files for Bankruptcy|author=Mary Williams Walsh|date=2 July 2017|access-date=17 April 2018}}</ref> {{clear}} ==Gallery== <gallery mode=packed heights="170px"> Critical electrical grid infrastructure in Guánica, Puerto Rico.jpg|Critical electrical grid infrastructure of Costa Sur in the [[Guánica State Forest]] PALO SECO ELECTRIC POWER PLANT ACROSS THE BAY FROM SAN JUAN - NARA - 546379.jpg|Palo Seco Power Plant, 1973. Photo by [[John Vachon]]. Western Area Power doing power restoration work in Puerto Rico.jpg|Western Area Power working for USACE, transferring the conductors from the damaged 38-kV transmission pole November 2017 </gallery> ==References== {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} ==External links== * {{official website}} * [https://www.tdworld.com/grid-optimization/puerto-rico-grid-build-back-better GRID INNOVATIONS Puerto Rico Grid: Build Back Better] {{Energy in Puerto Rico}} {{Government-owned corporations of Puerto Rico}} {{Public-private partnerships in Puerto Rico}} [[Category:Electric power companies of Puerto Rico]] [[Category:Energy infrastructure in Puerto Rico]] [[Category:Government-owned corporations of Puerto Rico]] [[Category:American companies established in 1941]] [[Category:Energy companies established in 1941]] [[Category:1941 establishments in Puerto Rico]] {{DISPLAYTITLE:<span style="display:none;">User talk:</span><span style="background:#006B54; padding:2px;" >'''<font color="white">Imzadi1979</font>'''</span> }} {{rollback topicon|icon_nr=6}}{{Massmessage-sender topicon|icon_nr=5}}{{autopatrolled topicon|icon_nr=4}}{{reviewer topicon|icon_nr=3}} {{File Mover|icon_nr=2}}{{template editor topicon|icon_nr=1}}{{email user}} {{bots|deny=BracketBot,Legobot,GA bot|optout=orfud}} {{User:MiszaBot/config |archiveheader = Talkarchivenav |maxarchivesize = 200K |counter = 9 |minthreadsleft = 0 |minthreadstoarchive = 1 |algo = old(7d) |archive = User talk:Imzadi1979/Archive %(counter)d }} {{User:Imzadi1979/talkheader}} {{-}} <noinclude>{{pp-semi-indef}}</noinclude>__NOTOC__ {{Infobox vandal | name = Link Smurf | shortcut = | image = <!-- Just the file name --> | Originalname = | lifespan = | ISP = | IPs = | hostmasks = | location = [[Puerto Rico]] | severity = | RFCs = | SPIs = [[Wikipedia:Sockpuppet investigations/Link Smurf|Link Smurf]] | RFARs = | Instructions = Suspected [[Wikipedia:Sock puppetry|socks]] should be tagged and reported to [[Wikipedia:Sockpuppet investigations|sockpuppet investigations]] for confirmation. When reporting, please link to this long-term abuse report. When the active abuse has been taken care of, please update this report with the latest information. | status = active }} {{warning|<big>'''Please report all ongoing incidents of abuse to [[WP:AIV|AIV]] or [[WP:ANI|ANI]]'''</big>}} ==Basic information== {{Vandal-m|Link Smurf}}</br> [http://en.wikichecker.com/user/?l=all&t=Link_Smurf Comprehensive edits analysis]</br> No basic information entered <!-- Insert basic information to the left --> ===Targeted areas, pages, themes=== <!-- Indicate WHAT they attack here --> *Editor is from Puerto Rico, has a fascination with the [[Interstate Highway System]], [[Interstate 69]] (or its state-detail subarticles), and Puerto Rican highways. ===Habitual behavior=== <!-- Indicate HOW they attack here, in general terms. Username patterns go here.--> <!-- Give broad indications, do NOT provide "giveaways" if they would help evade detection. --> *Editor also has a fascination with the nonsense word "eolgi" or variations on "porcelain". *Editor also has a tendency to leave Imzadi1979 talk page notices on other editions of Wikipedia, or sends that user mail; both activities result in the receipt of a mail message. *Editor adds the term "dover impulse" (a type of elevator) sometimes with a link to [[File:Dover_Impulse_at_Bob%27s_Furniture_-_Nashua,_NH.jpg]]. ===Cases === <!-- ABUSE, SPI, ANI, RFAR, and other major threads/subpages that provide useful background --> *[[Wikipedia:Sockpuppet investigations/Link Smurf]] and its [[Wikipedia:Sockpuppet investigations/Link Smurf/Archive|associated archive]] ===Other notes=== <!-- Any other notes go here. Edit filters applied also go here. --> *The saga started a year ago when this editor cloned Imzadi1979's user page and signature. Imzadi1979 asked the editor to at least customize the material on his user page so that it wasn't a 1:1 copy of the original user page. *In the interim, the editor created a sockpuppet, {{u|LrnzɑcliI979}}, which in some typefaces would look very close to "Imzadi1979". *Since the initial SPI generated by the impersonation, another 6 have been archived and we are on our 8th overall SPI now in just over a year's time. *When the editor resurfaces, the new accounts are often blocked as vandalism-only accounts. *A sock of another LTA, [[Wikipedia:Long-term abuse/David Beals|David Beals]] has claimed in one edit summary [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Los_Angeles&diff=prev&oldid=710628836] to also be the sockmaster of Link Smurf. *As shown in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Sockpuppet_investigations/ItsLassieTime/Archive#21_March_2016 this] SPI case, ItsLassieTime has impersonated Link Smurf. *Outside of Wikimedia projects, Link Smurf also vandalized the [[mariowiki:Main Page|Super Mario Wiki]] just after midnight GMT on 24 November 2019 and again circa 4:30PM GMT on 23 December 2019, demonstrating the exact same vandalism behavior. Aside from one IP ([[mariowiki:Special:Contributions/24.50.205.230|24.50.205.230]]), accounts used there for vandalism were [[mariowiki:Special:Contributions/Eolgi = interstate|Eolgi = interstate]], [[mariowiki:Special:Contributions/Eolgi|Eolgi]], [[mariowiki:Special:Contributions/Elogiador|Elogiador]], and [[mariowiki:Special:Contributions/Imzadi1976|Imzadi1976]]. Once their original vandalism spree was halted by MarioWiki admin [[mariowiki:User:Mario jc|Mario jc]], they stated on their talk page that they are "[[mariowiki:Special:Diff/2812462|officially retired]]". ==Confirmed and suspected accounts== <!-- Accounts that have been associated with this user --> * Sockpuppet category (if any): [[:Category:Wikipedia sockpuppets of Link Smurf]] * Suspected sockpuppet category (if any): [[:Category:Suspected Wikipedia sockpuppets of Link Smurf]] __NOINDEX__ {{short description|Vertical transport device}} {{Other uses}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{EngvarB|date=July 2019}} {{Use dmy dates|date=November 2019}} [[File:U-Bahn Berlin Alexanderplatz Elevator.JPG|thumb|This elevator to the [[Berlin Alexanderplatz station|Alexanderplatz]] [[Berlin U-Bahn|U-Bahn]] station in Berlin is built with glass walls, exposing the inner workings.]] [[File:Spalding Building, Portland, Oregon (2012) - 15.JPG|thumb|right|Outside of typical elevators]] An '''elevator''' ([[American English|US]] and [[Canadian English|Canada]]) or '''lift''' ([[UK]], [[Ireland]] and [[Australian English|Australia]]) is a type of vertical [[transportation]] device that moves people or freight between floors, levels, or [[deck (building)|decks]] of a building, vessel, or other structure. Elevators are typically powered by electric motors that drive traction cables and counterweight systems such as a [[hoist (device)|hoist]], although some pump hydraulic fluid to raise a cylindrical piston like a [[hydraulic jack|jack]]. In agriculture and manufacturing, an elevator is any type of [[conveyor]] device used to lift materials in a continuous stream into bins or [[silo]]s. Several types exist, such as the chain and [[bucket elevator]], grain auger [[screw conveyor]] using the principle of [[Archimedes' screw]], or the chain and paddles or forks of [[hay elevator]]s. Languages other than English may have [[loanword]]s based on either ''elevator'' or ''lift''. Because of wheelchair access laws, elevators are often a legal requirement in new multistory buildings, especially where wheelchair ramps would be impractical. There are also some elevators which can go sideways in addition to the usual up-and-down motion.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.constructionweekonline.com/products-services/169354-germanys-thyssenkrupp-to-launch-revolutionary-rope-free-elevator-in-2022|title=This German company is inventing an elevator that goes sideways|website=Construction Week Online Middle East|access-date=20 February 2019}}</ref> {{TOC limit|3}} ==History== ===Pre-industrial era=== [[File:Konrad Kyeser, Bellifortis, Clm 30150, Tafel 09, Blatt 38v (Ausschnitt).jpg|thumb|left|Elevator design by the German engineer [[Konrad Kyeser]] (1405)]] The earliest known reference to an elevator is in the works of the Roman architect [[Vitruvius]], who reported that [[Archimedes]] (c. 287 BC – c. 212 BC) built his first elevator probably in 236 BC.<ref>"[http://articles.sfgate.com/2008-08-23/home-and-garden/17125291_1_taller-buildings-elevator-elisha-graves-otis Laying the foundation for today's skyscrapers]". ''San Francisco Chronicle''. 23 August 2008.</ref> Some sources from later historical periods mention elevators as cabs on a [[hemp]] rope powered by hand or by animals. In 1000, the ''Book of Secrets'' by [[al-Muradi]] in [[Al-Andalus|Islamic Spain]] described the use of an elevator-like lifting device, in order to raise a large battering ram to destroy a fortress.<ref>{{YouTube|id=d0aoJZ-8Z4U|title=The Book of Secrets — Kitab al Asrar of al-Muradi — part 1 of 2}}</ref> In the 17th century the prototypes of elevators were located in the palace buildings of England and France. [[Louis XV of France]] had a so-called 'flying chair' built for one of his mistresses at the [[Chateau de Versailles]] in 1743.<ref name="Louis XV's flying chair">{{cite web |url=http://sciences.chateauversailles.fr/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=146&Itemid=468__&lang=en |title=Louis XV's flying chair – Exposition Sciences et Curiosités à la Cour de Versailles – 26 octobre 2010 au 3 avril 2011 |work=chateauversailles.fr|date=26 April 2016 }}</ref> Ancient and medieval elevators used drive systems based on [[hoist (device)|hoists]] or [[windlass]]es. The invention of a system based on the [[Leadscrew|screw drive]] was perhaps the most important step in elevator technology since ancient times, leading to the creation of modern passenger elevators. The first screw drive elevator was built by [[Ivan Kulibin]] and installed in the [[Winter Palace]] in 1793. Several years later another of Kulibin's elevators was installed in the [[Arkhangelskoye Palace|Arkhangelskoye]] near [[Moscow]]. ===Industrial era=== The development of elevators was led by the need for movement of raw materials including [[coal]] and [[lumber]] from hillsides. The technology developed by these industries and the introduction of steel beam construction worked together to provide the passenger and freight elevators in use today. Starting in the coal mines, by the mid-19th century elevators were operated with [[steam power]] and were used for moving goods in bulk in mines and factories. These steam driven devices were soon being applied to a diverse set of purposes—in 1823, two [[architect]]s working in [[London]], Burton and Hormer, built and operated a novel tourist attraction, which they called the "ascending room". It elevated paying customers to a considerable height in the center of London, allowing them a magnificent panoramic view of downtown.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://conveyor-tech.com/dictionary/catalog/10/index.html |title=Conveyor technology: Elevator |publisher=conveyor-tech.com |access-date=19 May 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080621145810/http://www.conveyor-tech.com/dictionary/catalog/10/index.html |archive-date=21 June 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Early, crude steam-driven elevators were refined in the ensuing decade; in 1835, an innovative elevator called the "Teagle" was developed by the company Frost and Stutt in [[England]]. The elevator was belt-driven and used a [[counterweight]] for extra power.<ref>{{cite web |last=Bellis |first=Mary |url=http://inventors.about.com/od/estartinventions/a/Elevator.htm |title=Learn Who Invented the Elevator and More |website=Inventors.about.com |accessdate=26 April 2017}}</ref> The hydraulic crane was invented by Sir [[William Armstrong, 1st Baron Armstrong|William Armstrong]] in 1846, primarily for use at the [[Tyneside]] docks for loading cargo. These quickly supplanted the earlier steam driven elevators: exploiting [[Pascal's law]], they provided a much greater force. A water pump supplied a variable level of [[water pressure]] to a plunger encased inside a vertical cylinder, allowing the level of the platform (carrying a heavy load) to be raised and lowered. Counterweights and balances were also used to increase the lifting power of the apparatus. [[Henry Waterman]] of New York is credited with inventing the "standing rope control" for an elevator in 1850.<ref Name="TheElevatorMuseumTimeline">{{cite web |url=http://www.theelevatormuseum.org/timeline.php |title=EW Museum |website=Theelevatormuseum.org |access-date=26 April 2017}}</ref> In 1845, the Neapolitan architect [[Gaetano Genovese]] installed in the [[Royal Palace of Caserta]] the "Flying Chair", an elevator ahead of its time, covered with chestnut wood outside and with maple wood inside. It included a light, two benches and a hand operated signal, and could be activated from the outside, without any effort on the part of the occupants. Traction was controlled by a motor mechanic utilising a system of toothed wheels. A safety system was designed to take effect if the cords broke. It consisted of a beam pushed outwards by a steel spring. [[File:Elisha OTIS 1854.jpg|thumb|[[Elisha Otis]] demonstrating his safety system, [[New York Crystal Palace|Crystal Palace]], 1854]] In 1852, [[Elisha Otis]] introduced the safety elevator, which prevented the fall of the cab if the cable broke. He demonstrated it at the New York exposition in the [[New York Crystal Palace|Crystal Palace]] in a dramatic, death-defying presentation in 1854,<ref Name="TheElevatorMuseumTimeline"/><ref>"Skyscrapers," ''Magical Hystory Tour: The Origins of the Commonplace & Curious in America'' (1 September 2010).</ref> and the first such passenger elevator was installed at [[E. V. Haughwout Building|488 Broadway]] in [[New York, New York|New York City]] on 23 March 1857. [[File:ElevatorPatentOtis1861.jpg|thumb|Elisha Otis's elevator [[patent drawing]], 15 January 1861]] The first elevator shaft preceded the first elevator by four years. Construction for [[Peter Cooper]]'s [[Cooper Union]] Foundation building in [[history of New York City|New York]] began in 1853. An elevator shaft was included in the design, because Cooper was confident that a safe passenger elevator would soon be invented.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://library.cooper.edu/archive/symbol/symbol5.html |title=The Cooper Union Library: Foundation Building |work=cooper.edu}}</ref> The shaft was [[cylinder (geometry)|cylindrical]] because Cooper thought it was the most efficient design.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ringwoodmanor.com/peo/ch/pc/pc.htm |title=Peter Cooper, a Brief Biography |work=ringwoodmanor.com |access-date=26 December 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030708024526/http://www.ringwoodmanor.com/peo/ch/pc/pc.htm |archive-date=8 July 2003 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Later, Otis designed a special elevator for the building. The [[Equitable Life Building (New York City)|Equitable Life Building]] completed in 1870 in New York City was thought to be the first office building to have passenger elevators.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Equitable Life Assurance Society of the United States |journal=The Equitable News: An Agents' Journal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jmwPAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA43 |accessdate=10 January 2012 |title=The Elevator Did It |issue=23 |date=November 1901 |page=11}}</ref> However [[Peter Ellis (architect)|Peter Ellis]], an English architect, installed the first elevators that could be described as [[paternoster]] elevators in [[Oriel Chambers]] in Liverpool in 1868.<ref>^Ainsworth, Robert and Jones, Graham "In the Footsteps of Peter Ellis". 15 October 2016.</ref> The first electric elevator was built by [[Ernst Werner von Siemens|Werner von Siemens]] in 1880 in Germany.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/blelevator.htm |title=History of the Elevator |author=Mary Bellis |work=About.com Money}}</ref> The inventor [[Anton Freissler]] developed the ideas of von Siemens and built up a successful enterprise in Austria-Hungary. The safety and speed of electric elevators were significantly enhanced by [[Frank J. Sprague|Frank Sprague]] who added floor control, automatic elevators, acceleration control of cars, and safeties. His elevator ran faster and with larger loads than hydraulic or steam elevators, and 584 electric elevators were installed before Sprague sold his company to the Otis Elevator Company in 1895. Sprague also developed the idea and technology for multiple elevators in a single shaft. In 1882, when [[fluid power|hydraulic power]] was a well established technology, a company later named the [[London Hydraulic Power Company]] was formed by [[Edward B. Ellington]] and others. It constructed a network of high-pressure mains on both sides of the Thames which, ultimately, extended to 184 miles and powered some 8,000 machines, predominantly elevators and cranes.<ref>Ralph Turvey, London Lifts and Hydraulic Power, Transactions of the Newcomen Society, Vol. 65, 1993–94, pp. 147–164</ref> [[Schuyler Wheeler]] patented his electric elevator design in 1883.<ref name="IEEE">{{cite journal |url=http://ethw.org/w/images/e/e5/Wheeler_-_member_bio.pdf |publisher=American Institute of Electrical Engineers |title=Schuyler Scatts Wheeler, President 1905–1906. Member biography for Wheeler, New York |date=May 1934 |journal=Electrical Engineering 50th Anniversary Number |location=Piscataway, NJ |accessdate=22 March 2017}}</ref><ref name=elevator>{{cite news |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Notable Birthdays Today |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/9737437// |work=[[The Wichita Eagle|Wichita Beacon]] |location=Wichita, Kansas |date=17 May 1915 |via=[[newspapers.com]] {{open access}} }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://patentimages.storage.googleapis.com/pdfs/28af9c2b1ad151d0bc72/US273208.pdf |first1=Schuyler |last1=Wheeler |title=SCHUYLER S. WHEELER, OF NEW YORK, N. Y. – Electric Elevator Specification forming part of Letters Patent No. 273,208 |publisher=United States Patent Office |date=27 February 1883 |accessdate=3 April 2017 |via=[[Google Patents]]}}</ref> In 1874, J. W. Meaker patented a method which permitted elevator doors to open and close safely.<ref>{{US patent|147853}}</ref> In 1887, American Inventor [[Alexander Miles]] of Duluth, Minnesota patented an elevator with automatic doors that would close off the elevator shaft. The first elevator in India was installed at the [[Raj Bhavan, Kolkata|Raj Bhavan]] in Calcutta (now [[Kolkata]]) by Otis in 1892.<ref>{{cite news |title=We must continue to listen to the market |url=http://www.thehindu.com/business/Industry/we-must-continue-to-listen-to-the-market-says-otis-elevator-md/article6324345.ece |newspaper=The Hindu |access-date=17 July 2016 |language=en-IN |date=17 August 2014|last1=Mishra |first1=Lalatendu }}</ref> By 1900, completely automated elevators were available, but passengers were reluctant to use them. A 1945, elevator operator strike in New York City, and adoption of an emergency stop button, emergency telephone, and a soothing explanatory automated voice aided adoption.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.npr.org/2015/07/31/427990392/remembering-when-driverless-elevators-drew-skepticism |title=Remembering When Driverless Elevators Drew Skepticism |publisher=NPR |date=31 July 2015 |accessdate=26 April 2017}}</ref> In 2000, the first vacuum elevator was offered commercially in Argentina.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.axess2.co.uk/history-lifts-2/ |title=The History of Lifts |work=Axess2|date=3 February 2014 }}</ref> ==Design== Some people argue that elevators began as simple [[rope]] or [[link chain|chain]] [[hoist (device)|hoists]] (see ''Traction elevators'' below). An elevator is essentially a platform that is either pulled or pushed up by a mechanical means. A modern-day elevator consists of a cab (also called a "cage", "carriage" or "car") mounted on a platform within an enclosed space called a shaft or sometimes a "hoistway". In the past, elevator drive mechanisms were powered by steam and water hydraulic pistons or by hand. In a "traction" elevator, cars are pulled up by means of rolling steel ropes over a deeply grooved [[pulley]], commonly called a sheave in the industry. The weight of the car is balanced by a [[counterweight]]. Sometimes two elevators are built so that their cars always move synchronously in opposite directions, and are each other's counterweight. The friction between the ropes and the pulley furnishes the traction which gives this type of elevator its name. Hydraulic elevators use the principles of [[hydraulics]] (in the sense of [[fluid power|hydraulic power]]) to pressurise an above ground or in-ground piston to raise and lower the car (see ''Hydraulic elevators'' below). Roped hydraulics use a combination of both ropes and hydraulic power to raise and lower cars. Recent innovations include permanent magnet motors, machine room-less rail mounted gearless machines, and microprocessor controls. The technology used in new installations depends on a variety of factors. Hydraulic elevators are cheaper, but installing cylinders greater than a certain length becomes impractical for very-high lift hoistways. For buildings of much over seven floors, traction elevators must be employed instead. Hydraulic elevators are usually slower than traction elevators. Elevators are a candidate for [[mass customisation]]. There are economies to be made from [[mass production]] of the components, but each building comes with its own requirements like different number of floors, dimensions of the well and usage patterns. ===Doors=== Elevator [[doors]] prevent riders from falling into, entering, or tampering with anything in the shaft. The most common configuration is to have two panels that meet in the middle, and slide open laterally. In a cascading telescopic configuration (potentially allowing wider entryways within limited space), the doors roll on independent tracks so that while open, they are tucked behind one another, and while closed, they form cascading layers on one side. This can be configured so that two sets of such cascading doors operate like the center opening doors described above, allowing for a very wide elevator cab. In less expensive installations the elevator can also use one large "slab" door: a single panel door the width of the doorway that opens to the left or right laterally. Some buildings have elevators with the single door on the shaftway, and double cascading doors on the cab. ===Machine room-less (MRL) elevators=== [[File:Kone EcoDisc.jpg|thumb|Kone EcoDisc. The entire drive system is in the hoistway]] Machine room-less elevators are designed so that most of the components fit within the shaft containing the elevator car; and a small cabinet houses the elevator controller. Other than the machinery being in the hoistway, the equipment is similar to a normal traction or hole-less hydraulic elevator. The world's first machine room-less elevator, the Kone MonoSpace was introduced in 1996, by [[Kone]]. The benefits are: * creates more usable space * use less energy (70–80% less than standard hydraulic elevators) * uses no oil (assuming it is a traction elevator) * all components are above ground similar to roped hydraulic type elevators (this takes away the environmental concern that was created by the [[hydraulic cylinder]] on direct hydraulic type elevators being stored underground) * slightly lower cost than other elevators; significantly so for the hydraulic MRL elevator * can operate at faster speeds than hydraulics but not normal traction units. ====Detriments==== * Equipment can be harder, and significantly more dangerous to service and maintain. ====Facts==== * Noise level is at 50–55 dBA ([[A-weighted]] [[decibels]]), which can be lower than some but not all types of elevators. * Usually used for [[low-rise]] to mid-rise buildings * The motor mechanism is placed in the hoistway itself * The US was slow to accept the commercial MRL Elevator because of codes * National and local building codes did not address elevators without machine rooms. Residential MRL elevators are still not allowed by the ASME A17 code in the US. MRL elevators have been recognised in the 2005 supplement to the 2004 A17.1 Elevator Code. * Today, some machine room-less hydraulic elevators by Otis and ThyssenKrupp exist; they do not involve the use of a piston located underground or a machine room, mitigating environmental concerns; however, code is not yet accepting of them in all parts of the United States.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://thyssenkruppelevator.com/elevator-products/enduraMRL |title=enduraMRL | thyssenkrupp Elevators Escalators Moving Walks | Installation Service Modernization |website=Thyssenkruppelevator.com |accessdate=26 April 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.otis.com/site/us/Pages/HydroFitProductPage.aspx |title=Hydrofit – Hydraulic Elevator-Machine-Roomless–Otis Elevator– USA HydroFitProductPage |website=Otis.com |accessdate=26 April 2017}}</ref> ===Double-decker elevators=== {{main|Double-deck elevator}} Double-decker elevators are traction elevators with cars that have an upper and lower deck. Both decks can be serving a floor at the same time, and both decks are usually driven by the same motor.<ref>{{cite web|title=Double-Deck Elevators Increase Efficiency|url=http://www.elevatordesigninfo.com/double-deck-elevators-improve-efficiency|publisher=Nationwide Lifts}}</ref> This system increases efficiency in high rise buildings and saves space so that additional shafts and cars do not need to be added. In 2003, [[ThyssenKrupp]] invented a system called TWIN, in which two elevator cars are independently running in one shaft.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Marshall|first1=Aarian|title=Sticking Two Elevators in One Shaft Is Totally Safe- And A Great Idea|url=https://www.wired.com/2016/05/thyssenkrup-twin-elevator/|journal=Wired|date=11 May 2016}}</ref> ===Traffic calculations=== ====Round-trip time calculations==== The majority of elevator designs are developed from Up Peak Round Trip Time calculations as described in the following publications:- * {{cite book |title=CIBSE Guide D: Transportation Systems in Buildings |url=http://www.cibseliftsgroup.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=61&Itemid=59 |website=cibseliftsgroup.org |access-date=26 April 2017 |author=Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers |edition=5 |publisher=CIBSE |year=2015 |isbn=9781523106899}} * {{cite book |title=Elevator Traffic Handbook, Theory and Practice |first1=Gina |last1=Barney |first2=Lutfi |last2=Al-Sharif |publisher=Routledge |year=2015 |edition=2 |isbn=9781317528463}} * {{cite book |title=The Vertical Transportation Handbook |first=George |last=Strakosch |edition=4 |url=http://www.elevatorbooks.com/Products/VERTHB4/vertical-transportation-handbook-4th-edition.aspx |website=Elevatorbooks.com |date=30 September 2010 |access-date=26 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170910003832/http://www.elevatorbooks.com/Products/VERTHB4/vertical-transportation-handbook-4th-edition.aspx |archive-date=10 September 2017 |url-status=dead }} Traditionally, these calculations have formed the basis of establishing the Handling Capacity of an elevator system. Modern installations with more complex elevator arrangements have led to the development of more specific formula such as the General Analysis calculation.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.peters-research.com/index.php/support/articles-and-papers/56-lift-traffic-analysis-formulae-for-the-general-case |title=Lift Traffic Analysis: Formulae for the General Case |author=Richard Peters |website=Peters-research.com}}</ref> Subsequently, this has been extended for double-deck elevators.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.peters-research.com/index.php/support/articles-and-papers/55-lift-traffic-analysis-general-formulae-for-double-deck-lifts |title=Lift Traffic Analysis: General Formulae for Double-deck Lifts |website=Peters-research.com |date=23 January 1996 |accessdate=26 April 2017}}</ref> Otis Elevator Company operates more than 1.9 million elevators worldwide, giving rise to its claim that the equivalent of the world population is transported by its products every five days.{{citation needed|date=April 2017}} ====Simulation==== Elevator traffic simulation software can be used to model complex traffic patterns and elevator arrangements that cannot necessarily be analysed by RTT calculations.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.peters-research.com/index.php/support/articles-and-papers/47-current-technology-and-future-developments-in-elevator-simulation |title=Current Technology and Future Developments in Elevator Simulation}}</ref> ====Traffic patterns==== There are four main types of elevator traffic patterns that can be observed in most modern office installations. They are up peak traffic, down peak traffic, lunch time (two way) traffic and interfloor traffic. ==Types of hoist mechanisms== Elevators can be rope dependent or rope-free.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thyssenkrupp-elevator.com/Show-article.104.0.html?&L=1&cHash=08b38cb686f00ec874ad82c44c737427&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=546 |title=ThyssenKrupp Elevator: ThyssenKrupp develops the world's first rope-free elevator system to enable the building industry face the challenges of global urbanization |work=thyssenkrupp-elevator.com |access-date=16 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141217072016/http://www.thyssenkrupp-elevator.com/Show-article.104.0.html?&L=1&cHash=08b38cb686f00ec874ad82c44c737427&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=546 |archive-date=17 December 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> There are at least four means of moving an elevator: ===Traction elevators=== * ''Geared and gearless traction elevators'' [[File:Elevator motor in machine room.jpg|thumb|Steel ropes and an electric motor in the machine room]] Geared traction machines are driven by [[alternating current|AC]] or [[direct current|DC]] electric motors. Geared machines use [[worm gear]]s to control mechanical movement of elevator cars by "rolling" steel hoist ropes over a drive sheave which is attached to a [[gearbox]] driven by a high-speed motor. These machines are generally the best option for basement or overhead traction use for speeds up to {{convert|500|ft/min|m/s|0|order=flip|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://acelifts.com/news/traction-lifts-work/ |title=Traction Lifts: an infographic on how they work |author=ACE Lifts |work=ACE Lifts}}</ref> Historically, AC motors were used for single or double-speed elevator machines on the grounds of cost and lower usage applications where car speed and passenger comfort were less of an issue, but for higher speed, larger capacity elevators, the need for infinitely variable speed control over the traction machine becomes an issue. Therefore, DC machines powered by an AC/DC [[Motor–generator|motor generator]] were the preferred solution. The [[Motor–generator|MG set]] also typically powered the [[relay logic|relay]] controller of the elevator, which has the added advantage of electrically isolating the elevators from the rest of a building's electrical system, thus eliminating the transient power spikes in the building's electrical supply caused by the motors starting and stopping (causing lighting to dim every time the elevators are used for example), as well as interference to other electrical equipment caused by the arcing of the relay contactors in the control system. The widespread availability of variable frequency AC drives has allowed AC motors to be used universally, bringing with it the advantages of the older motor-generator, DC-based systems, without the penalties in terms of efficiency and complexity. The older MG-based installations are gradually being replaced in older buildings due to their poor energy efficiency. Gearless traction machines are low-speed (low-RPM), high-[[torque]] electric motors powered either by AC or DC. In this case, the drive sheave is directly attached to the end of the motor. Gearless traction elevators can reach speeds of up to {{convert|4000|ft/min|m/s|0|order=flip|abbr=on}}, A brake is mounted between the motor and gearbox or between the motor and drive sheave or at the end of the drive sheave to hold the elevator stationary at a floor. This brake is usually an external [[drum brake|drum type]] and is actuated by spring force and held open electrically; a power failure will cause the brake to engage and prevent the elevator from falling (see [[inherent safety]] and [[safety engineering]]). But it can also be some form of [[disc brake|disc type]] like 1 or more calipers over a disc in one end of the motor shaft or drive sheave which is used in high speed, high rise and large capacity elevators with machine rooms(an exception is the Kone MonoSpace's EcoDisc which is not high speed, high rise and large capacity and is machine room less but it uses the same design as is a thinner version of a conventional gearless traction machine) for braking power, compactness and [[redundancy (engineering)|redundancy]] (assuming there's at least 2 calipers on the disc), or 1 or more disc brakes with a single caliper at one end of the motor shaft or drive sheave which is used in machine room less elevators for compactness, braking power, and [[redundancy (engineering)|redundancy]] (assuming there's 2 brakes or more). In each case, cables are attached to a hitch plate on top of the cab or may be "underslung" below a cab, and then looped over the drive sheave to a [[counterweight]] attached to the opposite end of the cables which reduces the amount of [[power (physics)|power]] needed to move the cab. The counterweight is located in the hoist-way and is carried along a separate railway system; as the car goes up, the counterweight goes down, and vice versa. This action is powered by the traction machine which is directed by the controller, typically a relay logic or computerised device that directs starting, [[acceleration]], [[deceleration]] and stopping of the elevator cab. The weight of the counterweight is typically equal to the weight of the elevator cab plus 40–50% of the capacity of the elevator. The grooves in the drive sheave are specially designed to prevent the cables from slipping. "[[Traction (engineering)|Traction]]" is provided to the ropes by the grip of the grooves in the sheave, thereby the name. As the ropes age and the traction grooves wear, some traction is lost and the ropes must be replaced and the sheave repaired or replaced. Sheave and rope wear may be significantly reduced by ensuring that all ropes have equal tension, thus sharing the load evenly. Rope tension equalisation may be achieved using a rope tension gauge, and is a simple way to extend the lifetime of the sheaves and ropes. Elevators with more than {{convert|30|m|0|abbr=on}} of travel have a system called compensation. This is a separate set of cables or a chain attached to the bottom of the counterweight and the bottom of the elevator cab. This makes it easier to control the elevator, as it compensates for the differing weight of cable between the hoist and the cab. If the elevator cab is at the top of the hoist-way, there is a short length of hoist cable above the car and a long length of compensating cable below the car and vice versa for the counterweight. If the compensation system uses cables, there will be an additional sheave in the pit below the elevator, to guide the cables. If the compensation system uses chains, the chain is guided by a bar mounted between the counterweight tracks. ===Regenerative drives=== Another energy-saving improvement is the regenerative drive,<ref>Debbie Sniderman, [https://www.asme.org/engineering-topics/articles/elevators/energy-efficient-elevator-technologies "Energy Efficient Elevator Technologies"], American Society of Mechanical Engineers ASME Sept. 2012</ref> which works analogously to [[regenerative braking]] in vehicles, using the elevator's electric motor as a generator to capture some of the gravitational potential energy of descent of a full cab (heavier than its counterweight) or ascent of an empty cab (lighter than its counterweight) and return it to the building's electrical system. ===Hydraulic elevators=== [[File:Elevator hydraulic.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Pit of a hydraulic scenic elevator with metal grating on bottom. This elevator travels 7 stories.]] * ''Conventional hydraulic elevators''. They use an underground [[hydraulic cylinder]], are quite common for low level buildings with two to five floors (sometimes but seldom up to six to eight floors), and have speeds of up to {{convert|200|ft/min|m/s|0|order=flip|abbr=on}}. For higher rise applications, a telescopic hydraulic cylinder can be used.{{citation needed|reason=Hydraulic elevators with telescoping shafts are common, especially in 'holeless' or 'reduced depth hole' designs, but if there are any applications above about eight stories, this needs a cite|date=May 2016}} * ''Holeless hydraulic elevators'' were developed in the 1970s, and use a pair of above ground cylinders, which makes it practical for environmentally or cost sensitive buildings with two, three, or four floors. * ''Roped hydraulic elevators'' use both above ground cylinders and a rope system, allowing the elevator to travel further than the piston has to move. The low mechanical complexity of hydraulic elevators in comparison to traction elevators makes them ideal for low rise, low traffic installations. They are less energy efficient as the pump works against gravity to push the car and its passengers upwards; this energy is lost when the car descends on its own weight. The high current draw of the pump when starting up also places higher demands on a building's electrical system. There are also environmental concerns should the lifting cylinder leak fluid into the ground.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://science.howstuffworks.com/transport/engines-equipment/elevator1.htm |title=How Elevators Work: Hydraulic Elevators |author=Harris, Tom |publisher=[[HowStuffWorks]]|date=12 February 2002 }}</ref> The modern generation of low-cost, machine room-less traction elevators made possible by advances in [[miniaturisation]] of the traction motor and control systems challenges the supremacy of the hydraulic elevator in their traditional market niche.{{Citation needed|date=February 2019}} ===Electromagnetic propulsion=== Cable-free elevators using [[electromagnetic propulsion]], capable of moving both vertically and horizontally, have been developed by German engineering firm [[Thyssen Krupp]] for use in high rise, high density buildings.<ref>{{cite web|title=MULTI – Rope-free elevator system – thyssenkrupp Elevator|url=https://multi.thyssenkrupp-elevator.com/en/|website=multi.thyssenkrupp-elevator.com|publisher=[[Thyssen Krupp]]|accessdate=19 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190119034447/https://multi.thyssenkrupp-elevator.com/en/|archive-date=19 January 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Condliffe|first1=Jamie|title=Meet the world's first cable-free elevator—it can zoom horizontally or vertically|url=https://www.technologyreview.com/s/608167/worlds-first-cable-free-elevator-zooms-horizontally-and-vertically-using-maglev-tech/|website=MIT Technology Review|publisher=[[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]|accessdate=19 October 2017|language=en}}</ref> ===Climbing elevator=== A climbing elevator is a self-ascending elevator with its own propulsion. The propulsion can be done by an electric or a combustion engine. Climbing elevators are used in guyed masts or towers, in order to make easy access to parts of these constructions, such as flight safety lamps for maintenance. An example would be the [[moonlight tower]]s in Austin, Texas, where the elevator holds only one person and equipment for maintenance. The [[Glasgow Tower]] — an observation tower in [[Glasgow]], [[Scotland]] — also makes use of two climbing elevators. Temporary climbing elevators are commonly used in the construction of new high-rise buildings to move materials and personnel before the building's permanent elevator system is installed, at which point the climbing elevators are dismantled. ===Pneumatic elevator=== An elevator of this kind uses a vacuum on top of the cab and a valve on the top of the "shaft" to move the cab upwards and closes the valve in order to keep the cab at the same level. A diaphragm or a piston is used as a "brake", if there's a sudden increase in pressure above the cab. To go down, it opens the valve so that the air can pressurise the top of the "shaft", allowing the cab to go down by its own weight. This also means that in case of a power failure, the cab will automatically go down. The "shaft" is made of acrylic, and is always round due to the shape of the vacuum pump turbine. To keep the air inside of the cab, rubber seals are used. Due to technical limitations, these elevators have a low capacity, they usually allow 1–3 passengers and up to 525 lbs.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Knight|first1=Will|title=Vacuum elevator gives users a gentle lift|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn7353-vacuum-elevator-gives-users-a-gentle-lift/|website=[[New Scientist]]|accessdate=23 November 2017|date=6 May 2005}}</ref> ==Controlling elevators== ===Manual controls=== [[File:OtisControl.jpg|thumb|Otis 1920s controller, operational in a New York City apartment building]] In the first half of the twentieth century, almost all elevators had no automatic positioning of the floor on which the cab would stop. Some of the older freight elevators were controlled by switches operated by pulling on adjacent ropes. In general, most elevators before WWII were manually controlled by [[elevator operator]]s using a [[rheostat]] connected to the motor. This rheostat (see picture) was enclosed within a cylindrical container about the size and shape of a cake. This was mounted upright or sideways on the cab wall and operated via a projecting handle, which was able to slide around the top half of the cylinder. The elevator motor was located at the top of the shaft or beside the bottom of the shaft. Pushing the handle forward would cause the cab to rise; backwards would make it sink. The harder the pressure, the faster the elevator would move. The handle also served as a [[dead man switch]]: if the operator let go of the handle, it would return to its upright position, causing the elevator cab to stop. In time, safety interlocks would ensure that the inner and outer doors were closed before the elevator was allowed to move. This lever would allow some control over the energy supplied to the motor and so enabled the elevator to be accurately positioned — if the operator was sufficiently skilled. More typically, the operator would have to "jog" the control, moving the cab in small increments until the elevator was reasonably close to the landing point. Then the operator would direct the outgoing and incoming passengers to "watch the step". [[File:mit-old-elevator-panel.jpg|thumb|Manual pushbutton elevator controls]] Automatic elevators began to appear as early as the 1920s,{{citation needed|date=August 2016}} their development being hastened by [[strike action|striking]] elevator operators which brought large cities dependent on skyscrapers (and therefore their elevators) such as New York and Chicago to their knees. Self service elevators were not allowed in New York City until 1922. Prior to this, non-luxury buildings that could not afford an attendant were built as five-story walk ups. These electromechanical systems used [[relay logic]] circuits of increasing complexity to control the speed, position and door operation of an elevator or bank of elevators. The Otis ''Autotronic'' system of the early 1950s brought the earliest predictive systems which could anticipate traffic patterns within a building to deploy elevator movement in the most efficient manner. Relay-controlled elevator systems remained common until the 1980s and their gradual replacement with solid-state, [[microprocessor]]-based controls are now the industry standard. Most older, manually-operated elevators have been retrofitted with automatic or semi-automatic controls. [[File:Dover elevator button.jpg|thumb|Typical freight elevator control station]] [[File:Dover Impulse at Bob's Furniture - Nashua, NH.jpg|thumb|Typical passenger elevator control station]] [[File:Ringing the elevator alarm.jpg|thumb|Using the emergency call button in an elevator. There is [[Braille]] text for visually impaired people and the button glows to alert a hearing impaired person that the bell is ringing and the call is being placed.]] ===General controls=== A typical modern passenger elevator will have: * Outside the elevator, buttons to go up or down (the bottom floor only has the up button, the top floor only has the down button, and every floor in between has both) * Space to stand in, guardrails, seating cushion (luxury) * Overload sensor – prevents the elevator from moving until excess load has been removed. It may trigger a voice prompt or buzzer alarm. This may also trigger a "full car" indicator, indicating the car's inability to accept more passengers until some are unloaded. * Electric fans or air conditioning units to enhance circulation and comfort. * A control panel with various buttons. In many countries, button text and icons are raised to allow blind users to operate the elevator; many have [[Braille]] text besides. Buttons include: ** Call buttons to choose a floor. Some of these may be key switches (to control access). In some elevators, certain floors are inaccessible unless one swipes a security card or enters a passcode (or both). ** Door open and door close buttons. The operation of the door open button is transparent, immediately opening and holding the door, typically until a timeout occurs and the door closes. The operation of the door close button is less transparent, and it often appears to do nothing, leading to frequent but incorrect<ref name="skeptics">{{cite web |url=http://skeptics.stackexchange.com/questions/2979/do-elevator-manufacturers-purposefully-provide-a-door-close-button-that-doesnt |title=psychology – Do elevator manufacturers purposefully provide a door close button that doesn't work? – Skeptics Stack Exchange |work=stackexchange.com}}</ref> reports that the door close button is a [[placebo button]]: either not wired up at all, or inactive in normal service.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.straightdope.com/columns/read/595/do-close-door-buttons-on-elevators-ever-actually-work |title=Do "close door" buttons on elevators ever actually work? |date=7 November 1986 |author=Cecil Adams |work=The Straight Dope}}</ref><ref name=nickpaumgarten>{{cite web |url=http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2008/04/21/080421fa_fact_paumgarten?currentPage=all |title=Up and Then Down — The lives of elevators |last=Paumgarten |first=Nick |date=21 April 2008 |work=[[The New Yorker]] |accessdate=2 September 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.wsj.com/news/articles/SB1042577628591401304 |title=Employees Only Think They Control Thermostat |last=Sandberg |first=Jared |newspaper=[[The Wall Street Journal]]|date=15 January 2003 }}</ref><ref name=danlockton>{{cite web |url=http://architectures.danlockton.co.uk/2008/10/01/placebo-buttons-false-affordances-and-habit-forming/ |title=Placebo buttons, false affordances and habit-forming |last=Lockton |first=Dan |date=1 October 2008 |work=Design with intent |accessdate=28 July 2009 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6DkdHrjD1?url=http://architectures.danlockton.co.uk/2008/10/01/placebo-buttons-false-affordances-and-habit-forming/ |archive-date=18 January 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Working door open and door close buttons are required by code in many jurisdictions, including the United States, specifically for emergency operation: in independent mode, the door open and door close buttons are used to manually open or close the door.<ref name="skeptics"/><ref>ASME A17.1 – 2000, Safety Code for Elevators and Escalators, Requirements 2.27.3.3, "Phase II Emergency In-Car Operation"</ref> Beyond this, programming varies significantly, with some door close buttons immediately closing the door, but in other cases being delayed by an overall timeout, so the door cannot be closed until a few seconds after opening. In this case (hastening normal closure), the door close button has no effect. However, the door close button will cause a hall call to be ignored (so the door won't reopen), and once the timeout has expired, the door close will immediately close the door, for example to cancel a door open push. The minimum timeout for automatic door closing in the US is 5 seconds,<ref>ASME A17.1 – 2000, Safety Code for Elevators and Escalators, Requirements 4.10.7 – Door and Signal Timing for Hall Calls, "The minimum acceptable notification time shall be 5 seconds."</ref> which is a noticeable delay if not over-ridden. * An alarm button or switch, which passengers can use to warn the premises manager that they have been trapped in the elevator. * A set of doors kept locked on each floor to prevent unintentional access into the elevator shaft by the unsuspecting individual. The door is unlocked and opened by a machine sitting on the roof of the car, which also drives the doors that travel with the car. Door controls are provided to close immediately or reopen the doors, although the button to close them immediately is often disabled during normal operations, especially on more recent elevators. Objects in the path of the moving doors will either be detected by sensors or physically activate a switch that reopens the doors. Otherwise, the doors will close after a preset time. Some elevators are configured to remain open at the floor until they are required to move again. Regulations often require doors to close after use to prevent smoke from entering the elevator shaft in event of fire. * Elevators in high traffic buildings often have a "nudge" function (the Otis ''Autotronic'' system first introduced this feature) which will close the doors at a reduced speed, and sound a buzzer if the "door open" button is being deliberately held down, or if the door sensors have been blocked for too long a time. * A stop switch (not allowed under British regulations{{Citation needed|date=May 2018}}) to halt the elevator while in motion and often used to hold an elevator open while freight is loaded. Keeping an elevator stopped for too long may set off an alarm. Unless local codes require otherwise, this will most likely be a [[key switch]]. Some elevators may have one or more of the following: * An [[Emergency telephone|elevator telephone]], which can be used (in addition to the alarm) by a trapped passenger to call for help. This may consist of a transceiver, or simply a button. This feature is often required by local regulations. * Hold button: This button delays the door closing timer, useful for loading freight and hospital beds. * Call cancellation: A destination floor may be deselected by double clicking. * Access restriction by key switches, RFID reader, code keypad, hotel room card, etc. * One or more additional sets of doors. This is primarily used to serve different floor plans: on each floor only one set of doors opens. For example, in an elevated crosswalk setup, the front doors may open on the street level, and the rear doors open on the crosswalk level. This is also common in garages, rail stations, and airports. Alternatively, both doors may open on a given floor. This is sometimes timed so that one side opens first for getting off, and then the other side opens for getting on, to improve boarding/exiting speed. This is particularly useful when passengers have luggage or carts, as at an airport, due to reduced manoeuvrability. **[[File:Dual elevator door buttons - cropped.jpg|thumb|Dual door open and door close buttons, in an elevator with two sets of doors.]] In case of dual doors, there may be two sets of door open and door close buttons, with one pair controlling the front doors, from the perspective of the console, typically denoted <> and ><, with the other pair controlling the rear doors, typically denoted with a line in the middle, <nowiki><|> and >|<</nowiki>, or double lines, <nowiki>|<>| and >||<</nowiki>. This second set is required in the US if both doors can be opened at the same landing, so that the doors can both be controlled in independent service.<ref name="skeptics"/><ref>ASME A17.1 – 2000, Safety Code for Elevators and Escalators, Requirements 2.27.3.3.1.d "On cars with two entrances, a separate door-close button shall be provided for each entrance if both entrances can be opened at the same landing."</ref> * Security camera * Plain walls or mirrored walls. * Glass windowpane providing a view of the building interior or onto the streets.[[File:Elevator S Signal button.jpg|thumb|'S' "Signal" button, found in US elevators of 1991–2012 vintage.]] An audible signal button, labelled "S": in the US, for elevators installed between 1991 and 2012 (initial passage of ADA and coming into force of 2010 revision), a button which if pushed, sounds an audible signal as each floor is passed, to assist visually impaired passengers. No longer used on new elevators, where the sound is obligatory.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.slate.com/blogs/browbeat/2012/06/25/elevator_s_button_what_does_it_do_.html |title=What's That Thing? Elevator Button Edition |author=Mark Vanhoenacker |date=25 June 2012 |publisher=Slate}}</ref> Other controls, which are generally inaccessible to the public (either because they are [[key switch]]es, or because they are kept behind a locked panel), include: * Fireman's service, phase II key switch * Switch to enable or disable the elevator. * An ''inspector's'' switch, which places the elevator in inspection mode (this may be situated on top of the elevator) * Manual up/down controls for elevator technicians, to be used in inspection mode, for example. * An ''independent service''/''exclusive mode'' (also known as "Car Preference"), which will prevent the car from answering to hall calls and only arrive at floors selected via the panel. The door should stay open while parked on a floor. This mode may be used for temporarily transporting goods. * Attendant service mode * Large buildings with multiple elevators of this type also had an ''elevator dispatcher'' stationed in the lobby to direct passengers and to signal the operator to leave with the use of a mechanical "cricket" noisemaker. ===External controls=== [[File:External lift control panel.jpg|thumb|An external control panel]] Elevators are typically controlled from the outside by a call box, which has up and down buttons, at each stop. When pressed at a certain floor, the button (also known as a "hall call" button) calls the elevator to pick up more passengers. If the particular elevator is currently serving traffic in a certain direction, it will only answer calls in the same direction unless there are no more calls beyond that floor. In a group of two or more elevators, the call buttons may be linked to a central dispatch computer, such that they illuminate and cancel together. This is done to ensure that only one car is called at one time. Key switches may be installed on the ground floor so that the elevator can be remotely switched on or off from the outside. In destination control systems, one selects the intended destination floor (in lieu of pressing ''"up"'' or ''"down"'') and is then notified which elevator will serve their request. ===Floor numbering=== [[File:Missing Floor 13.jpg|thumb|Elevator buttons showing the missing [[Thirteenth floor|13th floor]]]] {{further|Floor numbering}} ===Elevator algorithm=== The [[elevator algorithm]], a simple [[algorithm]] by which a single elevator can decide where to stop, is summarised as follows: * Continue travelling in the same direction while there are remaining requests in that same direction. * If there are no further requests in that direction, then stop and become idle, or change direction if there are requests in the opposite direction. The elevator algorithm has found an application in computer [[operating system]]s as an algorithm for scheduling [[hard disk]] requests. Modern elevators use more complex [[heuristic (computer science)|heuristic algorithms]] to decide which request to service next. An introduction to these algorithms can be found in the "Elevator traffic handbook: theory and practice" given in the references below. ===Destination control system=== {{main|Destination dispatch}} [[File:Destination control elevator floor selection.jpg|thumb|A destination control elevator floor selection panel at [[Northeastern University]] in Boston, United States]] Some skyscraper buildings and other types of installation feature a destination operating panel where a passenger registers their floor calls before entering the car. The system lets them know which car to wait for, instead of everyone boarding the next car. In this way, travel time is reduced as the elevator makes fewer stops for individual passengers, and the computer distributes adjacent stops to different cars in the bank. Although travel time is reduced, passenger waiting times may be longer as they will not necessarily be allocated the next car to depart. During the down peak period the benefit of destination control will be limited as passengers have a common destination. It can also improve accessibility, as a mobility-impaired passenger can move to his or her designated car in advance. Inside the elevator there is no call button to push, or the buttons are there but they cannot be pushed — except door opening and alarm button — they only indicate stopping floors. The idea of destination control was originally conceived by [[Leo Port]] from Sydney in 1961,<ref>Port, L.W. (1961), Elevator System Commonwealth of Australia Patent Specification, Application Number 1421/61, 14 February 1961</ref> but at that time elevator controllers were implemented in relays and were unable to optimise the performance of destination control allocations. The system was first pioneered by [[Schindler Group|Schindler Elevator]] in 1992 as the Miconic 10. Manufacturers of such systems claim that average travelling time can be reduced by up to 30%.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www6.schindler.com/SEC/websecen.nsf/pages/elev-MHR-Mic10-01 |title=Schindler Elevators, Escalators, Moving Walks Service Mod Company |website=Schindler.com |access-date=26 April 2017}}</ref> However, performance enhancements cannot be generalised as the benefits and limitations of the system are dependent on many factors.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.peters-research.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=100%3Aunderstanding-the-benefits-and-limitations-of-destination-control&catid=3%3Apapers&Itemid=1 |title=Peters Research Ltd |author=Richard Peters |work=peters-research.com}}</ref> One problem is that the system is subject to gaming. Sometimes, one person enters the destination for a large group of people going to the same floor. The dispatching [[algorithm]] is usually unable to completely cater for the variation, and latecomers may find the elevator they are assigned to is already full. Also, occasionally, one person may press the floor multiple times. This is common with up/down buttons when people believe this to be an effective way to hurry elevators. However, this will make the computer think multiple people are waiting and will allocate empty cars to serve this one person. To prevent this problem, in one implementation of destination control, every user is given an [[RFID]] card, for identification and tracking, so that the system knows every user call and can cancel the first call if the passenger decides to travel to another destination, preventing empty calls. The newest invention knows even where people are located and how many on which floor because of their identification, either for the purposes of evacuating the building or for security reasons.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.theporttechnology.com/page/systemoperation.html |title=The PORT Technology :: System Operation |work=theporttechnology.com}}</ref> Another way to prevent this issue is to treat everyone travelling from one floor to another as one group and to allocate only one car for that group. The same destination scheduling concept can also be applied to public transit such as in [[group rapid transit]]. [[File:DestinationDispatchElevator.jpg|thumb|upright|A [[destination dispatch]] control station, outside of the car, on which the user presses a button to indicate the desired destination floor, and the panel indicates which car will be dispatched]] ==Special operating modes== ===Anti-crime protection=== The anti-crime protection (ACP) feature will force each car to stop at a pre-defined landing and open its doors. This allows a security guard or a receptionist at the landing to visually inspect the passengers. The car stops at this landing as it passes to serve further demand. ===Up peak=== During up-peak mode (also called moderate incoming traffic), elevator cars in a group are recalled to the lobby to provide expeditious service to passengers arriving at the building, most typically in the morning as people arrive for work or at the conclusion of a lunch-time period when people are going back to work. Elevators are dispatched one-by-one when they reach a pre-determined passenger load, or when they have had their doors opened for a certain period of time. The next elevator to be dispatched usually has its hall lantern or a "this car leaving next" sign illuminated to encourage passengers to make maximum use of the available elevator system capacity. Some elevator banks are programmed so that at least one car will always return to the lobby floor and park whenever it becomes free. The commencement of up-peak may be triggered by a time clock, by the departure of a certain number of fully loaded cars leaving the lobby within a given time period, or by a switch manually operated by a building attendant. ===Down peak=== During down-peak mode, elevator cars in a group are sent away from the lobby towards the highest floor served, after which they commence running down the floors in response to hall calls placed by passengers wishing to leave the building. This allows the elevator system to provide maximum passenger handling capacity for people leaving the building. The commencement of down-peak may be triggered by a time clock, by the arrival of a certain number of fully loaded cars at the lobby within a given time period, or by a switch manually operated by a building attendant. ===Sabbath service=== [[File:Sabbath on-off.jpg|thumb|upright|left|A switch to turn Sabbath elevator mode on or off]] In areas with large populations of observant [[Jew]]s or in facilities catering to Jews, one may find a "[[Sabbath elevator]]". In this mode, an elevator will stop automatically at every floor, allowing people to step on and off without having to press any buttons. This prevents violation of the [[Shabbat|Sabbath]] prohibition against operating electrical devices when Sabbath is in effect for those who observe this ritual.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ohr.edu/ask_db/ask_main.php/39/Q1/ |title=Shabbat Elevators |work=Ohr Somayach}}</ref> However, Sabbath mode has the side effect of using considerable amounts of energy, running the elevator car sequentially up and down every floor of a building, repeatedly servicing floors where it is not needed. For a tall building with many floors, the car must move on a frequent enough basis so as to not cause undue delay for potential users that will not touch the controls as it opens the doors on every floor up the building. Some taller buildings may have the Sabbath elevator alternate floors in order to save time and energy; for example, an elevator may stop at only even-numbered floors on the way up, and then the odd-numbered floors on the way down. ===Independent service=== Independent service or car preference is a special mode found on most elevators. It is activated by a key switch either inside the elevator itself or on a centralised control panel in the lobby. When an elevator is placed on this mode, it will no longer respond to hall calls. (In a bank of elevators, traffic is rerouted to the other elevators, while in a single elevator, the hall buttons are disabled). The elevator will remain parked on a floor with its doors open until a floor is selected and the door close button is held until the elevator starts to travel. Independent service is useful when transporting large goods or moving groups of people between certain floors. ===Inspection service=== Inspection service is designed to provide access to the hoistway and car top for inspection and maintenance purposes by qualified elevator mechanics. It is first activated by a key switch on the car operating panel usually labelled 'Inspection', 'Car Top', 'Access Enable' or 'HWENAB' (short for HoistWay access ENABled). When this switch is activated the elevator will come to a stop if moving, car calls will be cancelled (and the buttons disabled), and hall calls will be assigned to other elevator cars in the group (or cancelled in a single elevator configuration). The elevator can now only be moved by the corresponding 'Access' key switches, usually located at the highest (to access the top of the car) and lowest (to access the elevator pit) landings. The access key switches will allow the car to move at reduced inspection speed with the hoistway door open. This speed can range from anywhere up to 60% of normal operating speed on most controllers, and is usually defined by local safety codes. Elevators have a car top inspection station that allows the car to be operated by a mechanic in order to move it through the hoistway. Generally, there are three buttons: UP, RUN, and DOWN. Both the RUN and a direction button must be held to move the car in that direction, and the elevator will stop moving as soon as the buttons are released. Most other elevators have an up/down toggle switch and a RUN button. The inspection panel also has standard power outlets for work lamps and powered tools. ===Fire service=== Depending on the location of the elevator, fire service code will vary state to state and country to country. Fire service is usually split up into two modes: phase one and phase two. These are separate modes that the elevator can go into. Phase one mode is activated by a corresponding smoke sensor or heat sensor in the building. Once an alarm has been activated, the elevator will automatically go into phase one. The elevator will wait an amount of time, then proceed to go into nudging mode to tell everyone the elevator is leaving the floor. Once the elevator has left the floor, depending on where the alarm was set off, the elevator will go to the fire-recall floor. However, if the alarm was activated on the fire-recall floor, the elevator will have an alternate floor to recall to. When the elevator is recalled, it proceeds to the recall floor and stops with its doors open. The elevator will no longer respond to calls or move in any direction. Located on the fire-recall floor is a fire-service key switch. The fire-service key switch has the ability to turn fire service off, turn fire service on or to bypass fire service. The only way to return the elevator to normal service is to switch it to bypass after the alarms have reset. [[File:KONE Ecodisc Elevator in Fireman's Mode.jpg|thumb|KONE Ecodisc elevator in fireman's mode]] Phase-two mode can only be activated by a key switch located inside the elevator on the centralised control panel. This mode was created for firefighters so that they may rescue people from a burning building. The phase-two key switch located on the COP has three positions: off, on, and hold. By turning phase two on, the firefighter enables the car to move. However, like independent-service mode, the car will not respond to a car call unless the firefighter manually pushes and holds the door close button. Once the elevator gets to the desired floor it will not open its doors unless the firefighter holds the door open button. This is in case the floor is burning and the firefighter can feel the heat and knows not to open the door. The firefighter must hold the door open button until the door is completely opened. If for any reason the firefighter wishes to leave the elevator, they will use the hold position on the key switch to make sure the elevator remains at that floor. If the firefighter wishes to return to the recall floor, they simply turn the key off and close the doors. ===Medical emergency or code-blue service=== Commonly found in hospitals, code-blue service allows an elevator to be summoned to any floor for use in an emergency situation. Each floor will have a code-blue recall key switch, and when activated, the elevator system will immediately select the elevator car that can respond the fastest, regardless of direction of travel and passenger load. Passengers inside the elevator will be notified with an alarm and indicator light to exit the elevator when the doors open. Once the elevator arrives at the floor, it will park with its doors open and the car buttons will be disabled to prevent a passenger from taking control of the elevator. Medical personnel must then activate the code-blue key switch inside the car, select their floor and close the doors with the door close button. The elevator will then travel non-stop to the selected floor, and will remain in code-blue service until switched off in the car. Some hospital elevators will feature a 'hold' position on the code-blue key switch (similar to fire service) which allows the elevator to remain at a floor locked out of service until code blue is deactivated. ===Riot mode=== In the event of civil disturbance, insurrection, or rioting, management can prevent elevators from stopping at the lobby or parking areas, preventing undesired persons from using the elevators while still allowing the building tenants to use them within the rest of the building. ===Emergency power operation=== Many elevator installations now feature emergency power systems such as [[uninterruptible power supply]] (UPS) which allow elevator use in blackout situations and prevent people from becoming trapped in elevators. To be compliant with BS 9999 safety standards, a passenger lift being used in an emergency situation must have a secondary source of power. In many cases, providing a secondary mains feed simply isn't possible, so a UPS and or generator combination is used instead.<ref name="powercontrol.co.uk">{{Cite web | url=https://powercontrol.co.uk/blog/ups-emergency-lifts/ |title = Secondary Power Supplies for Emergency Evacuation Lifts}}</ref> Where a generator is being used as the secondary power supply in a hospital, a UPS must also be present to meet regulations stating that healthcare facilities must test their emergency generators under load at least once per month. During the test period only one supply of power is feeding the lift, in a blackout situation without a UPS, the lifts would not be operational.<ref name="powercontrol.co.uk"/> ====Traction elevators==== When power is lost in a traction elevator system, all elevators will initially come to a halt. One by one, each car in the group will return to the lobby floor, open its doors, and shut down. People in the remaining elevators may see an indicator light or hear a voice announcement informing them that the elevator will return to the lobby shortly. Once all cars have successfully returned, the system will then automatically select one or more cars to be used for normal operations and these cars will return to service. The car(s) selected to run under emergency power can be manually over-ridden by a key or strip switch in the lobby. To help prevent entrapment, when the system detects that it is running low on power, it will bring the running cars to the lobby or nearest floor, open the doors, and shut down. ====Hydraulic elevators==== In hydraulic elevator systems, emergency power will lower the elevators to the lowest landing and open the doors to allow passengers to exit. The doors then close after an adjustable time period and the car remains unusable until reset, usually by cycling the elevator main power switch. Typically, due to the high current draw when starting the pump motor, hydraulic elevators are not run using standard emergency power systems. Buildings like hospitals and nursing homes usually size their emergency generators to accommodate this draw. However, the increasing use of current-limiting motor starters, commonly known as "soft-start" contactors, avoid much of this problem, and the current draw of the pump motor is less of a limiting concern. ==Modernization== [[File:G1TOWER view from Art Tower Mito.jpg|thumb|An elevator test tower]] Most elevators are built to provide about 30 to 40 years of service, as long as service intervals specified and periodic maintenance/inspections by the manufacturer are followed. As the elevator ages and equipment become increasingly difficult to find or replace, along with code changes and deteriorating ride performance, a complete overhaul of the elevator may be suggested to the building owners. A typical modernization consists of controller equipment, electrical wiring and buttons, position indicators and direction arrows, hoist machines and motors (including door operators), and sometimes door hanger tracks. Rarely are car slings, rails, or other heavy structures changed. The cost of an elevator modernization can range greatly depending on which type of equipment is to be installed. Modernization can greatly improve operational reliability by replacing mechanical relays and contacts with solid-state electronics. Ride quality can be improved by replacing motor-generator-based drive designs with [[Variable-frequency drive|Variable-Voltage, Variable Frequency (V3F) drives]], providing near-seamless acceleration and deceleration. Passenger safety is also improved by updating systems and equipment to conform to current codes. ==Safety== {{See also|List of elevator accidents}} On 26 February 2014, the European union released their adoption of safety standards through a directive notification.<ref>{{Citation|title=Directive 2014/33/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 26 February 2014 on the harmonisation of the laws of the Member States relating to lifts and safety components for lifts Text with EEA relevance|date=29 March 2014|url=http://data.europa.eu/eli/dir/2014/33/oj/eng|volume=OJ L|issue=32014L0033|language=en|access-date=7 February 2019}}</ref> ===Cable-borne elevators=== [[File:Elevator speed governor.jpg|thumb|Governor]] Statistically speaking, cable-borne elevators are extremely safe. Their safety record is unsurpassed by any other vehicle system. In 1998, it was estimated that approximately eight millionths of one percent (1 in 12 million) of elevator rides result in an anomaly, and the vast majority of these were minor things such as the doors failing to open. Of the 20 to 30 elevator-related deaths each year, most of them are maintenance-related — for example, technicians leaning too far into the shaft or getting caught between moving parts,<ref name="windypundit.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.windypundit.com/archives/2008/04/elevator_of_deathnot_really.html |title=Elevator of Death...Or Not – Windypundit |work=Windypundit|date=16 April 2008 }}</ref> and most of the rest are attributed to other kinds of accidents, such as people stepping blindly through doors that open into empty shafts or being strangled by scarves caught in the doors.<ref name="windypundit.com"/> In fact, prior to the [[September 11th terrorist attacks]], the only known free-fall incident in a modern cable-borne elevator happened in 1945 when a [[B-25 Empire State Building crash|B-25 bomber struck the Empire State Building]] in fog, severing the cables of an elevator cab, which fell from the 75th floor all the way to the bottom of the building, seriously injuring (though not killing) the sole occupant — the elevator operator.<ref name="newyorker.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2008/04/21/080421fa_fact_paumgarten?currentPage=all |title=Up and Then Down |date=21 April 2008 |work=The New Yorker}}</ref> However, there was an incident in 2007 at a Seattle children's hospital, where a ThyssenKrupp ISIS machine-room-less elevator free-fell until the safety brakes were engaged.<ref name="seattlepi.com">{{cite news |url=http://www.seattlepi.com/local/article/4-elevators-shut-down-by-inspectors-1253339.php |work=Seattle Post-Intelligencer |first1=Aubrey |last1=Cohen |title=4 Elevators Shut Down By Inspectors |date=23 October 2007}}</ref> This was due to a flaw in the design where the cables were connected at one common point, and the kevlar ropes had a tendency to overheat and cause slipping (or, in this case, a free-fall). While it is possible (though extraordinarily unlikely) for an elevator's cable to snap, all elevators in the modern era have been fitted with several safety devices which prevent the elevator from simply free-falling and crashing. An elevator cab is typically borne by 2 to 6 (up to 12 or more in high rise installations) hoist cables or belts, each of which is capable on its own of supporting the full load of the elevator plus twenty-five percent more weight. In addition, there is a device which detects whether the elevator is descending faster than its maximum designed speed; if this happens, the device causes copper (or silicon nitride in high rise installations) brake shoes to clamp down along the vertical rails in the shaft, stopping the elevator quickly, but not so abruptly as to cause injury. This device is called the governor, and was invented by [[Elisha Graves Otis]].<ref name="newyorker.com"/> In addition, an oil/hydraulic or spring or polyurethane or telescopic oil/hydraulic buffer or a combination (depending on the travel height and travel speed) is installed at the bottom of the shaft (or in the bottom of the cab and sometimes also in the top of the cab or shaft) to somewhat cushion any impact.<ref name="windypundit.com"/> However, in Thailand in November 2012, a woman was killed in a free falling elevator, in what was reported as the "first legally recognised death caused by a falling lift".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nationmultimedia.com/national/Woman-drops-to-her-death-in-lift-plunge-30194663.html |title=Woman drops to her death in lift plunge |date=20 November 2012 |work=The Nation}}</ref> ===Hydraulic elevators=== Past problems with hydraulic elevators include underground electrolytic destruction of the cylinder and bulkhead, pipe failures, and control failures. Single bulkhead cylinders, typically built prior to a 1972 ASME A17.1 Elevator Safety Code change requiring a second dished bulkhead, were subject to possible [[catastrophic failure]]. The code previously permitted only single-bottom [[hydraulic cylinder]]s. In the event of a cylinder breach, the fluid loss results in uncontrolled down movement of the elevator. This creates two significant hazards: being subject to an impact at the bottom when the elevator stops suddenly and being in the entrance for a potential shear if the rider is partly in the elevator. Because it is impossible to verify the system at all times, the code requires periodic testing of the pressure capability. Another solution to protect against a cylinder blowout is to install a plunger gripping device. Two commercially available are known by the marketing names "LifeJacket" and "HydroBrake". The plunger gripper is a device which, in the event of an uncontrolled downward acceleration, nondestructively grips the plunger and stops the car. A device known as an overspeed or rupture valve is attached to the hydraulic inlet/outlet of the cylinder and is adjusted for a maximum flow rate. If a pipe or hose were to break (rupture), the flow rate of the rupture valve will surpass a set limit and mechanically stop the outlet flow of [[hydraulic fluid]], thus stopping the plunger and the car in the down direction. In addition to the safety concerns for older hydraulic elevators, there is risk of leaking [[hydraulic oil]] into the [[aquifer]] and causing potential environmental contamination. This has led to the introduction of [[Polyvinyl chloride|PVC]] liners (casings) around hydraulic cylinders which can be monitored for integrity. In the past decade, recent innovations in inverted [[hydraulic cylinder|hydraulic jacks]] have eliminated the costly process of drilling the ground to install a borehole jack. This also eliminates the threat of corrosion to the system and increases safety. ===Mine-shaft elevators=== Safety testing of [[shaft mining|mine shaft]] elevator rails is routinely undertaken. The method involves destructive testing of a segment of the cable. The ends of the segment are frayed, then set in conical [[zinc moulds]]. Each end of the segment is then secured in a large, hydraulic stretching machine. The segment is then placed under increasing load to the point of [[failure]]. Data about elasticity, load, and other factors is compiled and a report is produced. The report is then analysed to determine whether or not the entire rail is safe to use. ==Uses== [[File:LUP-Interior.JPG|thumb|A [[Fujitec]] traction elevator in Block 192, Bishan, [[Singapore]]]] ===Passenger service=== A passenger elevator is designed to move people between a building's floors. Passenger elevators capacity is related to the available floor space. Generally passenger elevators are available in capacities from {{convert|1000|to(-)|6000|lb|kg|-2|order=flip|abbr=on}} in {{convert|500|lb|kg|adj=on|-1|order=flip|abbr=on}} increments.{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}} Generally passenger elevators in buildings of eight floors or fewer are hydraulic or electric, which can reach speeds up to {{convert|200|ft/min|m/s|0|order=flip|abbr=on}} hydraulic and up to {{convert|500|ft/min|m/s|0|order=flip|abbr=on}} electric. In buildings up to ten floors, electric and gearless elevators are likely to have speeds up to {{convert|500|ft/min|m/s|0|order=flip|abbr=on}}, and above ten floors speeds range {{convert|500|to(-)|2000|ft/min|m/s|0|order=flip|abbr=on}}.{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}} Sometimes passenger elevators are used as a city transport along with [[funicular]]s. For example, there is a 3-station underground public elevator in [[Yalta]], [[Ukraine]], which takes passengers from the top of a hill above the Black Sea on which hotels are perched, to a tunnel located on the beach below. At Casco Viejo station in the [[Bilbao Metro]], the elevator that provides access to the station from a hilltop neighbourhood doubles as city transportation: the station's ticket barriers are set up in such a way that passengers can pay to reach the elevator from the entrance in the lower city, or vice versa. See also the [[Elevator#Elevators for urban transport|Elevators for urban transport]] section. ====Types of passenger elevators==== [[File:World Trade Center Building Design with Floor and Elevator Arrangement.svg|thumb|The former [[World Trade Center (1973–2001)|World Trade Center]]'s twin towers used [[skylobby|skylobbies]], located on the 44th and 78th floors of each tower]] Passenger elevators may be specialised for the service they perform, including: hospital emergency ([[code blue]]), front and rear entrances, a television in high-rise buildings, [[double-deck elevator|double-decker]], and other uses. Cars may be ornate in their interior appearance, may have audio visual advertising, and may be provided with specialised recorded voice announcements. Elevators may also have [[loudspeakers]] in them to play calm, easy listening music. Such music is often referred to as [[elevator music]]. An express elevator does not serve all floors. For example, it moves between the ground floor and a [[skylobby]], or it moves from the ground floor or a skylobby to a range of floors, skipping floors in between. These are especially popular in eastern Asia. ====Capacity==== Residential elevators may be small enough to only accommodate one person while some are large enough for more than a dozen. Wheelchair, or platform elevators, a specialised type of elevator designed to move a [[wheelchair]] {{convert|12|ft|m|1|order=flip|abbr=on}} or less, can often accommodate just one person in a wheelchair at a time with a load of {{convert|750|lb|kg|0|order=flip|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite book |title=Safety Standard For Platform Lifts and Stairway Chairlifts ASME A18.1–2003 |year=2003 |publisher=American Society of Mechanical Engineers |location=New York, NY |page=34 (of 69 pages) |edition=2003}} Viewed August 2013.</ref> ===Freight elevators=== [[File:IllinoisTunnelFirstTrain.jpg|thumb|A specialised elevator from 1905 for lifting [[narrow gauge]] railroad cars between a railroad freight house and the [[Chicago Tunnel Company]] tracks below]] [[File:Freight elevator interior.jpg|thumb|The interior of a freight elevator. It is very basic yet rugged for freight loading.]] A freight elevator, or goods lift, is an elevator designed to carry goods, rather than passengers. Freight elevators are generally required to display a written notice in the car that the use by passengers is prohibited (though not necessarily illegal), though certain freight elevators allow dual use through the use of an inconspicuous riser. In order for an elevator to be legal to carry passengers in some jurisdictions it must have a solid inner door. Freight elevators are typically larger and capable of carrying heavier loads than a passenger elevator, generally from 2,300 to 4,500 kg. Freight elevators may have manually operated doors, and often have rugged interior finishes to prevent damage while loading and unloading. Although hydraulic freight elevators exist, electric elevators are more energy efficient for the work of freight lifting.{{Citation needed|date=November 2007}} ===Sidewalk elevators=== A '''sidewalk elevator''' is a special type of freight elevator. Sidewalk elevators are used to move materials between a basement and a ground-level area, often the [[sidewalk]] just outside the building. They are controlled via an exterior switch and emerge from a metal trap door at ground level. Sidewalk elevator cars feature a uniquely shaped top that allows this door to open and close automatically.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.elevatorbobs-elevator-pics.com/sidewalk_p1.html |title=elevatorbob's Elevator Pictures – Sidewalk Elevators – Page 1 |author=Bob Desnoyers |work=elevatorbobs-elevator-pics.com}}</ref> ===Stage lifts=== <!-- "Stage lifts" links here --> '''Stage lifts''' and '''orchestra lifts''' are specialised elevators, typically powered by hydraulics, that are used to raise and lower entire sections of a theatre stage. For example, [[Radio City Music Hall]] has four such elevators: an orchestra lift that covers a large area of the stage, and three smaller lifts near the rear of the stage. In this case, the orchestra lift is powerful enough to raise an entire orchestra, or an entire cast of performers (including live elephants) up to stage level from below. There's a barrel on the background of the image of the left which can be used as a scale to represent the size of the mechanism <gallery class="center" widths="220px" heights="250px"> RadioCityMusicHallStageLift1.JPG|The pit beneath the orchestra lift at Radio City Music Hall RadioCityMusicHallStageLift2.jpg|Orchestra lift at Radio City Music Hall as viewed from beneath the stage </gallery> ===Vehicle elevators=== {{main article|Car elevator}} Vehicular elevators are used within buildings or areas with limited space (in place of ramps), generally to move [[car]]s into the parking garage or manufacturer's storage. Geared hydraulic chains (not unlike bicycle chains) generate lift for the platform and there are no counterweights. To accommodate building designs and improve accessibility, the platform may rotate so that the driver only has to drive forward. Most vehicle elevators have a weight capacity of 2 tons. Rare examples of extra-heavy elevators for 20-ton [[lorry|lorries]], and even for [[railcar]]s (like one that was used at [[Dnipro (Kiev Metro)|Dnipro Station]] of the [[Kiev Metro]]) also occur. ===Boat lift=== {{Main|Boat lift}} In some smaller canals, boats and small ships can pass between different levels of a canal with a boat elevator rather than through a [[lock (water transport)|canal lock]]. ===Aircraft elevators=== [[File:Aircraft elevator USS Kitty Hawk.jpg|thumb|An [[F/A-18]]C on an aircraft elevator of {{USS|Kitty Hawk|CV-63|6}}]] ====For aircraft==== On [[aircraft carrier]]s, elevators carry aircraft between the flight deck and the hangar deck for operations or repairs. These elevators are designed for much greater capacity than other elevators, up to {{convert|200000|lb||order=flip|abbr=on}} of aircraft and equipment. Smaller elevators lift munitions to the flight deck from magazines deep inside the ship. ====Within aircraft==== On some passenger [[double-deck aircraft]] such as the [[Boeing 747]] or other [[widebody aircraft]], elevators transport flight attendants and food and beverage trolleys from lower deck [[galley (kitchen)|galleys]] to upper passenger carrying decks.<ref name="Bowman2014">{{cite book |last1=Bowman |first1=Martin |title=Boeing 747: A History: Delivering the Dream |date=2014 |publisher=Pen and Sword |isbn=978-1-4738-3823-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ej0RBQAAQBAJ|language=en |chapter=5 |quote=This 747, delivered to the Australian carrier in July 1971, was also the first to feature a lower-deck galley, reached by an internal elevator system.}}</ref> ===Limited use and limited application=== The limited-use, limited-application (LU/LA) elevator is a special purpose passenger elevator used infrequently, and which is exempt from many commercial regulations and accommodations. For example, a LU/LA is primarily meant to be handicapped accessible, and there might only be room for a single wheelchair and a standing passenger. ===Residential elevator=== [[File:Visilift Visi-58 Round Residential Elevator.jpg|thumb|A residential elevator with integrated hoistway construction and machine-room-less design]] A residential elevator or [[home lift]] is often permitted to be of lower cost and complexity than full commercial elevators. They may have unique design characteristics suited for home furnishings, such as hinged wooden shaft-access doors rather than the typical metal sliding doors of commercial elevators. Construction may be less robust than in commercial designs with shorter maintenance periods, but safety systems such as locks on shaft access doors, fall arrestors, and emergency phones must still be present in the event of malfunction. The [[American Society of Mechanical Engineers]] (ASME) has a specific section of Safety Code (ASME A17.1 Section 5.3) which addresses Residential Elevators. This section allows for different parameters to alleviate design complexity based on the limited use of a residential elevator by a specific user or user group. Section 5.3 of the ASME A17.1 Safety Code is for Private Residence Elevators, which does not include multi-family dwellings.<ref>{{cite book |title=Safety code for elevators and escalators : includes requirements for elevators, escalators, dumbwaiters, moving walks, material elevators, and dumbwaiters with automatic transfer devices |year=2007 |publisher=American Society of Mechanical Engineers |location=New York, N.Y. |isbn=978-0791830390 |page=532 |author=American Society of Mechanical Engineers}}</ref> Some types of residential elevators do not use a traditional elevator shaft, machine room, and elevator hoistway. This allows an elevator to be installed where a traditional elevator may not fit, and simplifies installation. The ASME board first approved machine-room-less systems in a revision of the ASME A17.1 in 2007. Machine-room-less elevators have been available commercially since the mid 1990s, however cost and overall size prevented their adoption to the residential elevator market until around 2010.<ref>{{cite web |title=New Elevator Technology: The Machine Room-Less Elevator |url=http://continuingeducation.construction.com/article.php?L=14&C=220&P=1 |work=Architectural Record |publisher=McGraw Hill Financial |access-date=12 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130516193821/http://continuingeducation.construction.com/article.php?L=14&C=220&P=1 |archive-date=16 May 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Also, residential elevators are smaller than commercial elevators. The smallest passenger elevator is pneumatic, and it allows for only 1 person.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vacuumelevators.com/pve30 |title=30" Vacuum Elevators For Sale | Pneumatic Vacuum Elevators |website=Vacuumelevators.com |accessdate=26 April 2017}}</ref> The smallest traction elevator allows for just 2 persons.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mh-he.co.jp/family_product/ |title=家庭・住宅用エレベーター｜三菱日立ホームエレベーター |website=Mh-he.co.jp |access-date=26 April 2017}}</ref> ===Dumbwaiter=== {{Main|Dumbwaiter}} Dumbwaiters are small freight elevators that are intended to carry food, books or other small freight loads rather than passengers. They often connect kitchens to rooms on other floors. They usually do not have the same safety features found in passenger elevators, like various ropes for redundancy. They have a lower capacity, and they can be up to {{convert|1|m|ft|0}} tall. Control panels at every stop mimic those found in passenger elevators, allowing calling, door control and floor selection. ===Paternoster=== [[File:BMF Paternoster.jpg|thumb|upright|left|A [[paternoster]] in [[Berlin]], Germany]] {{Main|Paternoster}} A special type of elevator is the paternoster, a constantly moving chain of boxes. A similar concept, called the [[belt manlift|manlift]] or [[humanlift]], moves only a small platform, which the rider mounts while using a handhold seen in multi-story industrial plants. ===Scissor lift=== [[File:Hebebuehne Scissorlift.jpg|right|thumb|A mobile scissor lift, extended to near its highest position]] The [[scissor lift]] is yet another type of lift. These are usually mobile work platforms that can be easily moved to where they are needed, but can also be installed where space for counter-weights, machine room and so forth is limited. The mechanism that makes them go up and down is like that of a [[scissor jack]]. ===Rack-and-pinion elevator=== [[Rack-and-pinion]] elevator are powered by a motor driving a pinion gear. Because they can be installed on a building or structure's exterior and there is no machine room or hoistway required, they are the most used type of elevator for buildings under construction (to move materials and tools up and down).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gedausa.com/rack-and-pinion-elevators.html |title=Rack and Pinion Elevators – Rack and Pinion Lift – GEDA – USA |website=Gedausa.com |accessdate=26 April 2017}}</ref> ===Material handling belts and belt elevators=== Material transport elevators generally consist of an inclined plane on which a conveyor belt runs. The conveyor often includes partitions to ensure that the material moves forward. These elevators are often used in industrial and agricultural applications. When such mechanisms (or spiral screws or pneumatic transport) are used to elevate grain for storage in large vertical silos, the entire structure is called a [[grain elevator]]. Belt elevators are often used in docks for loading loose materials such as coal, iron ore and grain into the holds of [[bulk carrier]]s There have occasionally been [[belt manlift|belt lifts]] for humans; these typically have steps about every {{convert|2|m|1|abbr=on}} along the length of the belt, which moves vertically, so that the passenger can stand on one step and hold on to the one above. These belts are sometimes used, for example, to carry the employees of parking garages, but are considered too dangerous for public use. ==Social impact== Before the widespread use of elevators, most residential buildings were limited to about seven stories. The wealthy lived on lower floors, while poorer residents—required to climb many flights of stairs—lived on higher floors. The elevator reversed this social stratification, exemplified by the modern penthouse suite.<ref name="Bethune">{{cite web |last=Bethune |first=Brian |title=How the Elevator Changed Everything |publisher=Maclean's |date=24 March 2014 |url=http://www.macleans.ca/culture/books/how-the-elevator-changed-everything-2/}}</ref> Early users of elevators sometimes reported nausea caused by abrupt stops while descending, and some users would use stairs to go down. In 1894, a Chicago physician documented "elevator sickness".<ref name="Bethune"/> Elevators necessitated new social protocols. When [[Nicholas II of Russia]] visited the [[Hotel Adlon]] in Berlin, his courtiers panicked about who would enter the elevator first, and who would press the buttons. In ''Lifted: A Cultural History of the Elevator'', author Andreas Bernard documents other social impacts caused by the modern elevator, including thriller movies about stuck elevators, casual encounters and sexual tension on elevators, the reduction of personal space and [[claustrophobia]], and concerns about personal hygiene.<ref>{{cite news |title=The Lift, a Life, Lift-Off: The Bucket on Ropes that Changed the World |work=The Economist|date=15 February 2014 |url=https://www.economist.com/news/books-and-arts/21596491-bucket-ropes-changed-world-lift}}</ref> ==Convenience features== [[File:LCD elevator indicator.JPG|thumb|LCD elevator floor indicator]] [[File:WaldolfAstoriaElevatorjpg.JPG|thumb|A typical elevator indicator located in the [[Waldorf Astoria New York]]. This elevator was made by Otis.]] Elevators may feature talking devices as an accessibility aid for the blind. In addition to floor arrival notifications, the computer announces the direction of travel (OTIS is well known for this in some of their GEN2 model elevators), and notifies the passengers before the doors are to close. In addition to the call buttons, elevators usually have floor indicators (often illuminated by [[LED]]) and direction lanterns. The former are almost universal in cab interiors with more than two stops and may be found outside the elevators as well on one or more of the floors. Floor indicators can consist of a [[dial (measurement)|dial]] with a rotating [[measuring instrument|needle]], but the most common types are those with successively illuminated floor indications or [[liquid crystal display|LCDs]]. Likewise, a change of floors or an arrival at a floor is indicated by a sound, depending on the elevator. Direction lanterns are also found both inside and outside elevator cars, but they should always be visible from outside because their primary purpose is to help people decide whether or not to get on the elevator. If somebody waiting for the elevator wants to go up, but a car comes first that indicates that it is going down, then the person may decide not to get on the elevator. If the person waits, then one will still stop going up. Direction indicators are sometimes etched with arrows or shaped like arrows and/or use the convention that one that lights up red means "down" and green (or white) means "up". Since the colour convention is often undermined or over-ridden by systems that do not invoke it, it is usually used only in conjunction with other differentiating factors. An example of a place whose elevators use only the colour convention to differentiate between directions is the [[Museum of Contemporary Art, Chicago|Museum of Contemporary Art]] in Chicago, where a single circle can be made to light up green for "up" and red for "down". Sometimes directions must be inferred by the position of the indicators relative to one another. In addition to lanterns, most elevators have a chime to indicate if the elevator is going up or down either before or after the doors open, usually in conjunction with the lanterns lighting up. For example, one chime can indicate "up", two "down", and no chimes indicate an elevator that is 'free'.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.access-board.gov/attachments/article/1350/adaag.pdf#page=40|title=Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) Accessibility Guidelines for Buildings and Facilities|author=<!-- not applicable -->|at=Section 4.10.4 Hall Lanterns (p. 37)|publisher=[[United States Access Board|U.S. Architectural and Transportation Barriers Compliance Board (Access Board)]]|access-date=13 April 2019|quote=A visible and audible signal shall be provided at each hoistway entrance to indicate which car is answering a call. Audible signals shall sound once for the up direction and twice for the down direction or shall have verbal annunciators that say 'up' or 'down.'}}</ref>{{Additional citation needed|reason=While not uncommon, 'most' is questionable at best, personal experience is that most elevators do *not* audibly indicate direction, and many that do actual use spoken words, and if this is a universal standard, a cite is needed. (Amended March 2019: after watching https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=48hW-K7fQTM there definitely is such a trend, but more information is still needed to confirm whether or not this is worldwide)|date=October 2014 <!-- Changed to Additional on March 2019 -->}} [[File:ElevatorVW.jpg|thumb|right|Elevator with a virtual window affording a view of the [[City of London]]]] Observatory service elevators often convey other facts of interest, including elevator speed, stopwatch, and current position (altitude), as with the case for Taipei 101's service elevators. There are several technologies aimed to provide better experience to passengers suffering from [[claustrophobia]], [[anthropophobia]] or [[social anxiety]]. Israeli startup DigiGage uses motion sensors to scroll the pre-rendered images, building and floor-specific content on a screen embedded into the wall as the cab moves up and down.<ref>{{cite web |last=Pincus |first=Rachel |title=Elevator Screen Creates Interactive Experiences on Everyday Rides |url=http://www.psfk.com/2014/03/elevator-video-screens.html |publisher=[[PSFK]] |accessdate=27 October 2014}}</ref> British company LiftEye provides a virtual window technology to turn common elevator into panoramic. It creates 3d video panorama using live feed from cameras placed vertically along the facade and synchronises it with cab movement. The video is projected on a wall-sized screens making it look like the walls are made of glass.<ref>{{cite web |last=Brownstone |first=Sydney |title=This Elevator Might Make You Forget You're Stuck in a Metal Death Trap With Strangers |url=http://www.fastcoexist.com/3028539/this-elevator-might-make-you-forget-youre-stuck-in-a-metal-death-trap-with-strangers |work=[[Fast Company (magazine)|Fast Company]] |publisher=Fast Company, Inc. |accessdate=27 October 2014}}</ref> ===Air conditioning=== {{unreferenced section|date=April 2015}} [[File:Diag3.jpg|thumb|right|Elevator airflow diagram]] The primary reason for installing an elevator [[air conditioner]] is the comfort that it provides while travelling in the elevator. It stabilises the condition of the air inside the elevator car. Some elevator air conditioners can be used in countries with cold climates if a thermostat is used to reverse the refrigeration cycle to warm the elevator car. Heat generated from the cooling process is dissipated into the hoistway. The elevator cab (or car) is ordinarily not air-tight, and some of this heat may reenter the car and reduce the overall cooling effect. The air from the lobby constantly leaks into the elevator shaft due to elevator movements as well as elevator shaft ventilation requirements. Using this conditioned air in the elevator does not increase energy costs. However, by using an independent elevator air conditioner to achieve better temperature control inside the car, more energy will be used. Air conditioning poses a problem to elevators because of the condensation that occurs. The condensed water produced has to be disposed of; otherwise, it would create flooding in the elevator car and hoistway. ====Methods of removing condensed water==== There are at least four ways to remove condensed water from the air conditioner. However, each solution has its pros and cons. ====Atomizing==== Atomizing, also known as misting the condensed water, is one way to dispose of the condensed water. Spraying ultra-fine water droplets onto the hot coils of the air conditioner ensures that the condensed water evaporates quickly. Though this is one of the best methods to dispose of the condensed water, it is also one of the costliest because the nozzle that atomises the water easily gets choked. The majority of the cost goes to maintaining the entire atomising system. ====Boiling==== Disposing of condensed water works by firstly collecting the condensed water and then heating it to above boiling point. The condensed water is eventually evaporated, thereby disposing of it. Consumers are reluctant to employ this system because of the high rate of energy used just to dispose of this water. ====Cascading==== The cascading method works by flowing the condensed water directly onto the hot coils of the air conditioner. This eventually evaporates the condensed water. The downside of this technology is that the coils have to be at extremely high temperature for the condensed water to be evaporated. There is a chance that the water might not evaporate entirely and that would cause water to overflow onto the exterior of the car. ====Drainage system==== Drainage system works by creating a sump to collect the condensed water and using a pump to dispose of it through a drainage system. It is an efficient method, but it comes at a heavy price because the cost of building the sump. Moreover, maintaining the pump to make sure it operates is very expensive. Furthermore, the pipes used for drainage would look ugly on the exterior. This system also cannot be implemented on a built project. ==ISO 22559== [[File:Licenciado Gustavo Díaz Ordaz International Airport (2014) - 03.JPG|thumb|right|A symbol for elevator]] [[File:Kaohsiung Mosque - Elevator.jpg|thumb|Elevator for the [[disability|disabled]] at [[Kaohsiung Mosque]] in [[Taiwan]]]] The mechanical and electrical design of elevators is dictated according to various standards (aka elevator codes), which may be international, national, state, regional or city based. Whereas once many standards were prescriptive, specifying exact criteria which must be complied with, there has recently been a shift towards more performance-based standards where the onus falls on the designer to ensure that the elevator meets or exceeds the standard. National elevator standards: * Australia – AS1735 * Canada – CAN/CSA B44 * Europe – EN 81 series (EN 81-1, EN 81-2, EN 81-28, EN 81-70, EN 12015, EN 12016, EN 13015, etc.) * India – Indian Standard – Installation and Maintenance of home lifts (Code of practice 2002)<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://archive.org/details/gov.in.is.15259.2002|title=IS 15259: Installation and Maintenance of Home Lifts – Code of Practice|last=Bureau of Indian Standards|date=2002|others=Public.Resource.Org|language=English}}</ref> * USA – ASME A17 converged in ISO 22559 series, "Safety requirements for lifts (elevators)":<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lift-report.de/index.php?mact=News,cntnt01,print,0&cntnt01articleid=462&cntnt01showtemplate=false&cntnt01returnid=432 |title=New EN 81 goes ISO ... |work=lift-report.de}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iso.org/iso/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=61455 |title=ISO 22559-1:2014 – Safety requirements for lifts (elevators) – Part 1: Global essential safety requirements (GESRs) |work=iso.org}}</ref> * Part 1: Global essential safety requirements (GESRs). * Part 2: Safety parameters meeting the global essential safety requirements (GESRs). * Part 3: Global conformity assessment procedures (GCAP) – Prerequisites for certification of conformity of lift systems, lift components and lift functions * Part 4: Global conformity assessment procedures (GCAP) – Certification and accreditation requirements [[ISO/TC 178]] is the Technical Committee on Lifts, [[escalator]]s and [[moving walk]]s.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iso.org/iso/standards_development/technical_committees/other_bodies/iso_technical_committee.htm?commid=53970 |title=ISO – Technical committees – ISO/TC 178 – Lifts, escalators and moving walks |work=iso.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iso.org/iso/home/store/catalogue_tc/catalogue_tc_browse.htm?commid=53970&published=on&includesc=true |title=ISO – ISO Standards – ISO/TC 178 – Lifts, escalators and moving walks |work=iso.org}}</ref> Because an elevator is part of a building, it must also comply with [[building code]] standards relating to [[earthquake resilience]], [[fire standard]]s, [[electrical wiring rule]]s and so forth. The American National Elevator Standards Group (ANESG) sets an elevator weight standard to be {{convert|2200|lbs|-1|order=flip|abbr=on}}. Additional requirements relating to access by disabled persons, may be mandated by laws or regulations such as the [[Americans with Disabilities Act]]. Elevators marked with a [[Star of Life]] are big enough for a [[stretcher]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Vanhoenacker |first=Mark |title=What's That Blue Asterisk on the Elevator Door? |url=http://www.slate.com/blogs/the_eye/2014/04/18/what_s_that_blue_asterix_on_the_elevator_door.html |work=[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]] |publisher=[[The Slate Group]] |accessdate=18 April 2014}}</ref> ===U.S. and Canadian elevator standard specifics=== [[File:Ponderosa elevator.JPG|thumb|A typical elevator style found in many modern residential and small commercial buildings]] In most US and Canadian jurisdictions, passenger elevators are required to conform to the [[ASME|American Society of Mechanical Engineers]]' Standard A17.1, Safety Code for Elevators and Escalators. As of 2006, all states except Kansas, Mississippi, North Dakota, and South Dakota have adopted some version of ASME codes, though not necessarily the most recent.<ref>{{cite web |last=McCann |first=Michael |title=Deaths and Injuries Involving Elevators and Escalators |url=http://www.cpwr.com/sites/default/files/publications/elevator_escalator_BLSapproved_0.pdf |publisher=CPWR |access-date=8 April 2014}}</ref> In Canada the document is the CAN/CSA B44 Safety Standard, which was harmonised with the US version in the 2000 edition.{{Citation needed|date=August 2011}} In addition, passenger elevators may be required to conform to the requirements of A17.3 for existing elevators where referenced by the local jurisdiction. Passenger elevators are tested using the ASME A17.2 Standard. The frequency of these tests is mandated by the local jurisdiction, which may be a town, city, state or provincial standard. Passenger elevators must also conform to many ancillary building codes including the Local or State building code, [[National Fire Protection Association]] standards for Electrical, Fire Sprinklers and Fire Alarms, Plumbing codes, and [[HVAC]] codes. Also, passenger elevators are required to conform to the Americans with Disabilities Act and other State and Federal civil rights legislation regarding accessibility. Residential elevators are required to conform to ASME A17.1. Platform and Wheelchair elevators are required to comply with ASME A18.1 in most US jurisdictions. Most elevators have a location in which the permit for the building owner to operate the elevator is displayed. While some jurisdictions require the permit to be displayed in the elevator cab, other jurisdictions allow for the operating permit to be kept on file elsewhere – such as the maintenance office – and to be made available for inspection on demand. In such cases instead of the permit being displayed in the elevator cab, often a notice is posted in its place informing riders of where the actual permits are kept. ==Unique installations== ===World statistics=== {{Self-contradictory|about=the number of elevators installed|date=December 2017|talksection=World_Statistics}} {| class="wikitable sortable" style="font-size: smaller; text-align: center; width: auto;" |- ! Country ! Number of elevators installed |- |[[Italy]] |900,000 |- |[[United States]] |900,000 |- |[[China]] |4,000,000 |- |[[South Korea]] |530,000 700,000as of June,2019 |- |[[Russia]] |520,000{{Citation needed|date=May 2013}} |- |[[Spain]] |950,000<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cncompetencia.es/Inicio/Informes/InformesyEstudiossectoriales/tabid/76/default.aspx?entryid=149928&command=core_download&method=attachment |title=Elevators Market in Spain |work=cncompetencia.es }}{{Dead link|date=December 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> |} {{As of|January 2008}}, [[Spain]] is the nation with the most elevators installed in the world, with 950,000 elevators installed<ref Name="Elevators_in_Italy">"{{cite web |url=http://www.anie.it/browse.asp?goto=1726&IdRevisione=56315&IdDocumento=29381 |title=ANIE: sale l'ascensore italiano}}", ANIE Federazione (Federazione Nazionale Industrie Elettrotecniche ed Elettroniche)</ref> that run more than one hundred million lifts every day, followed by [[United States]] with 700,000 elevators installed and [[China]] with 610,000 elevators installed since 1949.<ref Name="Elevators_in_China">{{cite web |url=http://www.biz-lib.com/products/ZRC91338.html |title=China's elevator market study, 2005–2006 |publisher=Research in China}}</ref> In [[Brazil]], it is estimated that there are approximately 300,000 elevators currently in operation.<ref Name="Elevators_in_Brazil01">{{cite web |url=http://www.licitamais.com.br/noticias/Elevador/atencao_normas_aumenta_seguranca_elevadores.html |title=Condoworks |website=Licitamais.com.br |accessdate=26 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706153326/http://www.licitamais.com.br/noticias/Elevador/atencao_normas_aumenta_seguranca_elevadores.html |archive-date=6 July 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref Name="Elevators_in_Brazil02">{{cite web |url=http://www.imobinews.com.br/index.php/2010/07/09/elevadores-seguem-alta-de-imoveis-e-do-varejo/ |title=Archived copy |accessdate=13 January 2011 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706153000/http://www.imobinews.com.br/index.php/2010/07/09/elevadores-seguem-alta-de-imoveis-e-do-varejo/ |archivedate=6 July 2011 }}</ref> The world's largest market for elevators is Italy, with more than 1,629 million euros of sales and 1,224 million euros of internal market. In Spain, the elevators in maintenance invoice €4 million a year, and €250 million in repairs. In 2012, Spain exported €300 million in elevators.{{citation needed|date=May 2019}} In South Korea there are 530,000 elevators in operation, with 36,000 added in 2015. Hyundai elevators has 48% market share Thyssen-Krupp Korea (ex-Dongyang) 17%, OtisKorea (ex-LG hitachi) 16%, as of 2015. South Korea record 50,000 elevators sales in 2018 with 700,000 accumulated operation as of June,2019. Korean annual elevator maintenance market is around US$1 billion.{{citation needed|date=May 2016}} ===Eiffel Tower=== {{main|Eiffel Tower#Passenger lifts}} [[File:Etowerpulley.jpg|right|thumb|An elevator pulley in the [[Eiffel Tower]]]] The [[Eiffel Tower]] has Otis double-deck elevators built into the legs of the tower, serving the ground level to the first and second levels. Even though the shaft runs diagonally upwards with the contour of the tower, both the upper and lower cars remain horizontally level. The offset distance of the two cars changes throughout the journey. There are four elevator cars of the traditional design that run from the second level to the third level. The cars are connected to their opposite pairs (opposite in the elevator landing/hall) and use each other as the [[counterweight]]. As one car ascends from level 2, the other descends from level 3. The operations of these elevators are synchronised by a light signal in the car. === Statue of Unity === [[File:Statue of Unity in 2018 (cropped).jpg|alt=Statue of Unity, Gujarat, India|thumb|[[Statue of Unity|Statue of Unity, Gujarat, India]]]] The [[Statue of Unity]], the world's tallest statue at {{convert|182|m|ft}} high, has 10 high speed ({{convert|4|m/s|ft/s}}) elevators leading up to a viewing gallery {{convert|153|m|ft}} high.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://brandequity.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/marketing/otis-to-give-a-lift-to-the-top-of-the-statue-of-unity/66630400|title=Otis to give a 'lift' to the top of the Statue of Unity – ET BrandEquity|last=www.ETBrandEquity.com|website=ETBrandEquity.com|language=en|access-date=18 March 2019}}</ref> ===Taipei 101=== [[File:台北101的升降機.JPG|left|thumb|The observation deck elevator floor indicator in the Taipei 101]] Double deck elevators are used in the [[Taipei 101]] office tower. Tenants of even-numbered floors first take an escalator (or an elevator from the parking garage) to the 2nd level, where they will enter the upper deck and arrive at their floors. The lower deck is turned off during low-volume hours, and the upper deck can act as a single-level elevator stopping at all adjacent floors. For example, the 85th floor restaurants can be accessed from the 60th floor sky-lobby. Restaurant customers must clear their reservations at the reception counter on the 2nd floor. A bank of express elevators stop only on the sky lobby levels (36 and 60, upper-deck car), where tenants can transfer to "local" elevators. The high-speed observation deck elevators accelerate to a world-record certified speed of {{convert|1010|m/min|km/h|0}} in 16 seconds, and then it slows down for arrival with subtle air pressure sensations. The door opens after 37 seconds from the 5th floor. Special features include aerodynamic car and counterweights, and cabin pressure control to help passengers adapt smoothly to pressure changes. The downwards journey is completed at a reduced speed of 600 meters per minute, with the doors opening at the 52nd second. ===Gateway Arch=== [[File:Gateway Arch tram car.JPG|thumb|The interior of one of the Gateway Arch tramway cars]] {{Main|Gateway Arch}} The Gateway Arch in [[St. Louis, Missouri]], United States, has a unique [[Montgomery Elevator|Montgomery]] elevator system which carries passengers from the visitors' center underneath the Arch to the observation deck at the top of the structure. Called a ''tram'' or ''tramway'', people enter this unique [[tram]]way much as one would enter an ordinary elevator, through double doors. Passing through the doors the passengers in small groups enter a horizontal cylindrical compartment containing seats on each side and a flat floor. A number of these compartments are linked to form a train. These compartments each individually retain an appropriate level orientation by tilting while the entire train follows curved tracks up one leg of the arch. There are two tramways within the Arch, one at the north end, and the other at the south end. The entry doors have windows, so people travelling within the Arch are able to see the interior structure of the Arch during the ride to and from the observation deck. At the beginning of the trip the cars hang from the drive cables, but as the angle of the shaft changes, they end up beside and then on top of the cables. [[File:ElevatorShaftHannoverNewCityHallLookingUp.jpg|thumb|left|View up the shaft of the elevator at the New City Hall, [[Hanover]], Germany]] ===New City Hall, Hanover, Germany=== [[File:ElevatorHannoverNewCityHallSketch.png|thumb|100px|Elevator in the new city hall, Hanover, Germany, showing the cabin at the bottom and the top]] The elevator in the [[New City Hall (Hanover)|New City Hall]] in [[Hanover]], [[Germany]], is a technical rarity, and unique in Europe, as the elevator starts straight up but then changes its angle by 15 degrees to follow the contour of the dome of the hall. The cabin therefore tilts 15 degrees during the ride. The elevator travels a height of 43 meters. The new city hall was built in 1913. The elevator was destroyed in 1943 and rebuilt in 1954. ===Luxor incline elevator=== The [[Luxor Hotel]] in [[Las Vegas, Nevada]], United States, has [[inclined elevator]]s. The shape of this casino is a [[pyramid]]. Therefore, the elevator travels up the side of the pyramid at a 39-degree angle. Other locations with inclined elevators include the [[Cityplace (DART station)|Cityplace Station]] in [[Dallas, Texas]], the [[Huntington (WMATA station)|Huntington Metro Station]] in [[Huntington, Virginia]], and the [[San Diego Convention Center]] in [[San Diego, California]]. ===Germany=== At the Radisson Blue in Berlin, Germany, the main elevator is surrounded by an aquarium; 82 feet tall, the aquarium contains more than a thousand different fish and offers views to people using the elevator.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://au.totaltravel.yahoo.com/galleries/g/29194655/now-thats-a-lot-of-water/29194656/#1 |title=Hotel lobby goes under the sea |website=Au.totaltravel.yahoo.com |date=6 August 2015 |access-date=26 April 2017 }}{{Dead link|date=December 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> ===The Twilight Zone Tower of Terror=== {{Main|The Twilight Zone Tower of Terror}} The Twilight Zone Tower of Terror is the common name for a series of elevator attractions at the [[Disney's Hollywood Studios]] park in Orlando, the [[Walt Disney Studios Park]] in Paris and the [[Tokyo DisneySea]] park in Tokyo. The central element of this attraction is a simulated free-fall achieved through the use of a high-speed elevator system. For safety reasons, passengers are seated and secured in their seats rather than standing. Unlike most traction elevators, the elevator car and [[counterweight]] are joined using a rail system in a continuous loop running through both the top and the bottom of the drop shaft. This allows the drive motor to pull down on the elevator car from underneath, resulting in downward acceleration greater than that of normal gravity. The high-speed drive motor is used to rapidly lift the elevator as well. The passenger cabs are mechanically separated from the lift mechanism, thus allowing the elevator shafts to be used continuously while passengers board and embark from the cabs, as well as move through show scenes on various floors. The passenger cabs, which are [[automated guided vehicle]]s or AGVs, move into the vertical motion shaft and lock themselves in before the elevator starts moving vertically. Multiple elevator shafts are used to further improve passenger throughput. The doorways of the top few "floors" of the attraction are open to the outdoor environment, thus allowing passengers to look out from the top of the structure. ==="Top of the Rock" elevators=== Guests ascending to the 67th, 69th, and 70th level observation decks (dubbed "[[Top of the Rock]]") atop the [[GE Building]] at [[Rockefeller Center]] in [[New York City]] ride a high-speed glass-top elevator. When entering the cab, it appears to be any normal elevator ride. However, once the cab begins moving, the interior lights turn off and a special blue light above the cab turns on. This lights the entire shaft, so riders can see the moving cab through its glass ceiling as it rises and lowers through the shaft. Music plays and various animations are also displayed on the ceiling. The entire ride takes about 60 seconds. ===The Haunted Mansion=== Part of the [[Haunted Mansion]] attraction at [[Disneyland Park (Anaheim)|Disneyland]] in [[Anaheim, California]], and [[Disneyland Park (Paris)|Disneyland]] in [[Paris, France]], takes place on an elevator. The "stretching room" on the ride is actually an elevator that travels downwards, giving access to a short tunnel which leads to the rest of the attraction. The elevator has no ceiling and its shaft is decorated to look like walls of a mansion. Because there is no roof, passengers are able to see the walls of the shaft by looking up, which gives the illusion of the room stretching. ===For urban transport=== [[File:Elevador de Santa Justa.jpg|thumb|[[Elevador de Santa Justa]], in [[Lisbon]], Portugal]] {{example farm|section|date=September 2018}} In some towns where terrain is difficult to navigate, elevators are used as part of urban transport systems. [[File:Elevador Lacerda.jpg|thumb|''Elevador Lacerda'' in [[Salvador, Bahia|Salvador]], Brazil. ]] [[File:Shanklin Cliff Lift.JPG|thumb|Shanklin Cliff elevator in [[Shanklin]], [[Isle of Wight]]]] Examples: * [[Alexandria, Virginia]], USA – public [[inclined elevator]]s connect to [[Huntington station (Washington Metro)|Huntington station]] * [[Almada]], Portugal – [[Boca do Vento Elevator]] * [[Bad Schandau]], Germany – [[Bad Schandau Elevator]] * [[Barcelona]], Spain – elevator and cableway line connecting the port terminal to [[Montjuïc]] hill * [[Bilbao]], Spain – [[Zazpikaleak/Casco Viejo|Casco Viejo station]] (fare-paying elevator connecting upper and lower neighbourhoods, as well as the station) * [[Brussels]], Belgium – [[Marollen|Marolles]], Belgium: "Ascenseur des Marolles", links the upper part of the city to the lower one, from Place Poelaert to Breughel square * [[Bürgenstock]], Switzerland – [[Hammetschwand Elevator]] * [[Chongqing]], China – public elevator at Kaixuan Road * [[Coimbra]], Portugal – {{ill|Elevador do Mercado|pt}} * [[Genoa]], Italy – eleven public elevators * [[Hamburg]], Germany – [[Elbe Tunnel (1911)|Old Elbe Tunnel]] elevators * [[Hastings]], UK – [[East Hill Cliff Railway]] * [[Helgoland]], [[Schleswig-Holstein]], Germany – connects upper and lower parts of the island * [[Hong Kong]] – public elevators connecting [[Wah Fu Estate]] to [[Wah Kwai Estate]] * [[İzmir]], Turkey – [[Asansör]] * [[Jersey City, New Jersey]], USA – elevator at [[Hudson–Bergen Light Rail]] station at 9th Street and Palisade Avenue * [[Knoxville, Tennessee]], USA – outdoor public elevator at World's Fair Park * [[Lisbon]], Portugal – ''[[Santa Justa Lift|Elevador de Santa Justa]]'', ''Castelo'' (planned), ''Chiado'' (closed), ''Município/Biblioteca'' (demolished) * [[Luxembourg City]], Luxembourg – [[Pfaffenthal Panoramic Elevator]] * [[Lynchburg, Virginia]], USA – outdoor public elevator that connects Church Street on the lower level and Court Street on the upper level * [[Marburg]], Germany – some parts of the historic city core built on higher ground (Uppertown, "Oberstadt" in German) are accessible from the lower street level by elevators. These elevators are unique in servicing also various buildings partially embedded in the steep-sloping terrain * [[Monaco]] – seven elevators * [[Nagasaki]], Japan – [[Skyway]] * [[Naples]], Italy – three public elevators * [[New York City]], USA – the [[190th Street (IND Eighth Avenue Line)]]<!--please do not pipe, there are other stations with the same name--> subway station has a bank of elevators that can be used by pedestrians without paying a fare. Also, the [[34th Street (IRT Flushing Line)]]<!--please do not pipe, there are other stations with the same name--> station has an incline elevator that, when open, can be used without paying a fare. Both stations are very deep. * [[Oregon City, Oregon]], USA – [[Oregon City Municipal Elevator]] * [[Porto]], Portugal – [[Elevador da Ribeira]] * [[Salvador, Bahia]], Brazil – [[Elevador Lacerda]] * [[City of San Marino]], San Marino – connects several levels of the town * [[Savannah, Georgia]], USA – public elevators with access to River Street * [[Shanklin]], [[Isle of Wight]], UK – [[Shanklin Cliff Lift]], Fare was £1 as of 2013 * [[Stockholm]], Sweden – [[Katarina Elevator]] *[[Turku]], Finland – Kakola Funicular, an outdoor incline elevator, which connects Kakolanmäki with other public transport. * [[Val Thorens]], France – public elevators linking upper town with lower town * [[Valletta]], Malta – [[Barrakka Lift]], which connects the [[Upper Barrakka Gardens]] (on the top of the fortifications) to the harbour<ref>{{cite web |title=Barrakka Lift |url=http://www.transport.gov.mt/land-transport/other-public-transport/barrakka-lift |website=[[Transport Malta]] |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180427165819/http://www.transport.gov.mt/land-transport/other-public-transport/barrakka-lift |archivedate=27 April 2018}}</ref> * [[Whanganui]], New Zealand – [[Durie Hill Elevator]]; originally built by subdividers of suburb * [[Yalta]], Ukraine Some cities have short two-station unenclosed inclined railway lines that serve the same function. These are called [[funicular]]s. == IOT elevators == Internet of things (IOT) technology application is being used in elevators to improve performance, operations, monitoring, maintenance with help of remote diagnostics, real time notifications and predictive behavioural insights.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.buildings.com/news/industry-news/articleid/21635/title/predictive-maintenance-iot-elevators|title=Predictive Maintenance: Top 10 Ways IoT is Changing Elevators|website=www.buildings.com|language=en-US|access-date=8 February 2019}}</ref> ==World's fastest elevators== The [[Shanghai Tower]] holds the current record of world's fastest elevators with their cars travelling at {{convert|73.8|km/h|abbr=on}}. The elevator, that was installed on 7 July 2016, was manufactured by [[Mitsubishi Electric]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/fastest-lift-(elevator) |title=Fastest lift (elevator) |website=Guinness World Records |access-date =23 December 2016}}</ref> ==See also== {{Too many see alsos|date=February 2019}} {{div col|colwidth=20em}} * [[Building transportation systems]] * [[Double-deck elevator]] * [[Elevator consultant]] * [[Elevator mechanic]] * [[Elevator operator]] * [[Elevator paradox]] * [[Elevator surfing]] * [[Escalator]] * [[Funicular]] * [[Grain elevator]] * [[Home lift]] * [[Incline elevator]] * [[List of elevator accidents]] * [[List of elevator manufacturers]] * [[Moving walkway]] * [[Paternoster]] * [[People mover]] * [[Schmid peoplemover]], an elevator capable of crossing a road * [[Shopping cart conveyor]] * [[Space elevator]] * [[Stairlift]] * [[Wheelchair lift]] {{div col end}} ==References== {{Reflist}} ===Bibliography=== * Bernard, Andreas. ''Lifted: A Cultural History of the Elevator'' (New York University Press; 2014) 309 pages; scholarly architectural and technological history; also examines literary and cinematic representations. * Traffic Performance of Elevators with Destination Control * Manavalan, Theresa (30 October 2005). "Don't let them ride alone". ''[[New Straits Times]]'', p. F2. * {{cite web |url=http://www.buildings.com/ArticleDetails/tabid/3321/ArticleID/3076/Default.aspx |last=Ford |first=M. |year=2009 |title=Machine-Room-Less (MRL) Elevators |accessdate=27 October 2009}} * {{cite web |url=http://www.kone.com/countries/en_US/Elevators/MonoSpace/Pages/default.aspx |title=MonoSpace Mid-Rise Elevator. |year=2009 |accessdate=28 October 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130723025429/http://www.kone.com/countries/en_US/Elevators/MonoSpace/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=23 July 2013 |url-status=dead }} * {{cite web |last=Tetlow |first=K. |date=September 2007 |title=New Elevator Technology: The Machine Room-Less Elevator |accessdate=25 October 2009 |url=http://continuingeducation.construction.com/article.php?L=14&C=220 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081211101435/http://continuingeducation.construction.com/article.php?L=14&C=220 |archivedate=11 December 2008 }} * {{cite book |last=Barney |first=G. |date=January 2003 |title=Elevator Traffic Handbook: Theory and Practice |url=https://books.google.com/?id=GteIiGQT1S4C&pg=PA278 |isbn=978-0-415-27476-0}} * {{cite web |url=http://science.howstuffworks.com/transport/engines-equipment/elevator.htm |last=Harris |first=Tom. |year=2002 |title=HowStuffWorks "How Elevators Work" |accessdate=10 January 2011}} * {{cite web |url=http://www.elevatorbobs-elevator-pics.com/sidewalk_p1.html |title=Elevatorbob's Sidewalk Elevators}} == Further reading == * {{Cite book |last=Gray |first=Lee |year=2002 |title=From Ascending Rooms to Express Elevators: A History of the Passenger Elevator in the 19th Century |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qq4gVSkfnPcC |location=Mobile, Al. |publisher=Elevator World |isbn=9781886536463 |oclc=52335945}} ==External links== {{Commons category|Elevators}} * {{dmoz|Business/Construction_and_Maintenance/Materials_and_Supplies/Elevators_and_Escalators/Elevators|Elevators}} {{External links|date=February 2019}} * [http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/indg339.pdf The Lifting Operations and Lifting Equipment Regulations 1998 (LOLER) Guidance] * [https://www.ex-trading.com/mrl-lift Ex Trading] * [http://www.isye.gatech.edu/~jjb/misc/elevators/elevators.html A collection of elevator control panels] * [https://aceee.org/files/pdf/white-paper/elevators2005.pdf ACE<sup>3</sup>] Opportunities for Elevator Energy Efficiency Improvements * Nick Paumgarten, ''The New Yorker'', 21 April 2008, [http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2008/04/21/080421fa_fact_paumgarten?currentPage=all Up And Then Down: The lives of elevators] * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-19846214 Why do we behave so oddly in lifts?] [[BBC News Online]] (2012-10-08) * Karin Tetlow, [https://www.construction.com/ce/articles/0709kone-6.asp Comparisons of different types of Elevators] September 2007. * [http://www.buildings.com/ArticleDetails/tabid/3321/ArticleID/3076/Default.aspx General and Historic Information on MRL Elevators] * [http://www.gartec.com/archive/7-record-breaking-elevators Record Breaking Elevators Of The Modern World]. Record breaking elevators of the modern world with interesting facts and statistics on these seven engineering feats. {{Room}} {{Public transport}} {{Normdaten}} [[Category:Elevators| ]] [[Category:Vertical transport devices]] {{short description|Rapid transit system in New York City}} {{Use mdy dates|date=January 2019}} {{good article}} {{Infobox public transit | box_width = 275px | name = New York City Subway | image = MTA New York City Subway logo.svg | imagesize = | alt = | caption = | image2 = File:MTA NYC Subway 1 trains at 125th St.jpg | alt2 = A 1 train, composed here of R62A cars is seen above ground leaving the 125th Street station. The front of the train contains two white lights providing slight illumination, two windows, a door, and the Symbol for the 1 line on the left window. | image3 = File:R160A E Train entering World Trade Center.jpg | alt3 = An E train, here composed of R160A cars is seen entering the World Trade Center station. The front of the train contains two white lights providing slight illumination, a window on the right side, the American flag on the left side, and the MTA logo below the flag. | caption3 = '''Top''': A '''{{NYCS|1}}''' train made up of [[R62A (New York City Subway car)|R62A]] cars leaves the [[125th Street (IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line)|125th Street]] station.<br />'''Bottom''': An '''{{NYCS|E}}''' train made up of [[R160 (New York City Subway car)|R160A]] cars enters the [[World Trade Center (IND Eighth Avenue Line)|World Trade Center]] station. | owner = [[Government of New York City]] | area served = [[The Bronx]], [[Brooklyn]], [[Manhattan]], and [[Queens]] | locale = New York City | transit_type = [[Rapid transit]] | lines = [[List of New York City Subway lines|{{NYCS const|lines}}]] lines<ref group="note">These are the physical tracks that a train "service" runs on. See [[New York City Subway nomenclature]] for more information.</ref><br />[[List of New York City Subway services|{{NYCS const|routes}}]] services<br />(1 planned)<ref group="note">These "services" run on physical tracks. See [[New York City Subway nomenclature]] for more information.</ref> | line_number = | start = | end = | stations = [[List of New York City Subway stations|{{NYCS const|number|total}}]]<ref name=ridership2014 /> ([[Metropolitan Transportation Authority|MTA]] total count){{#tag:ref|There are 13 stations on the [[Second Avenue Subway|IND Second Avenue Line]] and 1 station on the [[IRT Flushing Line]] planned. * The Second Avenue Line has 3 active stations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.mta.info/capital/sas_docs/final_summary_report.pdf|title=web.mta.info/capital/sas_docs/final_summary_report.pdf|publisher=}}</ref> 13 of these are planned.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nydailynews.com/new-york/mta-releases-avenue-subway-images-article-1.1506866|title=MTA releases Second Avenue subway images|publisher=}}</ref> * The [[Tenth Avenue (IRT Flushing Line)|Tenth Avenue]] station will be constructed as an in-fill station once funding for it is secured.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20100218115623/http://www.crainsnewyork.com/article/20100216/FREE/100219925 "Outcry emerges for 41st St. stop on new 7-line"].</ref>|group=note|name="planned stations"}}{{refn|group=note| name=stationnote| * Permanently closed stations are not counted.<ref name=stationinfo>{{NYCS const|stationinformation}}</ref> * Both the [[Chambers Street–World Trade Center (IND Eighth Avenue Line)]] and [[Canal Street (BMT Broadway Line)]] stations are considered two stations each by the MTA.<ref name=stationinfo/> If both of them are counted as one station each, the number of stations in the New York City Subway is {{#expr:{{NYCS const|number|total}}-2}} stations (or {{NYCS const|number|intl}} by international standards).}}<br />{{NYCS const|number|intl}} unique stations<ref group=note name=stationnote/><ref name=ridership2014 /> (when compared to [[list of metro systems|international standards]])<br />14 planned<ref group="note" name="planned stations"/> | ridership = 5,580,845 (weekdays, 2017)<ref name=ridership2014 /> <br />3,156,673 (Saturdays, 2017)<ref name=ridership2014 /><br />2,525,481 (Sundays, 2017)<ref name=ridership2014 /> | weekly_ridership = | annual_ridership = 1,727,366,607 (2017)<ref name=ridership2014 /> | chief_executive = | website = {{URL|mta.info/nyct}} | operator = [[New York City Transit Authority]] (NYCTA) | began_operation = October 27, 1904<br />([[Early history of the IRT subway|Original subway]])<br /> July 3, 1868<ref>[https://www.nycsubway.org/wiki/Fifty_Years_of_Rapid_Transit_(1918) Fifty Years of Rapid Transit (1918)]</ref><br />(first elevated, rapid transit operation)<br /> October 9, 1863<br />(first railroad operation)<ref group="note">The [[Interborough Rapid Transit Company|IRT]] [[Early history of the IRT subway|main line]], which is considered to be the first New York City "subway" line, opened in 1904; however, the [[IRT Ninth Avenue Line|Ninth Avenue Line]], a predecessor elevated railroad line, operated its first trial run on July 3, 1868 according to ''Facts and Figures 1979–80'', published by the [[New York City Transit Authority]] [http://www.nycsubway.org/irt/9thave/ See also nycsubway.org]; and the [[West End Line (Brooklyn surface)|West End Line]], which opened in 1863. A small portion of the latter line's original right-of-way, part of an extension opened in 1864, is still in daily use near [[Coney Island]]. [http://thethirdrail.net/9909/westend1.htm thethirdrail.net] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060523225752/http://thethirdrail.net/9909/westend1.htm |date=May 23, 2006 }}</ref> | character = | vehicles = 6,418<ref name="mtanetwork">{{cite web |url=http://web.mta.info/mta/network.htm |title=The MTA Network |publisher=[[Metropolitan Transportation Authority]] |access-date=February 22, 2018}}</ref> | train_length = | headway = Peak hours: 2–5 minutes<ref name="1Line">{{cite web | url=http://straphangers.com/statesub11/1.pdf | title=1 Subway Line Profile | publisher=NYPRIG Straphangers Campaign | accessdate=February 28, 2016}}</ref><br />Off-peak: 10–20 minutes<ref name="1Line" /> | system_length = {{convert|245|mi|km|sortable=on}}<ref name="mtabudget">{{cite web |url=http://web.mta.info/mta/investor/pdf/2016/2016-CAFR.pdf |title=Comprehensive Annual Financial Report for the Years Ended December 31, 2016 and 2015 |publisher=[[Metropolitan Transportation Authority|Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA)]] |format=pdf |page=168 (PDF p. 169) |date=July 26, 2017 |accessdate=August 8, 2017}}</ref>{{indent|4}}(route length)<br />{{convert|691|mi|abbr=on}}<ref name="mtabudget"/>{{indent|4}}(track length, revenue)<br />{{convert|850|mi|abbr=on}}<ref name="NYCSubway.org" />{{indent|4}}(track length, total) | notrack = | track_gauge = {{RailGauge|usstandard|al=on|allk=on}}<ref name="NYCSubway.org">{{cite web |url=http://www.nycsubway.org/faq/factsfigures.html |title=Facts & Figures – Subways |website=www.nycsubway.org |accessdate=March 9, 2014}}</ref> | el = 600–650 [[volt|V]] ([[Direct current|DC]]) [[third rail]]; normally 625V<ref name="NYCSubway.org" /><ref name="Engineering and Technology History">{{cite web | title=The Railway Power Stations of New York City | website=Engineering and Technology History | url=http://ethw.org/The_Railway_Power_Stations_of_New_York_City | accessdate=September 13, 2016}}</ref> | average_speed = {{convert|17|mph|km/h|abbr=on}}<ref name="ggw5183">{{cite web |url=http://greatergreaterwashington.org/post/5183/average-schedule-speed-how-does-metro-compare/ |title=Average schedule speed: How does Metro compare? |publisher=}}</ref> | top_speed = {{convert|55|mph|km/h|abbr=on}}<ref name="ggw5183"/> | map = [[File:NYC subway-4D.svg|frameless]] | map_state = }} The '''New York City Subway''' is a [[rapid transit]] system owned by the [[New York City|City of New York]] and leased to the [[New York City Transit Authority]],<ref name="Hood, Clifton 2004">{{cite book|first=Clifton |last=Hood|title=722 Miles: The Building of the Subways and How They Transformed New York|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0YfdjUgMAscC|year=2004 |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|isbn=978-0801880544}}</ref> a subsidiary agency of the state-run [[Metropolitan Transportation Authority]] (MTA).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.mta.info/mta/compliance/pdf/Description%20and%20Board%20Structure.pdf |title=Metropolitan Transportation Authority Description and Board Structure Covering Fiscal Year 2009 |date=2009|website=mta.info|publisher=Metropolitan Transportation Authority|access-date=March 13, 2016}}</ref> Opened in 1904, the New York City Subway is one of the world's oldest public transit systems, one of the most-used, and the one with the most stations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.citymetric.com/transport/what-largest-metro-system-world-1361 |title=What is the largest metro system in the world? |website=CityMetric|access-date=March 13, 2016}}</ref> The New York City Subway is the largest [[rapid transit system]] in the world by number of stations, with [[List of New York City Subway stations|{{NYCS const|number|total}} stations in operation]]<ref name="MTA-HowtoRideSubway" /> ({{NYCS const|number|intl}} if stations connected by transfers are counted as single stations).<ref name="ridership2014">{{cite web |url=http://web.mta.info/nyct/facts/ridership/|title=Introduction to Subway Ridership |publisher=[[Metropolitan Transportation Authority]]|accessdate=July 12, 2018}}</ref> Stations are located throughout the boroughs of [[Manhattan]], [[Brooklyn]], [[Queens]], and [[the Bronx]]. The system offers service 24 hours per day, every day of the year, though some routes may operate only part-time.<ref name="MTA-HowtoRideSubway">{{cite web|url=http://web.mta.info/nyct/subway/howto_sub.htm|title=How to Ride the Subway |accessdate=November 17, 2013}}</ref> By annual ridership, the New York City Subway is the busiest rapid transit system in both the [[Western Hemisphere]] and the [[Western world]], as well as the [[List of metro systems|ninth-busiest rapid transit rail system]] in the world.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://web.mta.info/nyct/facts/ffsubway.htm |title=Subways |publisher=[[Metropolitan Transportation Authority|Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA)]] |date=April 2, 2013 |accessdate=April 26, 2015}}</ref> In 2017, the subway delivered over 1.72 billion rides, averaging approximately 5.6 million daily rides on weekdays and a combined 5.7 million rides each weekend (3.2 million on Saturdays, 2.5 million on Sundays).<ref name="ridership2014" /> On September 23, 2014, more than 6.1 million people rode the subway system, establishing the highest single-day ridership since ridership was regularly monitored in 1985.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/17/nyregion/mta-expected-to-raise-fares-and-tolls.html?module=Search&mabReward=relbias&&_r=1 |title=M.T.A. Expected to Raise Fares and Tolls |author=Emma G. Fitzsimmons |newspaper=The New York Times |date=November 16, 2014 |accessdate=November 18, 2014}}</ref><ref group="note">Highest daily ridership since public takeover. In the first half of the 20th century, ridership was significantly higher.</ref> The system is also one of the world's longest. Overall, the system contains {{convert|245|mi|km}} of routes,<ref name="NYCSubway.org" /><ref name="NY-MTA-2011-Annual-Report">{{cite web|url=http://web.mta.info/mta/investor/pdf/2011/2011_CAFR.pdf|title=Comprehensive Annual Financial Report for the Years Ended December 31, 2011 and 2010|date=May 2, 2012|publisher=[[Metropolitan Transportation Authority|Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA)]]|page=148|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130722051113/http://www.mta.info/mta/investor/pdf/2011/2011_CAFR.pdf|archivedate=July 22, 2013|accessdate=July 14, 2014}}</ref> translating into {{convert|665|mi|km}} of revenue track<ref name="NYCSubway.org" /> and a total of {{convert|850|mi|km}} including [[non-revenue track]]age.<ref name="NYCSubway.org" /> Of the system's {{NYCS const|routes}} routes or "services" (which usually share track or "lines" with other services), {{#expr:{{NYCS const|routes}}-3}} pass through Manhattan, the exceptions being the {{NYCS|G}} train, the [[Franklin Avenue Shuttle]], and the [[Rockaway Park Shuttle]]. Large portions of the subway outside Manhattan are elevated, on [[Embankment (transportation)|embankments]], or in [[Cut (earthmoving)|open cuts]], and a few stretches of track run at ground level. In total, 40% of track is aboveground.<ref>{{Cite book |title=101 Amazing Facts About New York |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vR62BAAAQBAJ |publisher=Andrews UK Limited |year=2013 |isbn=978-1783333059 |language=en |first=Jack |last=Goldstein}}</ref> Many lines and stations have both [[Express train|express]] and local services. These lines have three or four tracks. Normally, the outer two are used by local trains, while the inner one or two are used by express trains. Stations served by express trains are typically major transfer points or destinations.<ref name="MTA-HowtoRideSubway" /> {{As of|2018}}, the New York City Subway's budgetary burden for expenditures was $8.7 billion, supported by collection of fares, bridge tolls, and [[Earmark (finance)|earmarked]] regional taxes and fees, as well as direct funding from state and local governments.<ref>{{cite web | last=Rivoli | first=Dan | title=MTA Budget: Where does the money go? | website=NY Daily News | date=February 13, 2018 | url=http://interactive.nydailynews.com/project/mta-spending/ | access-date=November 3, 2018}}</ref> Its [[on-time performance]] rate was 65% during weekdays.<ref>{{Cite news | title=They Vowed to Fix the Subway a Year Ago. On-Time Rates Are Still Terrible. | newspaper=The New York Times | date=July 23, 2018 | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/07/23/nyregion/nyc-subway-delays-failure.html | access-date=November 3, 2018| last1=Fitzsimmons | first1=Emma G. }}</ref> == History == {{Main|History of the New York City Subway}} [[File:City Hall Subway station.jpg|thumb|The [[City Hall (IRT Lexington Avenue Line)|City Hall station]] of the [[IRT Lexington Avenue Line]] opened on October 27, 1904]] [[Alfred Ely Beach]] built the first demonstration for an underground transit system in New York City in 1869 and opened it in February 1870.<ref name="Brennan">{{cite web |url=http://www.columbia.edu/~brennan/beach/chapter25.html |title=They found the tube in excellent condition |year=2005 |work=Beach Pneumatic |author=Brennan, Joseph |accessdate=January 17, 2008 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071006030205/http://www.columbia.edu/~brennan/beach/chapter25.html |archivedate=October 6, 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.mit.edu/invent/iow/beach.html |title=Inventor of the Week: Archive |date=March 6, 2014 |access-date=March 18, 2016 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140306174249/http://web.mit.edu/invent/iow/beach.html |archivedate=March 6, 2014 }}</ref> His [[Beach Pneumatic Transit]] only extended {{convert|312|ft}} under [[Broadway (Manhattan)|Broadway]] in [[Lower Manhattan]] operating from Warren Street to Murray Street<ref name="Brennan" /> and exhibited his idea for an [[atmospheric railway]] as a subway. The tunnel was never extended for political and financial reasons.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nycsubway.org/articles/beach-1870-03-05.html |title=The Pneumatic Tunnel Under Broadway (1870) |publisher=nycsubway.org |accessdate=July 7, 2008 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080505031528/http://www.nycsubway.org/articles/beach-1870-03-05.html |archivedate=May 5, 2008}} (extract from ''Scientific American'' March 5, 1870)</ref> Today, no part of this line remains as the tunnel was completely within the limits of the present day [[City Hall (BMT Broadway Line)|City Hall Station]] under Broadway.<ref>nycsubway.org – [http://www.nycsubway.org/wiki/Beach_Pneumatic_Transit Beach Pneumatic Transit]</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.nydailynews.com/new-york/manhattan/nyc-subway-luxurious-built-illegally-article-1.2547997|title=NYC’s first subway was luxurious, pneumatic and built illegally|last=Blankinger|first=Kari|date=March 1, 2016|work=|newspaper=New York Daily News|access-date=March 13, 2016|via=}}</ref><ref name="nyt1996">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1996/11/17/nyregion/subway-planners-lofty-ambitions-are-buried-as-dead-end-curiosities.html?pagewanted=all|title=Subway Planners' Lofty Ambitions Are Buried as Dead-End Curiosities|date=November 17, 1996|website=[nytimes.com|publisher=The New York Times|last1=Martin|first1=Douglas|accessdate=June 27, 2015}}</ref><ref name="nyt 201308">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/15/nyregion/when-the-new-york-city-subway-ran-without-rails.html?_r=0|title=When the New York City Subway Ran Without Rails|date=August 14, 2013|newspaper=The New York Times|last1=Santora|first1=Marc}}</ref> The [[Great Blizzard of 1888]] helped demonstrate the benefits of an underground transportation system.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nycsubway.org/wiki/The_Blizzard_of_1888%3B_the_Impact_of_this_Devastating_Storm_on_New_York_Transit |title=The Blizzard of 1888; the Impact of this Devastating Storm on New York Transit |date=|access-date = February 9, 2016 |website=nycsubway.org |publisher= |last=Christiano |first=G. J.}}</ref> A plan for the construction of the subway was approved in 1894, and construction began in 1900.<ref name=":7">{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/technology/nyunderground/abprogram.html|title=American Experience. Technology . New York Underground. About the Program {{!}} PBS|website=www.pbs.org|access-date=March 13, 2016}}</ref> Even though the underground portions of the subway had yet to be built, several above-ground segments of the modern-day New York City Subway system were already in service by then. The oldest structure still in use opened in 1885 as part of the [[BMT Lexington Avenue Line]] in Brooklyn<ref name="Gates">{{cite bklyn|title=Done at Last|image=50426818|date=May 13, 1885|page=1}}</ref><ref name="auto2">{{cite bklyn|title=Halsey Street Station Opened|image=50405675|date=August 19, 1885|page=4}}</ref><ref name="Chauncey">{{cite bklyn|title=A New Station Opened|image=50405355|date=July 18, 1885|page=4}}</ref><ref name="MBC">{{cite bklyn|title=East New York|image=50427251|date=June 13, 1885|page=6}}</ref><ref name="Alabama">{{cite bklyn|title=Still Extending Its Lines|image=50405953|date=September 5, 1885|page=6}}</ref> and is now part of the [[BMT Jamaica Line]].<ref name="NYCSorg-BMTJamaica">{{cite web |url=http://www.nycsubway.org/wiki/BMT_Nassau_Street-Jamaica_Line |title=www.nycsubway.org: BMT Nassau Street-Jamaica Line |website=www.nycsubway.org| access-date = February 25, 2016}}</ref> The oldest right-of-way, which is part of the [[BMT West End Line]] near [[Coney Island Creek]], was in use in 1864 as a steam railroad called the [[Brooklyn, Bath and Coney Island Rail Road]].<ref>{{cite bklyn |title=Opening of a New Railroad |image=50420352|date=October 5, 1863 |page=2}}</ref><ref>{{cite bklyn |title=Railroads|image=50421043 |date=October 9, 1863 |page=1}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Third Rail – Gunther and his Railroad – page 1 |url=http://www.thethirdrail.net/9909/westend1.htm |website=www.thethirdrail.net |access-date=February 14, 2016 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160229231836/http://www.thethirdrail.net/9909/westend1.htm |archivedate=February 29, 2016 }}</ref> The [[Early history of the IRT subway|first underground line of the subway]] opened on October 27, 1904, almost 36 years after the opening of the first elevated line in New York City, which became the [[IRT Ninth Avenue Line]].<ref name="HISTORY.com 1904"/><ref name=":5">James Blaine Walker, [https://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC03638541&id=lpEgAAAAMAAJ Fifty Years of Rapid Transit, 1864–1917], published 1918, pp. 162–191</ref><ref name="nycsubway">{{cite web |url=http://www.nycsubway.org/wiki/The_9th_Avenue_Elevated-Polo_Grounds_Shuttle |title=The 9th Avenue Elevated-Polo Grounds Shuttle |publisher=nycsubway.org |date=2012 |accessdate=July 3, 2014}}</ref> The {{convert|9.1|mi|km|adj=on}} line, then called the "Manhattan Main Line", ran from [[City Hall station (IRT Lexington Avenue Line)|City Hall station]] northward under [[Lafayette Street]] (then named Elm Street) and [[Park Avenue]] (then named Fourth Avenue) before turning westward at [[42nd Street (Manhattan)|42nd Street]]. It then curved northward again at [[Times Square]], continuing under [[Broadway (Manhattan)|Broadway]] before terminating at [[145th Street station (IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line)|145th Street station]] in [[Harlem]].<ref name="HISTORY.com 1904">{{cite web |title=New York City subway opens – Oct 27, 1904 |website=history.com |date=October 27, 1904 |url=http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/new-york-city-subway-opens |accessdate=October 25, 2015}}</ref> Its operation was leased to the Interborough Rapid Transit Company and over 150,000 passengers<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1904/10/28/118948832.pdf |title=Our Subway Open, 150,000 Try It – Mayor McClellan Runs the First Official Train |date=October 28, 1904 |work= |newspaper=The New York Times| access-date = February 24, 2016 |via=}}</ref> paid the 5¢ fare to ride it on the first day of operation.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://secondavenuesagas.com/2007/11/21/specter-of-the-5%c2%a2-fare-haunts-the-current-fare-hike-debate/|title=Specter of the 5¢ fare haunts the current fare hike debate|website=Second Ave. Sagas| access-date = February 25, 2016|date=November 21, 2007 }}</ref> By the late 1900s and early 1910s, the lines had been consolidated into two privately owned systems, the [[Brooklyn Rapid Transit Company]] (BRT, later [[Brooklyn–Manhattan Transit Corporation]], BMT) and the [[Interborough Rapid Transit Company]] (IRT). The city built most of the lines and leased them to the companies.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.nycsubway.org/wiki/New_Subways_for_New_York:_The_Dual_System_of_Rapid_Transit_(1913) | title = www.nycsubway.org: New Subways for New York: The Dual System of Rapid Transit (1913)| website = www.nycsubway.org| access-date = February 26, 2016}}</ref> The first line of the city-owned and operated [[Independent Subway System]] (IND) opened in 1932;<ref name="chambers">{{cite news |url=https://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FA0D13F7395513738DDDA90994D1405B828FF1D3 |title=Gay Midnight Crowd Rides First Trains in New Subway |date=September 10, 1932 |work=The New York Times |page=1}}</ref> this system was intended to compete with the private systems and allow some of the elevated railways to be torn down, but stayed within the core of the City due to its small startup capital.<ref name="Hood, Clifton 2004"/> This required it to be run 'at cost', necessitating fares up to double the five-cent fare popular at the time.<ref name=":1"/> In 1940, the city bought the two private systems. Some elevated lines ceased service immediately while others closed soon after.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Under the Sidewalks of New York: The Story of the Greatest Subway System in the World |last=Cudahy |first=Brian J. |publisher=Fordham University Press |year=1995 |isbn=978-0823216185 |location= |page=118 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=LYSVd43vZwQC&dq=unification+1940+subway}}</ref> Integration was slow, but [[List of New York City Subway inter-division connections|several connections]] were built between the IND and BMT;<ref>{{cite news|url=https://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FB0613FB345E1A7493C0A91789D95F418585F9|title=Straphangers Sit As Tunnel Opens|date=December 2, 1955|newspaper=The New York Times|page=29|accessdate=February 13, 2010}}</ref><ref name="NYTimes-ChrystieStChanges-1967">{{cite web|url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1967/11/16/90418352.pdf|title=Subway Changes to Speed Service: Major Alterations in Maps, Routes and Signs Will Take Effect Nov. 26|date=November 16, 1967|website=nytimes.com|publisher=The New York Times|last1=Perlmutter|first1=Emanuel|accessdate=July 7, 2015}}</ref><ref name="Raskin-RoutesNotTaken-20132">{{Cite Routes Not Taken}}</ref> these now operate as one division called the [[B Division (New York City Subway)|B Division]]. Since the [[Interborough Rapid Transit Company|IRT]] tunnels, sharper curves, and stations are [[Structure gauge|too small]] and therefore can not accommodate B Division cars, the IRT remains its own division, the [[A Division (New York City Subway)|A Division]].<ref>{{cite web |title=A Division |url=http://www.stationreporter.net/adiv.htm |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110806194048/http://www.stationreporter.net/adiv.htm |archivedate=August 6, 2011 |date=August 6, 2011|access-date = February 14, 2016}}</ref> However, many passenger transfers between stations of all three former companies have been created, allowing the entire network to be treated as a single unit.<ref name="Sparberg2014">{{cite book |last=Sparberg |first=Andrew J. |title=From a Nickel to a Token: The Journey from Board of Transportation to MTA |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oktGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA111 |year=2014 |publisher=Fordham University Press |isbn=978-0823261901}}</ref> During the late-1940s, the system recorded high ridership, and on December 23, 1946, the system-wide record of 8,872,249 fares was set.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=Fg4KAQAAMAAJ&dq=%22pelham+bay%22+%22shuttle%22&q=%22shuttle%22+%22pelham%22|title=A History of the New York City Subway System|last=Cunningham|first=Joseph|last2=DeHart|first2=Leonard O.|date=1993|publisher=J. Schmidt, R. Giglio, and K. Lang|language=en}}</ref>{{Rp|73}} The [[New York City Transit Authority]] (NYCTA), a public authority presided by New York City, was created in 1953 to take over subway, bus, and streetcar operations from the city, and placed under control of the state-level [[Metropolitan Transportation Authority]] in 1968.<ref name="Sparberg2014" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.mta.info/nyct/facts/ffhist.htm|title=mta.info {{!}} Facts and Figures|website=web.mta.info|access-date=March 11, 2016}}</ref> [[File:Heavily tagged subway car in NY.jpg|thumb|left|[[Graffiti]] became a notable symbol of declining service during the 1970s.]] Organized in 1934 by transit workers of the BRT, IRT, and IND,<ref>{{cite web|title=Transport Workers Union Our History|url=http://www.twu.org/OurUnion/OurHistory.aspx|website=www.twu.org|access-date=February 16, 2016|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160209215841/http://www.twu.org/OurUnion/OurHistory.aspx|archivedate=February 9, 2016}}</ref> the [[Transport Workers Union of America]] Local 100 remains the largest and most influential local of the labor unions.<ref>{{Cite book| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=urnIzRzjiNUC| title = In Transit:The Transport Workers Union In New York City, 1933–1966| last = B. Freeman| first = Joshua| publisher = Temple University Press| year = 1989| isbn = 978-1592138159| language = en}}</ref> Since the union's founding, there have been three union strikes over contract disputes with the MTA:<ref>{{cite web |title=A Short History of Recent American Transit Strikes |url=http://www.thetransportpolitic.com/2009/08/14/a-short-history-of-recent-american-transit-strikes/ |website=The Transport Politic|access-date = February 16, 2016 |language=en-US|date=August 14, 2009 }}</ref> 12 days in [[1966 New York City transit strike|1966]],<ref>{{cite web |title=A look back at the historic 1966 transit strike: Photos and more |url=http://www.amny.com/transit/a-look-back-at-the-1966-transit-strike-that-1.11302919 |website=am New York|access-date = February 16, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=N. Y. Transit Strike on (January 1, 1966) |url=http://archives.chicagotribune.com/1966/01/01/page/1/article/n-y-transit-strike-on|access-date = February 16, 2016}}</ref> 11 days in [[1980 New York City transit strike|1980]],<ref>{{cite web |title=35 Years Ago This Week, the MTA Strikes for 11 Days in NYC Bringing Transit to a Halt |url=http://untappedcities.com/2015/04/07/35-years-ago-this-week-the-mta-strikes-for-11-days-nyc-bringing-transit-to-a-halt/ |website=Untapped Cities|access-date = February 16, 2016|date=April 7, 2015 }}</ref> and three days in [[2005 New York City transit strike|2005]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=Citywide Strike Halts New York Subways and Buses |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/21/nyregion/nyregionspecial3/citywide-strike-halts-new-york-subways-and-buses.html |newspaper=The New York Times |date=December 21, 2005|access-date = February 16, 2016 |issn=0362-4331 |first=Jennifer |last=Steinhauer}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=NYC Transit Workers On Strike |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/news/nyc-transit-workers-on-strike-19-12-2005/ |website=www.cbsnews.com|access-date = February 16, 2016}}</ref> By the 1970s and 1980s, the New York City Subway was at an all-time low.<ref>nycsubway.org – [http://nycsubway.org/wiki/The_New_York_Transit_Authority_in_the_1970s The New York Transit Authority in the 1970s]</ref><ref name="nycsubway 1980s">nycsubway.org – [http://nycsubway.org/wiki/The_New_York_Transit_Authority_in_the_1980s The New York Transit Authority in the 1980s]</ref> Ridership had dropped to 1910s levels, and graffiti and crime were rampant. Maintenance was poor, and delays and track problems were common. Still, the NYCTA managed to open six new subway stations in the 1980s,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/10/29/nyregion/the-subway-to-nowhere-now-goes-somewhere.html |title=The 'Subway to Nowhere' Now Goes Somewhere |last=Lorch|first=Donatella|date=October 29, 1989 |newspaper=The New York Times|accessdate=October 20, 2011}}</ref><ref name="nytimes2">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/12/09/nyregion/big-changes-for-subways-are-to-begin.html |title=Big Changes For Subways Are to Begin |last=Johnson|first=Kirk|date=December 9, 1988 |newspaper=The New York Times|accessdate=July 5, 2009}}</ref> make the current fleet of subway cars graffiti-free, as well as order 1,775 new subway cars.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1989-05-18/news/8902020244_1_subway-cars-graffiti-campaign-transit-system|title=Graffiti Cleanup A Shiny Symbol Of Subway System`s Turnaround|last=Lentz|first=Phillip|date=May 18, 1989|work=|newspaper=Chicago Tribune|access-date=March 11, 2016|via=}}</ref> By the early 1990s, conditions had improved significantly, although maintenance backlogs accumulated during those 20 years are still being fixed today.<ref name="nycsubway 1980s"/> [[File:Cortlandt St station demolished.jpg|thumb|The [[Cortlandt Street (IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line)|Cortlandt Street station]] partially collapsed as a result of the [[collapse of the World Trade Center]].|alt=The Cortlandt Street station is seen partially collapsed]] Entering the 21st century, progress continued despite several disasters. The [[September 11 attacks]] resulted in [[Closings and cancellations following the September 11 attacks#NYC Subway|service disruptions]] on lines running through Lower Manhattan, particularly the [[IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line]], which ran directly underneath the [[World Trade Center (1973–2001)|World Trade Center]].<ref name="USDOT">{{cite web|url=http://ntl.bts.gov/lib/jpodocs/repts_te/14129.htm|title=Effects of Catastrophic Events on Transportation System Management and Operations: New York City – September 11|date=April 2002|author=U.S. Department of Transportation, Research and Special Programs Administration, Volpe National Transportation Systems Center|accessdate=November 5, 2013}}</ref> Sections of the tunnel, as well as the [[Cortlandt Street (IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line)|Cortlandt Street]] station, which was directly underneath the Twin Towers, were severely damaged. Rebuilding required the suspension of service on that line south of Chambers Street. Ten other nearby stations were closed for cleanup. By March 2002, seven of those stations had reopened. Except for Cortlandt Street, the rest reopened on September 15, 2002, along with service south of Chambers Street.<ref name="auto3">Kennedy, Randy. [https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E02E1D81730F934A2575AC0A9649C8B63 "Tunnel Vision; With Station's Reopening, Even Commuters Smile"], ''The New York Times'', September 17, 2002. Accessed October 6, 2007.</ref><ref name="auto3"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://mta.info:80/nyct/service/pdf_f/38_1239se.pdf|title=1 9 2 3 Service Restored|date=September 15, 2002|website=mta.info|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030716233305/http://mta.info/nyct/service/pdf_f/38_1239se.pdf|archive-date=July 16, 2003|url-status=dead|access-date=December 25, 2017}}</ref><ref name="Brian Abbott 2004">{{cite web | title=September 11: Three Years Later | website=Brian Abbott | date=September 11, 2004 | url=http://brianabbott.net/observations/2004/09/11/september-11-three-years-later | accessdate=March 25, 2016}}</ref> Cortlandt Street reopened on September 8, 2018.<ref>{{Cite news | title=Cortlandt Street Station, Damaged on Sept. 11, Reopens 17 Years Later | newspaper=The New York Times | date=September 8, 2018 | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/09/08/nyregion/cortlandt-street-subway-station-911.html | access-date=September 8, 2018| last1=Fitzsimmons | first1=Emma G. | last2=Hu | first2=Winnie }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=WTC Cortlandt Subway Station Reopens for 1st Time Since 9/11 Attacks |url=https://www.nbcnewyork.com/news/local/WTC-Cortlandt-Subway-Station-Reopens-for-1st-Time-Since-9-11-Attacks-492777501.html |accessdate= September 8, 2018 |work=NBC 4 New York |agency=Associated Press |date=September 8, 2018}}</ref> In October 2012, [[Effects of Hurricane Sandy in New York|Hurricane Sandy]] flooded several underwater tunnels and other facilities near [[New York Harbor]], as well as trackage over [[Jamaica Bay]]. The immediate damage was fixed within six months but long-term resiliency and rehabilitation projects continue. Among the more notable Sandy recovery projects include the restoration of the new [[South Ferry (IRT Broadway-Seventh Avenue Line)|South Ferry]] station from 2012 to 2017; the full closure of the [[Montague Street Tunnel]] from 2013 to 2014; and the partial [[14th Street Tunnel shutdown]] from 2019 to 2020.<ref>{{cite web |title=mta.info: Superstorm Sandy Timeline |url=http://web.mta.info/sandy/timeline.htm}}</ref> === Construction methods === [[File:7Line 2208 (9124955331).jpg|thumb|left|A stretch of subway track on the [[7 Subway Extension]].]] When the [[Early history of the IRT subway|IRT subway]] debuted in 1904,<ref name="HISTORY.com 1904" /><ref name=":5" /> the typical tunnel construction method was [[cut-and-cover]].<ref name="Construction">{{cite web |title=www.nycsubway.org: The New York Subway: Chapter 02, Types and Methods of Construction |website=www.nycsubway.org |url=http://www.nycsubway.org/wiki/The_New_York_Subway:_Chapter_02,_Types_and_Methods_of_Construction |accessdate=November 1, 2015}}</ref><ref name="IRT2007"/> The street was torn up to dig the tunnel below before being rebuilt from above.<ref name="Construction" /><ref name="IRT2007"/> Traffic on the street above would be interrupted due to the digging up of the street.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/why-it-was-faster-to-build-subways-in-1900|title=Why It Was Faster To Build Subways in 1900|date=October 22, 2015|website=Atlas Obscura|access-date=April 15, 2016}}</ref> Temporary steel and wooden bridges carried surface traffic above the construction.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nycsubway.org/wiki/Design_and_Construction_of_the_IRT:_Civil_Engineering_(Scott)|title=www.nycsubway.org: Design and Construction of the IRT: Civil Engineering (Scott)|website=www.nycsubway.org|access-date=April 15, 2016}}</ref> Contractors in this type of construction faced many obstacles, both natural and man-made. They had to deal with rock formations and ground water, which required pumps. Twelve miles of sewers, as well as water and gas mains, electric conduits, and steam pipes had to be rerouted. Street railways had to be torn up to allow the work. The foundations of tall buildings often ran near the subway construction, and in some cases needed underpinning to ensure stability.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nypl.org/blog/2015/05/04/subway-construction-then-now|title=Subway Construction: Then and Now|website=The New York Public Library|access-date=April 15, 2016}}</ref> This method worked well for digging soft dirt and gravel near the street surface.<ref name="Construction" /> However, [[tunnelling shield]]s were required for deeper sections, such as the Harlem and [[East River]] tunnels, which used cast-iron tubes. Rock or concrete-lined tunnels were used on segments from 33rd to 42nd streets under [[Park Avenue (Manhattan)|Park Avenue]]; 116th to 120th Streets under [[Broadway (Manhattan)|Broadway]]; 145th to [[Dyckman Street]]s (Fort George) under Broadway and [[St. Nicholas Avenue]]; and 96th Street and Broadway to Central Park North and [[Lenox Avenue]].<ref name="Construction" /><ref name="IRT2007" /> About 40% of the subway system runs on surface or elevated tracks, including steel or cast iron [[elevated railroad|elevated structures]], concrete [[viaduct]]s, [[embankment (transportation)|embankments]], [[Cut (earthmoving)|open cuts]] and surface routes.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.nycsubway.org/wiki/Subway_FAQ:_Facts_and_Figures| title = www.nycsubway.org: Subway FAQ: Facts and Figures| website = www.nycsubway.org| access-date = February 26, 2016}}</ref> {{As of|2019}}, there are {{convert|168|mi|km}} of elevated tracks.<ref>{{cite web | title=MTA has been leaving dangerous debris exposed for years: conductor | website=New York Post | date=February 23, 2019 | url=https://nypost.com/2019/02/22/mta-has-been-leaving-dangerous-debris-exposed-for-years-conductor/ | access-date=February 23, 2019}}</ref> All of these construction methods are completely [[grade-separated]] from road and pedestrian crossings, and most crossings of two subway tracks are grade-separated with [[flying junction]]s. The sole exceptions of at-grade junctions of two lines in regular service are the [[IRT Lenox Avenue Line|142nd Street junction]],<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.nycsubway.org/wiki/IRT_White_Plains_Road_Line| title = www.nycsubway.org: IRT White Plains Road Line| website = www.nycsubway.org| access-date = February 26, 2016}}</ref> the [[Franklin Avenue/Botanic Garden (New York City Subway)|Rogers junction]] and the [[Myrtle Avenue (BMT Jamaica Line)|Myrtle Avenue junction]], whose tracks both intersect at the same level.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.subwaynut.com/bmt/myrtlej/index.php| title = Myrtle Av-Broadway (J, M, Z) – The SubwayNut| last = Cox| first = Jeremiah| website = www.subwaynut.com| access-date = February 26, 2016}}</ref><ref name="tracks">{{NYCS const|trackref|trackbook3}}</ref> The 7,700 workers who built the original subway lines were mostly [[Immigration to the United States|immigrants]] living in Manhattan.<ref name=":7" /><ref>{{cite book |last1=DuTemple |first1=Lesley A. |title=The New York Subways |year= 2002 |publisher=Twenty-First Century Books |isbn=978-0822503781 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=AZ2N5N9zSbIC&pg=PA26&lpg=PA26&dq=7700+people+original+subway+construction#v=onepage&q=7700%20people%20original%20subway%20construction&f=false |accessdate=January 28, 2016}}</ref> More recent projects use [[tunnel boring machine]]s, which increase the cost. They minimize disruption at street level and avoid already existing utilities.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://publictransport.about.com/od/Glossary/a/The-Two-Methods-Of-Subway-Construction.htm |title=The Two Methods of Subway Construction |author=MacKechnie, Christopher |work=[[about.com]] |accessdate=May 7, 2014 |quote=In exchange for these advantages are two major disadvantages. One is financial: "deep bore" construction costs significantly more than 'cut and cover'}}</ref> Examples of such projects include the [[7 Subway Extension|extension of the IRT Flushing Line]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tienyi.com/rda/trans6.html |title=No. 7 Subway Line Extension |work=Richard Dattner & Partners Architects |accessdate=February 28, 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120315212612/http://www.tienyi.com/rda/trans6.html |archivedate=March 15, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=West Side Development Project Gets The Green Light |url=http://bronx.ny1.com/content/news_beats/transit/110795/west-side-development-project-gets-the-green-light |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120407015716/http://bronx.ny1.com/content/news_beats/transit/110795/west-side-development-project-gets-the-green-light |archivedate=April 7, 2012 |work=[[NY1]] |date=December 21, 2009 |accessdate=February 28, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Crews Lower Giant Drill Into 7 Line Tunnel |first=Bobby |last=Cuza |url=http://www.ny1.com/content/news_beats/transit/94220/crews-lower-giant-drill-into-7-line-tunnel/Default.aspx |work=[[NY1]] |date=February 19, 2009 |accessdate=February 28, 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090505113516/http://www.ny1.com/content/news_beats/transit/94220/crews-lower-giant-drill-into-7-line-tunnel/Default.aspx |archivedate=May 5, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tunnelingonline.com/new-york-state-society-of-professional-engineers-award/ |title=New York State Society of Professional Engineers Recognizes No. 7 Line Project |date=July 3, 2013 |website=Tunnel Business Magazine |publisher= |accessdate=August 20, 2013}}</ref> and the [[Second Avenue Subway|IND Second Avenue Line]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://thelaunchbox.blogspot.com/2010/03/march-19-20-2010-blasting-on-second.html" |title=Blasting on Second Avenue |publisher=thelaunchbox.blogspot.com |date=March 22, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=2nd Ave. Subway Tunnel Dig Begins |first=Andrew |last=Siff |url=http://www.nbcnewyork.com/news/local-beat/2nd-Ave-Subway-Tunnel-Dig-Begins-93787364.html |publisher=[[WNBC]] |date=May 14, 2010 |accessdate=May 14, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=MTA {{!}} news {{!}} Tunneling Begins Under Second Avenue|url = http://www.mta.info/news/2010/05/14/tunneling-begins-under-second-avenue|website = www.mta.info|access-date = February 10, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Various |url=http://www.capitalnewyork.com/article/politics/2011/09/3473217/second-avenue-subway-has-breakthrough-moment-several-billion-more-a?page=all |title=Second Avenue Subway has a breakthrough moment; several billion more are all the M.T.A. wants |publisher=Capital New York |date=September 23, 2011 |accessdate=March 31, 2014}}</ref> ===Expansion=== {{Main|Proposed expansion of the New York City Subway}} [[File:Second Avenue Subway Community Information Center vc.jpg|thumb|Second Avenue Subway Community Information Center]] Since the [[Early history of the IRT subway|opening]] of the original New York City Subway line in 1904,<ref name="HISTORY.com 1904" /><ref name=":5" /> various official and planning agencies have proposed numerous extensions to the subway system. One of the more expansive proposals was the "[[Independent Subway System|IND]] Second System", part of a plan to construct new subway lines in addition to taking over existing subway lines and railroad rights-of-way. The most grandiose IND Second Subway plan, conceived in 1929, was to be part of the city-operated IND, and was to comprise almost {{frac|1|3}} of the current subway system.<ref name=NYTimes-OurGreatSubway-IND2ndSystem-1929/><ref name="1929-SubwayPlan">{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/packages/pdf/nyregion/20070408_SUBWAY_DOCS/19290916_subway_doc.pdf |title=100 Miles of Subway in New City Project; 52 of them in Queens |date=September 16, 1929 |accessdate=March 25, 2016 |work=The New York Times}}</ref> By 1939, with unification planned, all three systems were included within the plan, which was ultimately never carried out.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vanshnookenraggen.com/_index/2010/02/the-futurenycsubway-the-ind-second-system/ |title=The futureNYCSubway: The IND Second System |website=vanshnookenraggen |language=en-US|access-date=March 13, 2016|date=February 2010 }}</ref><ref name="nycsubway2">nycsubway.org – [http://www.nycsubway.org/wiki/History_of_the_Independent_Subway History of the Independent Subway]</ref> Many different plans were proposed over the years of the subway's existence, but expansion of the subway system mostly stopped during [[World War II]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wnyc.org/articles/wnyc-news/2012/jan/03/blog-new-yorks-lost-subways |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130809093852/http://www.wnyc.org/articles/wnyc-news/2012/jan/03/blog-new-yorks-lost-subways |archivedate=August 9, 2013 |title=Lost Subways: Abandoned Stations and Unbuilt Lines |date=January 3, 2012|access-date = February 10, 2016 |website=wnyc.org |publisher= |last=O'Grade |first=Jim}}</ref> Though most of the routes proposed over the decades have never seen construction, discussion remains strong to develop some of these lines, to alleviate existing subway capacity constraints and overcrowding, the most notable being the [[History of the Second Avenue Subway|proposals for the Second Avenue Subway]]. Plans for new lines date back to the early 1910s, and expansion plans have been proposed during many years of the system's existence.<ref name="Raskin-RoutesNotTaken-20132"/><ref name="NYTimes-OurGreatSubway-IND2ndSystem-1929">{{Cite news |last1=Duffus |first1=R.L. |title=Our Great Subway Network Spreads Wider – New Plans of Board of Transportation Involve the Building of More Than One Hundred Miles of Additional Rapid Transit Routes for New York |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9C0CE4D71530E73ABC4A51DFBF668382639EDE |newspaper=The New York Times |accessdate=August 19, 2015 |date=September 22, 1929}}</ref> After the [[IND Sixth Avenue Line]] was completed in 1940,<ref name="SixthAvenueOpening">{{cite news |title=New Subway Line on 6th Ave. Opens at Midnight Fete |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1940/12/15/archives/new-subway-line-on-6th-ave-opens-at-midnight-fete-mayor-and-2000.html |newspaper=The New York Times |date=December 15, 1940 |page=1 |accessdate=October 7, 2011}}</ref> the city went into [[History of New York City (1946–77)|great debt]], and only 33 new stations have been added to the system since, nineteen of which were part of defunct railways that already existed. Five stations were on the abandoned [[New York, Westchester and Boston Railway]], which was incorporated into the system in 1941 as the [[IRT Dyre Avenue Line]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1941/05/16/archives/rail-line-is-added-to-subway-system-old-westchester-and-boston-road.html |title=Rail Line is Added to Subway System |date=May 16, 1941 |newspaper=The New York Times |page=25 |accessdate=October 4, 2011}}</ref> Fourteen more stations were on the abandoned LIRR [[Rockaway Beach Branch]] (now the [[IND Rockaway Line]]), which opened in 1955.<ref name="NYTimes-INDRkwyOpen-1956">{{cite web |url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1956/06/28/84703811.pdf |title=Rockaway Trains to Operate Today |date=June 28, 1956 |website=nytimes.com |publisher=The New York Times |last1=Freeman |first1=Ira Henry |accessdate=June 29, 2015}}</ref> Two stations ([[57th Street (IND Sixth Avenue Line)|57th Street]] and [[Grand Street (IND Sixth Avenue Line)|Grand Street]]) were part of the [[Chrystie Street Connection]], and opened in 1968;<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thejoekorner.com/brochures/index-chrystie.html |title=Rapid Transit Service Coming Brochure |date=July 1, 1968 |website=www.thejoekorner.com |publisher=New York City Transit Authority| access-date = January 24, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thejoekorner.com/brochures/index-chrystie.html |title=KK a new service |date=July 1, 1968 |website=www.thejoekorner.com |publisher=New York City Transit Authority| access-date = January 24, 2016}}</ref> the [[Harlem–148th Street (IRT Lenox Avenue Line)|Harlem–148th Street]] terminal opened that same year in an unrelated project.<ref name="NYTImes-148LenoxOpen-1968">{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1968/05/14/archives/irt-passengers-get-new-148th-st-station.html |title=IRT Passengers Get New 148th St. Station |date=May 14, 1968 |newspaper=The New York Times |page=95 |accessdate=October 4, 2011}}</ref> Six were built as part of a [[Program for Action|1968 plan]]: three on the [[Archer Avenue Lines]], opened in 1988,<ref name="nytimes">{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/12/09/nyregion/big-changes-for-subways-are-to-begin.html |title=Big Changes For Subways Are to Begin |last=Johnson |first=Kirk |date=December 9, 1988 |newspaper=The New York Times |accessdate=July 5, 2009}}</ref> and three on the [[63rd Street Lines]], opened in 1989.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/10/29/nyregion/the-subway-to-nowhere-now-goes-somewhere.html |title=The 'Subway to Nowhere' Now Goes Somewhere |last=Lorch |first=Donatella |date=October 29, 1989 |newspaper=The New York Times |accessdate=October 20, 2011}}</ref> The new [[South Ferry (IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line)|South Ferry]] station was built and connected to the existing [[Whitehall Street–South Ferry (BMT Broadway Line)|Whitehall Street–South Ferry]] station in 2009.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nydailynews.com/new-york/mta-opens-new-530m-south-ferry-station-easing-commuters-hassle-article-1.372235|title=MTA opens new $530M South Ferry station|last=Donohue|first=Pete|date=March 17, 2009|website=New York Daily News|publisher=|access-date=July 21, 2016}}</ref> The one-stop [[7 Subway Extension]] to the [[West Side (Manhattan)|west side]] of Manhattan, consisting of the [[34th Street–Hudson Yards (IRT Flushing Line)|34th Street–Hudson Yards]] station, was opened in 2015,<ref>{{cite web |last=Fitzsimmons |first=Emma G. |title=Subway Station for 7 Line Opens on Far West Side |website=The New York Times |date=September 10, 2015 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/09/14/nyregion/no-7-subway-station-far-west-side-manhattan.html |accessdate=September 13, 2015}}</ref><ref name="mta.info 2015">{{cite web |title=Capital Programs 7 Line Extension |website=mta.info |date=September 13, 2015 |url=http://web.mta.info/capital/no7_alt.html |accessdate=March 25, 2016}}</ref><ref group="note">There is one station ([[10th Avenue (IRT Flushing Line)|10th Avenue]]) planned as a future infill station. See [https://web.archive.org/web/20100218115623/http://www.crainsnewyork.com/article/20100216/FREE/100219925 Outcry emerges for 41st St. stop on new 7-line]</ref> and three stations on the [[Second Avenue Subway]] in the [[Upper East Side]] were opened in the beginning of 2017.<ref>{{cite web | last=Ingram | first=David | title=New York tale: a century-old subway dream becomes reality | website=Yahoo | date=December 31, 2016 | url=https://www.yahoo.com/news/york-opens-subway-line-dreamed-1920s-163028341.html | accessdate=January 1, 2017}}</ref> == Lines and routes == {{Main|A Division (New York City Subway)|B Division (New York City Subway)}} {{See also|List of New York City Subway services|List of New York City Subway lines}} {{NYCS const|ridership}} [[File:R142 Sign.jpg|thumb|left|A digital sign on the side of an [[R142 (New York City Subway car)|R142]] train on the '''{{NYCS|4}}'''|alt=Digital sign on side of an R142 train]] [[File:MTA125.JPG|thumb|left|[[125th Street (IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line)|125th Street]] station on the [[IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line]]]] Many rapid transit systems run relatively static routings, so that a train "line" is more or less synonymous with a train "route". In New York City, however, routings change often, for various reasons. Within the [[New York City Subway nomenclature|nomenclature of the subway]], the "line" describes the physical railroad track or series of tracks that a train "route" uses on its way from one terminal to another. "Routes" (also called "services") are distinguished by a letter or a number and "Lines" have names. Trains display their route designation.<ref name=MTA-HowtoRideSubway/> There are [[List of New York City Subway services|{{NYCS const|routes}} train services]] in the subway system, including [[S (New York City Subway service)|three short shuttles]]. Each route has a color and a local or express designation representing the Manhattan trunk line of the particular service.<ref>{{YouTube|yZ83UhBJFP0|Subway Colors and Names}} MTA YouTube Web Page. Made July 15, 2010. Retrieved July 17, 2010.</ref><ref name=":0">{{NYCS const|serviceguide}}</ref> New York City residents seldom refer to services by color (e.g., Blue Line or Green Line) but out-of-towners and tourists often do.<ref name="MTA-HowtoRideSubway" /><ref>{{cite web |last=Cox |first=Bobby |title=New York City Subway |url=http://www.deafecho.com/2005/12/new-york-city-subway/ |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141102050242/http://www.deafecho.com/2005/12/new-york-city-subway/ |archivedate=November 2, 2014 |work=Deaf Echo |accessdate=February 10, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Rules of The Subway |url=http://www.fodors.com/community/united-states/rules-of-the-subway-168800-3.cfm |work=Fodors |accessdate=September 21, 2013}}</ref> The {{NYCS|1}}, {{NYCS|C}}, {{NYCS|G}}, {{NYCS|L}}, {{NYCS|M}}, {{NYCS|R}}, and {{NYCS|W}} trains are fully local and make all stops. The {{NYCS|2}}, {{NYCS|3}}, {{NYCS|4}}, {{NYCS|5}}, {{NYCS|A}}, {{NYCS|B}}, {{NYCS|D}}, {{NYCS|E}}, {{NYCS|F}}, {{NYCS|N}}, and {{NYCS|Q}} trains have portions of [[Express train|express]] and local service. {{NYCS|J}}, {{NYCS|Z}}, {{NYCS|6}}, and {{NYCS|7}} trains vary by day or time of day. The letter {{NYCS|S}} is used for three shuttle services: [[Franklin Avenue Shuttle]], [[Rockaway Park Shuttle]], and [[42nd Street Shuttle]].<ref name=":0" /><ref name="NYCS const|map">{{NYCS const|map}}</ref> Though the subway system [[24/7|operates on a 24-hour basis]],<ref name="MTA-HowtoRideSubway" /> during late night hours some of the designated routes do not run, run as a shorter route (often referred to as the 'shuttle train' version of its full-length counterpart) or run with a different stopping pattern. These are usually indicated by smaller, secondary route signage on station platforms.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://web.mta.info/maps/night_map.pdf |title=Late Night Subway Service September 2015 |date=September 2015 |website=mta.info |publisher=Metropolitan Transportation Authority| access-date = February 29, 2016}}</ref> Because there is no nightly system shutdown for maintenance, tracks and stations must be maintained while the system is operating. This work sometimes necessitates service changes during midday, overnight hours, and weekends.<ref name="Haberman 2008">{{cite news |last=Haberman |first=Clyde |title=Train Skip Your Stop? It’s No Mistake, It’s Just the Weekend |newspaper=The New York Times |date=April 4, 2008 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/04/nyregion/04nyc.html |accessdate=March 25, 2016}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite news |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/new-yorks-subway-system-cant-keep-pace-with-growing-number-of-riders-1458762858 |title=New York’s Subway System Can’t Keep Pace With Growing Number of Riders |last=Tangel |first=Andrew |newspaper=Wall Street Journal |issn=0099-9660|access-date=March 25, 2016}}</ref><ref group=note>See also [[New York City Subway#FASTRACK|FASTRACK]]</ref> When parts of lines are temporarily shut down for construction purposes, the transit authority can substitute free [[shuttle bus service|shuttle buses]] (using [[MTA Regional Bus Operations bus fleet]]) to replace the routes that would normally run on these lines.<ref>Finnegan, Jack, Belden Merims and Jennifer Cecil (2007). ''Newcomer's Handbook for Moving to and Living in New York City: Including Manhattan, Brooklyn, the Bronx, Queens, Staten Island, and Northern New Jersey''. Portland, OR: First Books Inc. {{ISBN|978-0912301723}}. p. 336.</ref> The Transit Authority announces planned service changes through its website,<ref>{{cite web |title=NYCT – Service Advisory |url=http://travel.mtanyct.info/serviceadvisory/ |website=travel.mtanyct.info|access-date = February 10, 2016}}</ref> via placards that are posted on station and interior subway-car walls,<ref>{{cite web |title=MTA/New York City Transit – Subway Service Information |url=http://web.mta.info/nyct/service/servInfo/PresidentLetter_servInfo.htm |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101220211646/http://www.mta.info/nyct/service/servInfo/PresidentLetter_servInfo.htm |archivedate=December 20, 2010 |date=December 20, 2010|access-date = February 10, 2016}}</ref> and through its [[Twitter]] page.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://twitter.com/NYCTSubway |title=NYCT Subway (@NYCTSubway) – Twitter |publisher=}}</ref> === Nomenclature === {{Main|New York City Subway nomenclature}} <div align=center> {{NYCS const/table|style=margin:0 0 1 0}} </div> === Subway map === {{Main|New York City Subway map}} [[File:Official New York City Subway Map vc.jpg|thumb|right|The official New York City Subway map]] Current [[New York City Subway map|official transit maps of the New York City Subway]] are based on a 1979 design by [[Michael Hertz Associates]]. The maps are not geographically accurate due to the complexity of the system (Manhattan being the smallest borough, but having the most services), but they do show major city streets as an aid to navigation. The newest edition took effect on June 27, 2010, and makes Manhattan bigger and Staten Island smaller.<ref name="NYCS const|map"/><ref>[http://mta.info/news/stories/?story=77 New Subway Map is Here] MTA.info website. Retrieved June 18, 2010.</ref> Earlier diagrams of the subway (the first being produced in 1958) had the perception of being more geographically inaccurate than the diagrams today. The design of the subway map by [[Massimo Vignelli]], published by the MTA between 1972 and 1979, has become a modern classic but the MTA deemed the map flawed due to its placement of geographical elements.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aiga.org/content.cfm/the-mostly-true-story-of-helvetica-and-the-new-york-city-subway?pp=1 |title=The (Mostly) True Story of Helvetica and the New York City Subway |work=[[AIGA]] |date=November 18, 2008 |publisher=aiga.org |accessdate=February 4, 2009}}</ref><ref name="Hertz-Gothamist">{{cite web |first=Dave |last=Hogarty |url=http://gothamist.com/2007/08/03/michael_hertz_d.php |title=Michael Hertz, Designer of the NYC Subway Map |work=[[Gothamist]] |date=August 3, 2007 |accessdate=July 4, 2009 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090818012400/http://gothamist.com/2007/08/03/michael_hertz_d.php |archivedate=August 18, 2009}}</ref> A late night-only version of the map was introduced on January 30, 2012.<ref>{{NYCS const|latenightmap}}</ref> On September 16, 2011, the MTA introduced a Vignelli-style interactive subway map, "The Weekender",<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c30CwkKyTYQ |title=Introducing The Weekender |work=MTA.info (YouTube) |date=September 30, 2011 |accessdate=October 1, 2011}}</ref> to its website;<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mta.info/weekender.html |title=The Weekender |work=MTA.info |accessdate=October 12, 2013}}</ref> as the title suggests,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/16/nyregion/new-subway-map-to-help-riders-with-weekend-service-changes.html?_r=1&ref=nyregion |title=Aid for Baffled Weekend Subway Riders |work=The New York Times |first=Michael M. |last=Grynbaum |date=September 15, 2011 |accessdate=September 30, 2011}}</ref> the [[online map]] provides information about any planned work, from late Friday night to early Monday morning.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://mta.info/news/stories/?story=384 |title=Introducing 'The Weekender' |work=MTA.info |date=September 16, 2011 |accessdate=September 18, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.ny1.com/content/147316/mta-launches-interactive-online-map-ahead-of-difficult-weekend-for-subways/ |title=MTA Launches Interactive Online Map Ahead Of Difficult Weekend For Subways |work=[[NY1]] |date=September 16, 2011 |accessdate=September 18, 2011 |url-status=bot: unknown |archiveurl=https://archive.today/20140628162305/http://www.ny1.com/content/147316/mta-launches-interactive-online-map-ahead-of-difficult-weekend-for-subways/ |archivedate=June 28, 2014 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> Several privately produced schematics are available online or in printed form, such as those by [[Hagstrom Map]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20100531155230/http://www.ny1.com/content/top_stories/119467/subway-map-gets-a-makeover Subway Map Gets A Makeover] [[NY1|NY1 local news channel]]. Retrieved May 28, 2010.</ref> <gallery> File:NYC subway late night map.svg|Late night subway service map File:Nyc subway underground or overground track position.svg|Map of line elevation in relation to the ground; underground segments are in orange, and above ground segments are in blue, whether they are elevated, embanked, graded or open cut </gallery> == {{Anchor|Stations, facilities, and amenities}} Stations == {{Main|New York City Subway stations}} [[File:7train arriving.ogv|thumb|'''{{NYCS|7}}''' train arriving at [[Vernon Boulevard – Jackson Avenue (IRT Flushing Line)|Vernon Boulevard – Jackson Avenue]] station (43s)]] Out of the [[New York City Subway stations#Complete lists of stations|{{NYCS const|number|total}} stations]], {{#expr:{{NYCS const|number|total}}-2}} are served 24 hours a day.<ref group="note">The [[Times Square (IRT 42nd Street Shuttle)|Times Square]] and [[Grand Central (IRT 42nd Street Shuttle)|Grand Central]] stations of the [[IRT 42nd Street Shuttle]] are closed during late nights.</ref> Underground stations in the New York City Subway are typically accessed by staircases going down from street level. Many of these staircases are painted in a common shade of green, with slight or significant variations in design.<ref name="FNY-SubwayEntranceStylings">{{cite web|title=Subway Entrance Stylings|url=http://forgotten-ny.com/2005/02/down-in-the-hole-the-many-styles-of-subway-entrances/|publisher=Forgotten New York|accessdate=December 6, 2015|date=February 14, 2005}}</ref> Other stations have unique entrances reflective of their location or date of construction. Several station entrance stairs, for example, are built into adjacent buildings.<ref name=FNY-SubwayEntranceStylings/> Nearly all station entrances feature [[New York City Subway stations#Lamps|color-coded globe or square lamps]] signifying their status as an entrance.<ref name="nytimes 20020813">{{cite news |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=980DE2DF113AF930A2575BC0A9649C8B63 |title=Tunnel Vision; The Light at the Top of the Subway Stairs |last=Kennedy |first=Randy |date=August 13, 2002 |work=The New York Times |accessdate=July 7, 2008}}</ref> [[File:West 4 St mezzanine vc.jpg|thumb|left|The long and wide mezzanine in the [[West Fourth Street–Washington Square (New York City Subway)|West Fourth Street]] station in [[Greenwich Village]].|alt=The mezzanine at West Fourth Street station]] === Concourse === [[File:Times Square-42nd Street Entrance.JPG|left|thumb|An entrance to the [[Times Square–42nd Street/Port Authority Bus Terminal (New York City Subway)|Times Square–42nd Street/Port Authority Bus Terminal]] station]]Many stations in the subway system have [[mezzanine (architecture)|mezzanines]].<ref name=PCAC-ClosedSubwayEntrance-2001/> Mezzanines allow for passengers to enter from multiple locations at an intersection and proceed to the correct platform without having to cross the street before entering. Inside mezzanines are [[Paid area|fare control]] areas, where passengers physically pay their fare to enter the subway system.<ref name="IRT2007" /><ref name="PCAC-ClosedSubwayEntrance-2001">{{cite web |title=Reopening Closed Subway Entrances |url=http://www.pcac.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/2001-Reopening-Closed-Entrances.pdf |website=pcac.org |publisher=New York City Transit Riders Council |accessdate=December 6, 2015 |date=November 2001}}</ref><ref name="MTA-JayLawrenceMetroTech">{{cite web |title=MTA New York City Transit Jay Street / Lawrence Street Stations Contract A-35913 / A-35914 / A-35927 / A-35978 |url=http://web.mta.info/nyct/procure/miscproj/a35913.pdf |publisher=[[Metropolitan Transportation Authority]] |accessdate=December 6, 2015}}</ref> In many older stations, the fare control area is at platform level with no mezzanine crossovers.<ref name="IRT2007" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nycsubway.org/wiki/IRT_West_Side_Line |title=www.nycsubway.org: IRT West Side Line |website=www.nycsubway.org| access-date = February 24, 2016}}</ref> Many elevated stations also have platform-level fare control with no common station house between directions of service.<ref name=NYCSorg-BMTJamaica/> Upon entering a station, passengers may use station booths (formerly known as token booths)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.mta.info/metrocard/buybooth.htm|title=MTA/New York City Transit – Subway Station Booth|website=web.mta.info|access-date=March 13, 2016}}</ref> or vending machines to buy their fare, which is currently stored in a [[MetroCard]]. Each station has at least one booth, typically located at the busiest entrance.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/10/09/nyregion/09subway.html|title=M.T.A. Station Agent Cuts Leave Riders Lost|last=Grynbaum|first=Michael M.|date=October 8, 2009|work=|newspaper=New York Times|access-date=March 13, 2016|via=}}</ref> After swiping the card at a turnstile, customers enter the fare-controlled area of the station and continue to the platforms.<ref name=MTA-HowtoRideSubway /> Inside fare control are "Off-Hours Waiting Areas", which consist of benches and are identified by a yellow sign.<ref name=MTA-HowtoRideSubway /><ref name="MTA-RidingSafely">{{cite web |title=Riding Safely |url=http://web.mta.info/safety/ |publisher=[[Metropolitan Transportation Authority]] |accessdate=December 6, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1982/03/08/nyregion/for-off-hours-subway-zones-for-safer-wait.html|title=For Off-Hours, Subway Zones for Safer Wait|last=Goldman|first=Ari L.|date=March 8, 1982|newspaper=The New York Times|access-date=April 15, 2016|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> === Platforms === [[File:59th Street–Columbus Circle (New York City Subway) by David Shankbone.jpg|thumb|The [[IND Eighth Avenue Line]] station at [[59th Street – Columbus Circle (IND Eighth Avenue Line)|59th Street – Columbus Circle]]]] A typical subway station has waiting platforms ranging from {{convert|480|to|600|ft}} long. Some are longer.<ref name=":1">{{cite web |url=http://www.nycsubway.org/wiki/History_of_the_Independent_Subway |title=History of the Independent Subway |work=nycsubway.org|access-date = February 10, 2016 |last=Feinman |first=Mark S. |date=2000}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=IND STation Lengths |url=http://www.stationreporter.net/indlengths.htm |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110806194606/http://www.stationreporter.net/indlengths.htm |archivedate=August 6, 2011 |date=August 6, 2011|access-date = February 14, 2016}}</ref> Platforms of former commuter rail stations—such as those on the [[IND Rockaway Line]], are even longer. With the many different lines in the system, one platform often serves more than one service. Passengers need to look at the overhead signs to see which trains stop there and when, and at the arriving train to identify it.<ref name=MTA-HowtoRideSubway/> There are a number of common platform configurations: * On a double track line, a station may have one [[island platform|center island platform]] used for trains in both directions, or two [[side platform]]s, one for each direction.<ref name="IRT2007">{{cite book|author=[[Interborough Rapid Transit Company]]|title=IRT Interborough Rapid Transit / the New York City Subway: Its Design and Construction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UZRiky7CzEkC&pg=PA30|accessdate=February 27, 2016|date= 2007|publisher=Lulu.com|isbn=978-1430325505}}</ref> * For lines with three or four tracks with express service, local stops will have side platforms and the middle one or two tracks will not stop at the station. On these lines, express stations typically have two island platforms, one for each direction. Each island platform provides a [[cross-platform interchange]] between local and express services. Some lines with four-track express service have two tracks each on two levels and use both island and side platforms.<ref name=MTA-HowtoRideSubway/><ref name="IRT2007"/> === Accessibility === [[File:BwyWalk0505 StationLincolnCenter.jpg|thumb|left|Street elevator serving as an entrance to the [[66th Street–Lincoln Center (IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line)|66th Street–Lincoln Center]] station]] {{Main|Accessibility of the Metropolitan Transportation Authority}} Since the majority of the system was built before 1990, the year the [[Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990|Americans with Disabilities Act]] (ADA) went into effect, many New York City Subway stations were not designed to be handicapped-accessible.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.dnainfo.com/new-york/20150608/bushwick/map-subway-map-showing-only-wheelchair-accessible-stations| title = Map Reveals Shortage of Wheelchair-Accessible NYC Subway Stations| website = DNAinfo New York| access-date = February 28, 2016| url-status = dead| archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20160306224732/https://www.dnainfo.com/new-york/20150608/bushwick/map-subway-map-showing-only-wheelchair-accessible-stations| archivedate = March 6, 2016| df = mdy-all}}</ref> Since then, elevators have been built in newly constructed stations to comply with the ADA. (Most grade-level stations required little modification to meet ADA standards.) In addition, the MTA identified "key stations", high-traffic and/or geographically important stations, which must conform to the ADA when they are extensively renovated. As of January 2017, there are {{NYCS const|number|accessible}} currently accessible stations; many of them have [[MetroCard (New York City)#Disabled/Senior Citizen Reduced-Fare MetroCard|AutoGate]] access.<ref name="MTA-HowtoRideSubway" /><ref>{{cite web |title=mta.info {{!}} Accessibility|url = http://web.mta.info/accessibility/stations.htm|website = web.mta.info|access-date = February 10, 2016}}</ref> Under the current MTA plans, the number of ADA accessible stations will go up to 144 by 2020.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://ny.curbed.com/2016/2/1/10887202/nyc-subway-needs-1-7-billion-in-new-elevators-feds-say| title = NYC Subway Needs $1.7 Billion In New Elevators, Feds Say| website = Curbed NY| access-date = February 29, 2016| date = February 2016}}</ref> In June 2016, the MTA was sued by a disability rights group for not including an elevator during the $21 million renovation of the [[Middletown Road (IRT Pelham Line)|Middletown Road]] subway station in the Bronx. Only 19% of all of the subway system's stations were fully accessible to people with disabilities at the time,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nydailynews.com/new-york/disability-rights-groups-sue-mta-inaccessible-subway-station-article-1.2693061|title=Disability rights groups sue MTA over inaccessible subway station|last=Ross|first=Barbara|last2=Gregorian|first2=Dareh|date=June 29, 2016|website=NY Daily News|access-date=July 7, 2016}}</ref> a number that rose to 24% the next year.<ref name=":18">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/25/nyregion/new-york-subway-disability-lawsuit.html|title=New York City’s Subway System Violates Local and Federal Laws, Disability Groups Say|last=Rosenberg|first=Eli|date=April 25, 2017|work=The New York Times|access-date=April 26, 2017|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> In April 2017, two simultaneous lawsuits against the MTA, one in state court and one in federal court, claimed that the system was breaking one of the city's human-rights laws by violating the Americans with Disabilities Act. As a result, the suits said, the MTA failed to "eliminate and prevent discrimination from playing any role in actions relating to employment, public accommodations and housing and other real estate."<ref name=":18" /> == Rolling stock == [[File:A train @ Hoyt-Schermerhorn.jpg|thumb|A train of [[R32 (New York City Subway car)|R32]] cars on the '''{{NYCS|A}}''' train]] [[File:Empty subway in NYC.jpg|thumb|Interior of an [[R142A (New York City Subway car)|R142A]] car on the '''{{NYCS|4}}''' train|alt=The interior of an R142A car on the 4 train.]] [[File:R62 interior.jpg|thumb|Interior of an [[R62 (New York City Subway car)|R62]] car on the '''{{NYCS|3}}''' train|alt=The interior of an R62 car on the 3 train. Its seats are yellow and orange, with several advertisements hanging above.]] [[File:NYC N train cockpit.jpg|thumb|right|Driver's cab of an [[R160 (New York City Subway car)|R160B]] subway car on the '''{{NYCS|N}}''' train]] {{Main|New York City Subway rolling stock}} {{As of|2016|November|alt=As of November 2016}}, the New York City Subway has {{NYCS const|subwaycartotal}} cars on the roster.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thejoekorner.com/cars/cars-current.htm|title=New York City Subway Car Fleet Jan 2012 through January 2016|publisher=TheJoeKorner|accessdate=February 6, 2016}}</ref><ref group="note">See: *{{NYCS const|thejoekorner|A}} *{{NYCS const|thejoekorner|B}} </ref> A typical New York City Subway train consists of 8 to 11 cars, although shuttles can have as few as two, and the train can range from {{convert|150|to|600|ft}} in length.<ref>{{cite web |title=BMT-IND Car Assignments – December 6, 2015 |url=http://www.thejoekorner.com/carassignments/bmt-ind-2015-12-06.html |website=www.thejoekorner.com|access-date = February 14, 2016}}</ref> The system maintains two separate fleets of cars, one for the A Division routes and another for the B Division routes.<ref name=":6">{{cite web|url=http://www.thejoekorner.com/cars/carsrtyp.htm|title=R-Type Cars 1932 to 1987|website=www.thejoekorner.com|access-date=March 13, 2016}}</ref> All B Division equipment is about {{convert|10|ft|2}} wide and either {{convert|60|ft|6|in}} or {{convert|75|ft|2}} long, whereas A Division equipment is approximately {{convert|8|ft|9|in}} wide and {{convert|51|ft|4|in}} long.<ref>[[Second Avenue Subway]] [http://web.mta.info/capital/sas_docs/sdeis.htm Draft Environmental Impact Statement], {{cite web|url= http://web.mta.info/capital/sas_docs/sdeis/glossary.pdf |title=Glossary }} {{small|(45.6 KB)}}</ref> A portion of the 60-foot B Division fleet is used for operation in the [[New York City Subway nomenclature#BMT|BMT Eastern Division]], where {{convert|75|ft|2|adj=on}} long cars are not permitted.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www1.nyc.gov/html/dcp/pdf/transportation/broadway_junction_pt3.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100606141009/http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/pdf/transportation/broadway_junction_pt3.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 6, 2010 |title=3.3.3 A, C (Fulton Street) Line Services and Structural Issues |date=2007|access-date = February 9, 2016 |website=nyc.gov |publisher=New York City Department of City Planning }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.erictb.info/carhistory.html|title=Car History|website=www.erictb.info|access-date=March 13, 2016}}</ref> Cars purchased by the City of New York since the inception of the IND and the other divisions beginning in 1948 are identified by the letter "R" followed by a number; e.g.: [[R32 (New York City Subway car)|R32]].<ref name=":6" /> This number is the contract number under which the cars were purchased.<ref name="joekorner">{{cite web|url=http://www.thejoekorner.com/cars/carsrtyp.htm|title=R-Type Cars 1932 to 1987|work=thejoekorner.com}}</ref> Cars with nearby contract numbers (e.g.: [[R1 (New York City Subway car)|R1]] through [[R9 (New York City Subway car)|R9]], or [[R26 (New York City Subway car)|R26]] through [[R29 (New York City Subway car)|R29]], or [[R143]] through [[R179]]) may be relatively identical, despite being purchased under different contracts and possibly built by different manufacturers.<ref name="NYTimes-NYCSPromiseInfo-Nov2005">{{cite news |last=Chan |first=Sewell |authorlink=Sewell Chan|title=New Subway Cars Promise All Kinds of Information |newspaper=The New York Times |date=November 30, 2005 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/11/30/nyregion/30car.html |accessdate=October 27, 2007}}</ref> Since 1999, the [[R142 (New York City Subway car)|R142]], [[R142A (New York City Subway car)|R142A]], [[R143 (New York City Subway car)|R143]], [[R160 (New York City Subway car)|R160]], [[R179 (New York City Subway car)|R179]] and [[R188 (New York City Subway car)|R188]] cars have been placed into service.<ref>*R142/A: {{cite news|last1=Siegal|first1=Nina|title=Neighborhood Report: New York Underground; 2 New Trains in the Subways: Catch Them if You Can|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2000/10/01/nyregion/neighborhood-report-new-york-underground-2-new-trains-subways-catch-them-if-you.html|accessdate=January 24, 2016|work=The New York Times|date=October 1, 2000}} *R143: {{cite journal|title=Kawasaki completes NYCT R143 order. (Market).(New York City Transit)(subway cars contract)|journal=[[Railway Age]]|date=March 1, 2003|url=https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-99553181.html}} *R160: {{cite news|last1=Lueck|first1=Thomas J.|title=City Subways Put New Cars Into Service as a Test Run|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/08/18/nyregion/18cars.html|accessdate=January 24, 2016|work=The New York Times|date=August 18, 2006}} *R179: {{cite news|last1=Barone|first1=Vincent|title=New MTA subway cars to arrive for testing, will replace oldest fleet|url=http://www.amny.com/transit/new-mta-subway-cars-to-arrive-for-testing-will-replace-oldest-fleet-1.12276227|accessdate=September 8, 2016|work=[[AM New York]]|date=September 6, 2016}} *R188: {{cite web|url=http://www.mta.info/news/2013/11/18/new-subway-cars-being-put-test |title=MTA | news | New Subway Cars Being Put to the Test |publisher=New.mta.info |date=November 18, 2013 |accessdate=August 24, 2014}}</ref><ref name="MTA-R160-NTT-E-Dec2008"/> These cars are collectively known as [[New Technology Train]]s (NTTs) due to modern innovations such as [[Light-emitting diode|LED]] and [[Liquid-crystal display|LCD]] route signs and information screens, as well as recorded train announcements and the ability to facilitate [[Communication-based train control|Communication-Based Train Control (CBTC)]].<ref name="MTA-R160-NTT-E-Dec2008">{{cite web |title=New Technology Train Rolled Out This Morning Along the E Line |url=http://www.mta.info/press-release/nyc-transit/new-technology-train-rolled-out-morning-along-e-line |publisher=[[Metropolitan Transportation Authority]] |accessdate=December 7, 2015 |date=December 22, 2008}}</ref><ref name="NYPress-NYCSNTTVoice-2003">{{cite web |title=The voice behind the closing doors would like to clear something up. |url=http://www.nypress.com/the-voice-behind-the-closing-doors-would-like-to-clear-something-up/ |website=nypress.com |publisher=Straus News |accessdate=December 7, 2015 |date=March 18, 2003}}</ref> As part of the 2017–2020 MTA Financial Plan, 600 subway cars will have electronic display signs installed to improve customer experience.<ref name=":12" /> == Fares == {{Main|New York City transit fares}} Riders pay a single fare to enter the subway system and may transfer between trains at no extra cost until they exit via station turnstiles; the fare is a flat rate regardless of how far or how long the rider travels. Thus, riders must swipe their [[MetroCard]] upon entering the subway system, but not a second time upon leaving.<ref name=":2">{{cite web |title=MTA/New York City Transit – Fares and MetroCard |url=http://web.mta.info/metrocard/mcgtreng.htm |website=web.mta.info|access-date = February 10, 2016}}</ref> {{As of|2016|April}}, nearly all fares are paid by MetroCard;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.mta.info/mta/news/books/pdf/160222_1000_Transit.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160302133838/http://web.mta.info/mta/news/books/pdf/160222_1000_Transit.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=March 2, 2016|title=Transit & Bus Committee Meeting February 2016|date=February 2016|website=mta.info|publisher=Metropolitan Transportation Authority|access-date=March 11, 2016}}</ref> the base fare is $2.75 when purchased in the form of a reusable "pay per ride" MetroCard,<ref name=":2" /> with the last fare increase occurring on March 22, 2015.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.amny.com/transit/metrocard-calculator-to-ease-fare-increase-pain-1.10087842 |title=MetroCard Calculator to ease fare increase pain |work=am New York}}</ref> Single-use cards may be purchased for $3.00, and 7-day and 30-day unlimited ride cards can lower the effective per-ride fare significantly.<ref name="MetroCard">{{cite web |url=http://web.mta.info/metrocard/mcgtreng.htm#unlimited |title=MTA/New York City Transit – Fares and MetroCard |work=mta.info}}</ref> Reduced fares are available for the elderly and people with disabilities.<ref name="MTA-HowtoRideSubway" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://web.mta.info/nyct/fare/rfindex.htm |title=mta.info – Reduced-Fare |work=mta.info}}</ref> Fares were stored in a money room at [[370 Jay Street]] in [[Downtown Brooklyn]] starting in 1951, when the building opened as a headquarters for the [[New York City Board of Transportation]].<ref>*{{cite news|title=New Home Ready for Transit Board|url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1951/03/25/87191560.pdf|accessdate=October 14, 2016|work=The New York Times|date=March 25, 1951}}<br />{{cite news|title=City Board Rushes Move to New Site: Transportation Unit Receives U.S. Order to Vacate and Speeds to Brooklyn|url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1951/03/31/89787570.pdf|accessdate=October 14, 2016|work=The New York Times|date=March 31, 1951}}<br />{{cite news|title=Transit Board Now In Its New Building|url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1951/04/03/81772365.pdf|accessdate=October 14, 2016|work=The New York Times|date=April 3, 1951}}</ref> The building is close to the lines of all three subway divisions (the IRT, BMT, and IND) and thus was a convenient location to collect fares, including tokens and cash, via [[money train]]s. Passageways from the subway stations, including a visible door in the Jay Street IND station, lead to a money sorting room in the basement of the building.<ref name=utc20160212/><ref name="Atlas-370JaySt-Nov2015"/> The money trains were replaced by [[armored truck]]s in 2006.<ref name="utc20160212">{{cite news|last1=Young|first1=Michelle|title=The MTA’s Special Armored Money Train that Ran from 1951 to 2006 in NYC|url=http://untappedcities.com/2016/02/12/the-mtas-special-armored-money-train-that-ran-from-1951-to-2006-in-nyc/|accessdate=October 14, 2016|work=Untapped cities|date=February 12, 2016}}</ref><ref name="Atlas-370JaySt-Nov2015">{{cite news|last1=Zimmerman|first1=Alex|title=Inside the Brooklyn Building that Held the Subway's Secrets|url=http://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/inside-the-brooklyn-building-that-held-the-subways-secrets|accessdate=October 14, 2016|work=Atlas Obscura|date=November 30, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Olshan |first1=Jeremy |title=End of the Line: Secret Cash Train Retired |url=http://www.nypost.com/news/regionalnews/61628.htm |accessdate=October 14, 2016 |work=[[New York Post]] |date=January 16, 2006 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060118055315/http://www.nypost.com/news/regionalnews/61628.htm |archivedate=January 18, 2006 |url-status=dead }}<br />{{cite news|last1=Chung|first1=Jen|title=Money Train Retires|url=http://gothamist.com/2006/01/16/money_train_ret.php|accessdate=October 14, 2016|work=[[Gothamist]]|date=January 16, 2006|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151204041531/http://gothamist.com/2006/01/16/money_train_ret.php|archivedate=December 4, 2015}}</ref> === MetroCard === [[File:MetroCard.SVG|left|thumb|The current MetroCard design]] {{Main|MetroCard}} In November 1993,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://nypost.com/2000/06/15/old-metrocard-can-be-a-fare-ly-profitable-item/|title=Old Metrocard Can Be a Fare-Ly Profitable Item|last=Salkin|first=Allen|website=New York Post|access-date=March 13, 2016|date=June 15, 2000}}</ref> a fare system called the [[MetroCard]] was introduced, which allows riders to use cards that store the value equal to the amount paid to a subway station booth clerk or vending machine.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F0CE7DC143BF931A35755C0A965958260 |first=Seth |last=Faison |newspaper=The New York Times |title=3,000 Subway Riders, Cards in Hand, Test New Fare System |date=June 2, 1993 |accessdate=April 25, 2010}}</ref> The MetroCard was enhanced in 1997 to allow passengers to make free transfers between subways and buses within two hours; several MetroCard-only [[List of New York City Subway transfer stations|transfers between subway stations]] were added in 2001.<ref>{{Cite news| url = http://www.nydailynews.com/new-york/brooklyn/push-free-g-to-j-m-transfer-permanent-article-1.1917910| title = With work on Greenpoint Tube set to end, advocates want free G-to-J/M transfer to be permanent| last = Donohue| first = Pete| date = August 26, 2014| work = | newspaper = New York Daily News| access-date = February 28, 2016| via = }}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = http://web.mta.info/nyct/service/G_LineReview_7_10_13.pdf| title = NYC Transit G Line Review| date = July 10, 2013| website = mta.info| publisher = Metropolitan Transportation Authority| access-date = February 28, 2016}}</ref> With the addition of unlimited-ride MetroCards in 1998, the New York City Transit system was the last major transit system in the United States with the exception of [[BART]] in [[San Francisco]] to introduce passes for unlimited bus and rapid transit travel.<ref>{{cite news |first=Andy |last=Newman |title=Hop On, Hop Off: The Unlimited Metrocard Arrives |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1998/07/03/nyregion/hop-on-hop-off-the-unlimited-metrocard-arrives.html |date=July 3, 1998 |accessdate=January 8, 2010}}</ref> Unlimited-ride MetroCards are available for 7-day and 30-day periods.<ref>{{cite news |first=Andy |last=Newman |title=Guide to NYC Subway |work=FreshNYC |url=http://freshnyc.com/blog/visitors-guide-ins-and-outs-new-york-city-subway}}</ref> One-day "Fun Pass" and 14-day cards were also introduced, but have since been discontinued.<ref>{{cite web |title=MTA: Say Goodbye to Fun Cards |url=http://www.wnyc.org/story/89164-say-goodbye-fun-card-city/ |website=WNYC|access-date = February 9, 2016}}</ref> ===MetroCard replacement=== {{main|OMNY}} On October 23, 2017, it was announced that the MetroCard would be phased out and replaced by [[OMNY]], a [[Contactless payment|contactless fare payment]] system by [[San Diego]]-based [[Cubic Transportation Systems]], with fare payment being made using [[Apple Pay]], [[Google Pay]], debit/credit cards with [[near-field communication]] technology, or [[radio-frequency identification]] cards.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.nydailynews.com/new-york/mta-approves-plan-scrap-metrocards-tap-payment-system-article-1.3584098|title=MTA approves plan to scrap MetroCards for ‘tap’ payment system|last=Rivoli|first=Dan|date=October 23, 2017|work=NY Daily News|access-date=October 24, 2017 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":2a">{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/23/nyregion/metrocard-subway-new-york.html|title=New York to Replace MetroCard With Modern Way to Pay Transit Fares|last=Barron|first=James|date=October 23, 2017|work=The New York Times|access-date=October 24, 2017|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> All buses and subway stations will be compatible with electronic fare collection by late 2020. However, support of the MetroCard is slated to remain until 2023.<ref name=":2a" /> {{Clear}} ==Modernization== [[File:Reopening of 53rd St ESI Station (36710339210).jpg|thumb|A subway station rebuilt under the Enhanced Station Initiative]] {{main|Technology of the New York City Subway}} Since the late 20th century, the MTA has started several projects to maintain and improve the subway. In the 1990s, it started converting the [[BMT Canarsie Line]] to use [[communications-based train control]], utilizing a [[moving block]] signal system that allowed more trains to use the tracks and thus increasing passenger capacity.<ref>{{cite news| url = https://www.nytimes.com/2005/01/14/nyregion/14subway.html | title = Subways Run by Computers Start on L Line This Summer | accessdate = May 24, 2007 | first=Sewell | last=Chan | authorlink=Sewell Chan | date = January 14, 2005 | newspaper = The New York Times}}</ref> After the Canarsie Line tests were successful, the MTA expanded the automation program in the 2000s and 2010s to include other lines.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.mta.info/mta/pdf/CP/NeedsAssessment.pdf |title=Twenty-Year Capital Needs Assessment |website=mta.info|publisher=[[Metropolitan Transportation Authority]]|date=August 2009|access-date=September 12, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.mta.info/capital/sas_docs/feis/chapter02.pdf#page=4 |title=Chapter 2: Project Alternatives|page=4|website=mta.info|publisher=[[Metropolitan Transportation Authority]]|accessdate=September 12, 2015}}</ref> As part of another program called FASTRACK, the MTA started closing sections of lines during weekday nights in 2012, in order to allow workers to clean these lines without being hindered by train movements.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://newyork.cbslocal.com/2012/01/09/fastrack-repairs-mean-service-disruptions-on-4-5-and-6-subway/|title='FASTRACK' Repairs Mean Service Disruptions On 4, 5 And 6 Subway|date=January 1, 2012|website=CBS New York|access-date=September 8, 2017}}</ref> It expanded the program beyond Manhattan the next year after noticing how efficient the FASTRACK program was compared to previous service diversions.<ref>{{cite web | title=MTA Fastrack To Expand To Beyond Manhattan | website=WNYC | date=May 14, 2012 | url=http://www.wnyc.org/story/284656-mta-fastrack-to-expand-to-beyond-manhattan/ | access-date=September 8, 2017}}</ref> In 2015, the MTA announced a wide-ranging improvement program as part of the 2015–2019 Capital Program. Thirty stations would be extensively rebuilt under the [[Enhanced Station Initiative]], and new [[R211 (New York City Subway car)|R211]] subway cars would be able to fit more passengers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nydailynews.com/new-york/cuomo-unveils-new-designs-aimed-fix-mta-subway-crowding-article-1.2716100|title=Cuomo unveils new designs aimed to fix MTA subway crowding|last=Rivoli|first=Dan|date=July 18, 2016|website=NY Daily News|accessdate=July 19, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/19/nyregion/cuomo-details-redesigned-subway-cars-and-major-station-renovations.html|title=Cuomo Details Redesigned Subway Cars and Major Station Renovations|last=Schmidt|first=Samantha|date=July 18, 2016|accessdate=July 19, 2016|website=The New York Times}}</ref> The MTA has also started some projects to improve passenger amenities. It added train arrival "countdown clocks" to most [[A Division (New York City Subway)|A Division]] stations (except on the [[IRT Flushing Line]], serving the {{NYCS trains|Flushing}}) and the [[BMT Canarsie Line]] ({{NYCS trains|Canarsie}}) by late 2011, allowing passengers on these routes to see train arrival times using real-time data.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://web.mta.info/countdwn_clocks.htm |title=Innovation |publisher=[[Metropolitan Transportation Authority]] |accessdate=September 11, 2017 }}</ref> A similar countdown-clock project for the [[B Division (New York City Subway)|B Division]] and the Flushing Line was deferred<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/mta-board-approves-26-billion-capital-spending-plan-1446052998|title=More NYC Subway Countdown Clocks Won't Arrive Anytime Soon|last=Tangel|first=Andrew|date=October 28, 2015|website=WSJ|accessdate=October 29, 2015}}</ref> until 2016, when a new [[Bluetooth]]-based clock system was tested successfully.<ref>{{Cite news | last=Wolfe | first=Jonathan | title=New York Today: New Subway Clocks | newspaper=The New York Times | date=August 7, 2017 | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/07/nyregion/new-york-today-new-subway-clocks.html | access-date=September 11, 2017}}</ref> Beginning in 2011, the MTA also started "Help Point" to aid with emergency calls or station agent assistance.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dnainfo.com/new-york/20110405/manhattan/new-help-point-intercoms-head-from-moma-subway|title=New 'Help Point' Intercoms Head from MoMa to the Subway|work=DNAinfo|date=April 5, 2011|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170912012043/https://www.dnainfo.com/new-york/20110405/manhattan/new-help-point-intercoms-head-from-moma-subway|archivedate=September 12, 2017}}</ref> The Help Point project was deemed successful, and the MTA subsequently installed Help Points in all stations.<ref name="Smith Insider 20161">{{cite web | last=Smith | first=Dave | title=All New York City subway stations will have WiFi by the end of this year | website=Business Insider | date=January 11, 2016 | url=http://www.businessinsider.com/all-nyc-subway-stations-getting-wifi-2016-1 | access-date=September 11, 2017}}</ref> Interactive [[touchscreen]] "On The Go! Travel Station" kiosks, which give station advisories, itineraries, and timetables, were installed starting in 2011,<ref>{{cite web |title=MTA Unveils New "On The Go" Touch-Screen Plaything At Bowling Green Subway Station |url=http://gothamist.com/2011/09/19/mta_unveils_new_touch-screen_playth.php |website=Gothamist |access-date=February 10, 2016 |first=Sarah |last=Nelson |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160216232301/http://gothamist.com/2011/09/19/mta_unveils_new_touch-screen_playth.php |archivedate=February 16, 2016 }}</ref> with the program also being expanded after a successful pilot.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.mta.info/news/pdf/MTA%202017%20Final%20Proposed%20Budget%20November%20Financial%20Plan%202017-2020%20Volume%202.pdf|title=MTA 2017 Final Proposed Budget November Financial Plan 2017–2020, Volume 2|last=|first=|date=November 16, 2016|website=mta.info|publisher=Metropolitan Transportation Authority|access-date=November 17, 2016}}</ref> Cellular phone and wireless data in stations, first installed in 2011 as part of yet another pilot program,<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.amny.com/transit/wi-fi-in-underground-subway-stations-still-on-track-for-completion-source-says-1.12713110|title=Source: MTA on track with subway station Wi-Fi goal|last=Barone|first=Vincent|date=December 8, 2016|work=|newspaper=am New York|access-date=December 8, 2016|via=}}</ref> was also expanded systemwide due to positive passenger feedback.<ref name="Smith Insider 20161"/> Finally, credit-card trials at several subway stations in 2006 and 2010<ref>{{Cite news |title=A Test at 25 Stations Subway Riding Without the Swiping |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/31/nyregion/31fare.html |newspaper=The New York Times |date=January 31, 2006|access-date = February 10, 2016 |issn=0362-4331 |first=Sewell |last=Chan}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | last=Kaminer | first=Ariel | title=Testing PayPass on New York’s Buses and Trains | newspaper=The New York Times | date=June 11, 2010 | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/13/nyregion/13critic.html | accessdate=March 25, 2016}}</ref> led to proposals for [[contactless payment]] to replace the aging MetroCard.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Rivoli |first1=Dan |last2=Gregorian | first2=Dareh |date=April 12, 2016 |title=MTA to solicit proposals for 'New Fare Payment System,' taking first step in finding MetroCard replacement |url=http://www.nydailynews.com/new-york/mta-takes-step-replacing-metrocard-article-1.2598346 |newspaper=New York Daily News |access-date=November 30, 2016}}</ref> == Safety and security == === Signaling === {{Main|Signaling of the New York City Subway}} Signaling has evolved during a century of operation, and MTA uses a mixture of old and new systems. Most routes use [[block signaling]] but a few routes are also being retrofitted with [[communications-based train control]] (CBTC), which would allow trains to run without conductor input.<ref>{{Cite AV media|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mjx3S3UjmnA|title=CBTC: Communications-Based Train Control|date=July 20, 2015|author=[[Metropolitan Transportation Authority]]|first=|type=video|language=en-US|publisher=[[YouTube]]|author-link=|access-date=April 30, 2018}}</ref><ref name=rpa-signals/> ==== Wayside block signaling ==== [[File:34 St-Hudson Yards Station (21389427245).jpg|thumb|Example of a wayside block signal at the [[34th Street–Hudson Yards (IRT Flushing Line)|34th Street–Hudson Yards]] station]] The system currently uses [[automatic block signaling]] with fixed wayside signals and automatic [[train stop]]s in order to provide safe train operation across the whole system.<ref name="rpa-signals">{{cite web|url=http://library.rpa.org/pdf/RPA-Moving-Forward.pdf |title=Moving Forward: Accelerating the Transition to Communications-Based Train Control for New York City's Subways |website=rpa.org|publisher=[[Regional Plan Association]]|date=May 2014|access-date=September 12, 2016}}</ref> The New York City Subway system has, for the most part, used block signalling since its first line opened, and many portions of the current signaling system were installed between the 1930s and 1960s. These signals work by preventing trains from entering a "block" occupied by another train. Typically, the blocks are {{convert|1000|ft}} long.<ref name=":10">{{cite web| url = https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2015/11/why-dont-we-know-where-all-the-trains-are/415152/ | title = Why New York Subway Lines Are Missing Countdown Clocks | last = Somers| first = James | website = The Atlantic| language = en-US| access-date = February 28, 2016| date = November 13, 2015}}</ref> Red and green lights show whether a block is occupied or vacant. The train's maximum speed will depend on how many blocks are open in front of it. The signals do not register a train's speed, nor where in the block the train is located.<ref name="RPA-Moving Forward">{{cite web | url=http://library.rpa.org/pdf/RPA-Moving-Forward.pdf | title=Moving Forward Accelerating the Transition to Communications-Based Train Control for New York City's Subways | publisher=Regional Plan Association | date=May 2014 | accessdate=March 25, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.thejoekorner.com/out-the-front/index-signals.shtm | title = The JoeKorNer – Looking out the Front – Signals| website = www.thejoekorner.com| access-date = February 28, 2016}}</ref> Subway trains are stopped mechanically at all signals showing "stop". Although this is a simple principle of [[train protection system|train stops]], that wayside trippers must not be moved to trip ("stop") position until the train has fully passed.<ref name=":10" /><ref name="Trip Stop">{{cite web |title=www.nycsubway.org: Subway Signals: Train Stops |website=www.nycsubway.org |date=October 21, 2015 |url=http://www.nycsubway.org/wiki/Subway_Signals:_Train_Stops |accessdate=October 21, 2015}}</ref> ==== Communications-based train control ==== In the late 1990s and early 2000s, the MTA began automating the subway by installing CBTC, which supplements rather than replaces the fixed-block signal system; it allows trains to operate more closely together with lower [[headway]]s. The [[BMT Canarsie Line]], on which the {{NYCS trains|Canarsie}} runs, was chosen for pilot testing because it is a self-contained line that does not operate in conjunction with other lines. CBTC became operational in February 2009.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.railwayage.com/index.php/communications/mta-l-line-trains-go-to-full-cbtc.html|title=MTA L Line trains go to full CBTC|last=Editor-in-Chief|first=William C. Vantuono|website=www.railwayage.com|access-date=March 13, 2016|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160314063159/http://www.railwayage.com/index.php/communications/mta-l-line-trains-go-to-full-cbtc.html|archivedate=March 14, 2016|date=February 24, 2009}}</ref> Due to an unexpected ridership increase, the MTA ordered additional cars, and increased service from 15 trains to 26 trains per hour, an achievement beyond the capability of the block system.<ref name="neuman-May22">{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/22/nyregion/22subway.html |title=For Less Crowding on L Train, Think 2010, Report Says |accessdate=May 24, 2007 |first=William |last=Neuman |date=May 22, 2007 |newspaper=The New York Times}}</ref> The total cost of the project was $340 million.<ref name=":10" /> After the success of the BMT Canarsie Line automation, the [[IRT Flushing Line]], carrying the {{NYCS trains|Flushing}}, was next chosen to get CBTC.<ref>{{cite web |title=New Tech Promises Less Subway Crowding, If Albany Doesn't Beggar the MTA {{!}} Streetsblog New York City|url = http://www.streetsblog.org/2011/10/13/new-tech-promises-less-subway-crowding-if-albany-doesnt-beggar-the-mta/|access-date = February 10, 2016|date = October 13, 2011}}</ref> The plan is estimated to cost US $1.4 billion.<ref>{{cite web |title=2008–2013 MTA Capital Program Accelerated Program Presentation to the Board |publisher=[[Metropolitan Transportation Authority]] |date=February 27, 2008 |url=http://web.mta.info/mta/news/public/ppt/Accelerated%20Program%20Presentation%20for%20Boardjss2.ppt |format=PPT |accessdate=February 28, 2008 |pages=15–16}}</ref> It was scheduled to be completed in September 2017,<ref name=":12">{{cite web|url=http://web.mta.info/news/pdf/MTA%202017%20Final%20Proposed%20Budget%20November%20Financial%20Plan%202017-2020%20Volume%202.pdf|title=MTA 2017 Final Proposed Budget November Financial Plan 2017–2020, Volume 2 |last=|first=|date=November 16, 2016|website=mta.info|publisher=Metropolitan Transportation Authority|access-date=November 17, 2016}}</ref> but was delayed to November 2018.<ref name="MTA-CPOC-Nov2018">{{Cite web|url=http://web.mta.info/mta/news/books/pdf/181113_1400_CPOC.pdf|title=Capital Program Oversight Committee Meeting November 2018|date=November 13, 2018|accessdate=April 20, 2018|publisher=[[Metropolitan Transportation Authority]]}}</ref>{{rp|11–12}} By 2018, CBTC was in the process of being installed on several other routes as well, particularly the [[IND Queens Boulevard Line]] ({{NYCS trains|Queens}}) and [[IND Culver Line]] ({{NYCS trains|Culver IND north}}).<ref name="MTA-CPOC-Nov2018"/> Eventually, the MTA has plans to automate a much larger portion, using [[One Person Train Operation]] (OPTO) in conjunction with CBTC. At the current pace of installation, it would take 175 years for CBTC to be installed at a cost of $20 billion.<ref name=":10" /> The Flushing line operated at almost 30 trains an hour using the signal system installed when the line was built, but after CBTC is installed it is possible that an additional two trains per hour could be operated.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NbYqQSQcE2MC|title=Rail Transit Capacity|last=Parkinson|first=Tom|last2=Fisher|first2=Ian|date=1996|publisher=Transportation Research Board|isbn=978-0309057189|language=en}}</ref> In March 2018, [[New York City Transit Authority]] president [[Andy Byford]] announced a new plan for resignaling the subway with CBTC, which would only take 10 to 15 years, compared to the previous estimate of 40 years. However, this would be very expensive, as it would cost $8 to $15 billion.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/new-transit-chief-says-signal-overhaul-could-be-completed-in-10-to-15-years-1522315801|title=New York City Transit Chief: Subway Signal Overhaul Could Be Done in 10 to 15 Years|last=Berger|first=Paul|date=March 29, 2018|work=Wall Street Journal|access-date=March 30, 2018|language=en-US|issn=0099-9660}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://ny.curbed.com/2018/3/29/17176200/new-york-subway-signal-repairs-timeline|title=NYC subway’s aging signals could be fixed in 10–15 years, says transit head|last=Rosenberg|first=Zoe|date=March 29, 2018|work=Curbed NY|access-date=March 30, 2018}}</ref> The New York City Subway uses a system known as Automatic Train Supervision (ATS) for dispatching and train routing on the [[A Division (New York City Subway)|A Division]]<ref name="ats">{{cite web |url=http://www.mta.info/news/2012/12/28/know-you-go-mta-subway-time™ |title=MTA | news | Know Before You Go with MTA Subway Time™ |publisher=Mta.info |date=December 28, 2012 |accessdate=April 11, 2014}}</ref> (the Flushing line and the trains used on the {{NYCS trains|Flushing|type=service|time=nolink}} do not have ATS.)<ref name="ats"/> ATS allows dispatchers in the Operations Control Center (OCC) to see where trains are in real time, and whether each individual train is running early or late.<ref name="ats"/> Dispatchers can hold trains for connections, re-route trains, or short-turn trains to provide better service when a disruption causes delays.<ref name="ats"/> === Train accidents === {{Main|History of the New York City Subway#Accidents|l1=New York City Subway accidents}} Despite the signal system, there have been at least 64 major train accidents since 1918, when a train bound for [[South Ferry (IRT elevated station)|South Ferry]] smashed into two trains halted near [[Jackson Avenue (IRT White Plains Road Line)|Jackson Avenue]] on the [[IRT White Plains Road Line]] in the Bronx.<ref name="Accidents">{{cite web |url=http://www.nycsubway.org/faq/accidents.html |title=NYC Subway accidents |publisher=nycsubway.org |year=2009 |website= |accessdate=December 12, 2009}}</ref> Several accidents resulted when the train operator ran through red signals and rear-ended the subway train in front of it; this resulted from the signaling practice of "keying by", which allowed train operators to bypass red signals. The deadliest accident, the [[Malbone Street Wreck]], occurred on November 1, 1918 beneath the intersection of [[Flatbush Avenue]], [[Ocean Avenue (Brooklyn)|Ocean Avenue]], and Malbone Street (the latter of which is now Empire Boulevard) near the [[Prospect Park (BMT Brighton Line)|Prospect Park]] station of the then-BRT [[BMT Brighton Line|Brighton Line]] in Brooklyn, killing 93 people.<ref>{{Cite news |title=The Mayor to Begin B.R.T Inquiry Today |newspaper=The New York Times |page=24 |language= |date=November 1, 1918 |url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1918/11/04/97041214.pdf |accessdate=December 12, 2009 |format=PDF}}</ref> As a result of accidents, especially more recent ones such as the 1995 Williamsburg Bridge crash, timer signals were installed. These signals have resulted in reduced speeds across the system. Accidents such as [[derailment]]s are also due to broken equipment, such as the rails and the train itself.<ref name="Accidents"/> ===Passenger safety=== [[File:168th Street IRT Broadway 2.JPG|thumb|Yellow platform edges, yellow staircase steps and yellow railings, painted for safety, at the IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line platform at 168th Street]] ====Track safety and suicides{{Anchor|Track safety|Suicides}}==== A portion of subway-related deaths in New York consists of suicides committed by jumping in front of an oncoming train. Between 1990 and 2003, 343 subway-related suicides have been registered out of a citywide total of 7,394 (4.6%) and subway-related suicides increased by 30%, despite a decline in overall suicide numbers.<ref>{{cite web |last=Galea |first=Sandro |authorlink= |author2=Tracy, M |author3=Piper, T.M. |author4=Bucciarelli, A.M. |author5=Tardiff, K. |author6=Gershon, R |author7=Vlahov, D |title=Epidemiology of suicide in the New York City subway system |website= |publisher=[[American Public Health Association]] |date=November 4, 2009 |url=http://apha.confex.com/apha/134am/techprogram/paper_133195.htm |doi= |accessdate=November 27, 2009}}</ref> Due to increase in people hit by trains in 2013,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.nydailynews.com/new-york/nyc-subway-train-deaths-decrease-2013-mta-article-1.1562928 |title=Deaths by New York subway train strikes shrank slightly for 2013, MTA says |newspaper=NY Daily News |date=December 31, 2013 |accessdate=April 13, 2014}}</ref> in late 2013 and early 2014 the MTA started a test program at one undisclosed station, with four systems and strategies to eliminate the number of people hit by trains. [[Closed-circuit television camera]]s, a web of [[laser beam]]s stretched across the tracks, [[Radio frequency|radio frequencies]] transmitted across the tracks, and [[thermal imaging camera]]s focused on the station's tracks were set to be installed at that station.<ref name="thestreet">{{cite web | last=Sozzi | first=Brian | title=Sozzi: The Boring Old Subway is Now Digital, and That's Pretty Awesome | website=TheStreet | date=April 21, 2014 | url=http://www.thestreet.com/story/12670911/1/sozzi-the-boring-old-subway-is-now-digital-and-thats-pretty-awesome.html | accessdate=March 25, 2016}}</ref> At the unidentified station, tests have gone so well at the testing site that these track protection systems will be installed systemwide as part of the 2015–2019 capital program.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nydailynews.com/new-york/mta-testing-systems-save-people-fall-subway-tracks-article-1.1898975 |title=MTA is testing sensors, video systems that would save people who fall on subway tracks |work=NY Daily News |author=Donohhue, Pete |date=August 11, 2014 |accessdate=August 18, 2014}}</ref> The MTA also expressed interest in starting a pilot program to install [[platform edge doors]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.nydailynews.com/new-york/mta-tests-technology-save-fallen-straphangers-subway-trains-article-1.1545244 |title=MTA tests motion sensing lasers, thermal image cameras to save fallen straphangers from subway trains |newspaper=NY Daily News |date=December 12, 2013 |accessdate=April 13, 2014}}</ref> Several planned stations in the New York City Subway may possibly feature [[platform screen doors]], possibly including future stations such as those part of the [[Second Avenue Subway]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/04/05/nyregion/05doors.html |title=2nd Ave. Subway Platforms May Get Glass Walls and Sliding Doors |last=Neuman |first=William |date=April 5, 2007 |work=|access-date = February 10, 2016 |via= |newspaper=New York Times}}</ref> Currently, the MTA is planning a test program to install screen doors at a subway station on the [[BMT Canarsie Line]]. As part of the 2010–2014 capital program, the station was going to be [[14th Street / Sixth Avenue (New York City Subway)|Sixth Avenue]], but it is uncertain whether or not that this will be the station chosen.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.dnainfo.com/new-york/20160211/financial-district/l-train-platform-eyed-for-airtrain-like-safety-doors-mta-pilot-program| title = L Train Platform Eyed for AirTrain-Like Safety Doors in MTA Pilot Program| website = DNAinfo New York| access-date = February 29, 2016| url-status = dead| archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20160224042206/https://www.dnainfo.com/new-york/20160211/financial-district/l-train-platform-eyed-for-airtrain-like-safety-doors-mta-pilot-program| archivedate = February 24, 2016| df = mdy-all}}</ref> Following a series of incidents during one week in November 2016, in which three people were injured or killed after being pushed onto the tracks, the MTA started to consider installing platform edge doors for the [[42nd Street Shuttle]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://nypost.com/2016/11/15/mta-boss-makes-another-push-for-subway-platform-doors/|title=MTA boss makes another push for subway platform doors|last=Furfaro|first=Danielle|date=November 15, 2016|website=New York Post|access-date=November 16, 2016}}</ref> Numerous challenges come with platform doors. Some subway lines operate multiple subway car models, and their doors often do not line up.<ref name="wsj.com">{{Cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/subway-train-drags-woman-to-death-11555892150|title=Subway Train Drags Woman to Death|last=Honan|first=Katie|date=2019-04-22|work=Wall Street Journal|access-date=2019-04-28|language=en-US|issn=0099-9660}}</ref> Many platforms are not strong enough to hold the additional weight of a platform barrier, thus requiring extensive renovations if they were to be installed.<ref name="wsj.com"/> ==== Crime ==== {{main|History of the New York City Subway#Crime}} Crime rates have varied, but there has been a downward trend starting in the 1990s and continuing today.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.nydailynews.com/new-york/nyc-crime/daily-news-analysis-reveals-crime-rankings-city-subway-system-article-1.1836918 |title=Safest and riskiest areas of New York's subway system revealed in Daily News investigation |date=June 22, 2014|work=|newspaper=New York Daily News|access-date=March 18, 2016|via=}}</ref> In order to fight crime, various approaches have been used over the years, including an "If You See Something, Say Something" campaign<ref name="auto">{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z8eoTCEn2bY |title=If You See Something, Say Something – Subway – Spring 2011 |work=MTA.info (YouTube) |date=April 19, 2011 |accessdate=April 19, 2011}}</ref> and, starting in 2016, banning people who commit a crime in the subway system from entering the system for a certain length of time.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://gothamist.com/2016/01/30/nypd_reportedly_wants_to_ban_career.php |title=NYPD Reportedly Wants To Ban "Career Criminals" From Subways |last=Yakas|first=Ben|website=Gothamist|access-date=March 18, 2016 |url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303185223/http://gothamist.com/2016/01/30/nypd_reportedly_wants_to_ban_career.php|archivedate=March 3, 2016}}</ref> In July 1985, the [[Citizens Crime Commission of New York City]] published a study showing riders abandoning the subway, fearing the frequent robberies and generally bad circumstances.<ref name="City">{{Cite book| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=iGpPAAAAMAAJ | title = Downtown safety, security, and economic development: a joint report | last = City| first = Citizens Crime Commission of New York| last2 = NY| first2 = Regional Plan Association | date = 1985| publisher = Downtown Research & Development Center| isbn = 978-0915910229| language = en}}</ref> To counter these developments, policy that was rooted in the late 1980s and early 1990s was implemented.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Kelling |first=George L. |title=How New York Became Safe: The Full Story |magazine=[[City Journal (New York)|City Journal]] |year=2009 |url=http://www.city-journal.org/2009/nytom_ny-crime-decline.html |accessdate=November 24, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Glazer |first=Nathan |title=On Subway Graffiti in New York |newspaper=National Affairs |issue=54 |pages=3–12 |year=1979 |url=http://www.nationalaffairs.com/doclib/20080528_197905401onsubwaygraffitiinnewyorknathanglazer.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151017224945/http://www.nationalaffairs.com/doclib/20080528_197905401onsubwaygraffitiinnewyorknathanglazer.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=October 17, 2015 |accessdate=November 24, 2009 }}</ref> In line with this ''[[Fixing Broken Windows]]'' philosophy, the New York City Transit Authority (NYCTA) began a five-year program to eradicate graffiti from subway trains in 1984.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L4gq_wnEsmI |title=Don't Do It (1988) |work=MTA.info (YouTube) |date=January 9, 2010 |accessdate=May 28, 2011}}</ref> In 1993, [[Mayor of New York City|Mayor]] [[Rudy Giuliani]] took office and with Police Commissioner [[Howard Safir]], the strategy was more widely deployed in New York. Crime rates in the subway and city dropped.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Wolff |first=Craig |title=Subway Crime Declining, New Transit Figures Show |newspaper=The New York Times|pages= |language= |publisher= |date=November 12, 1993 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1993/11/12/nyregion/subway-crime-declining-new-transit-figures-show.html |accessdate=November 26, 2009}}</ref> Giuliani's campaign credited the success to his policy.<ref>{{cite web |title=Rudy Giuliani |publisher=JoinRudy2008.com |url=http://www.joinrudy2008.com/issues/ |accessdate=July 15, 2007 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070904220218/http://www.joinrudy2008.com/issues/ |archivedate=September 4, 2007}}</ref> The extent to which his policies deserve the credit is disputed.<ref>Levitt, Steven D.: "Understanding Why Crime Fell in the 1990s: Four Factors that Explain the Decline and Six that Do Not", ''Journal of Economic Perspectives'', 18(1), 163–190</ref> New York City Police Department Commissioner [[William J. Bratton]] and author of ''Fixing Broken Windows'', [[George L. Kelling]], however, stated the police played an "important, even central, role" in the declining crime rates.<ref name="City"/> The trend continued and Giuliani's successor, [[Michael Bloomberg]], stated in a November 2004 press release: "Today, the subway system is safer than it has been at any time since we started tabulating subway crime statistics nearly 40 years ago."<ref>{{Cite press release |title=Mayor Michael R. Bloomberg testifies before the Metropolitan Transportation Authority Board |publisher= |date=November 9, 2004 |url=http://www.nyc.gov/portal/site/nycgov/menuitem.c0935b9a57bb4ef3daf2f1c701c789a0/index.jsp?pageID=mayor_press_release&catID=1194&doc_name=http://www.nyc.gov/html/om/html/2004b/pr298-04.html&cc=unused1978&rc=1194&ndi=1 |accessdate=November 26, 2009}}</ref> ====Photography==== After the September 11, 2001, attacks, the MTA exercised extreme caution regarding anyone taking photographs or recording video inside the system and proposed banning all photography and recording in a meeting around June 2004.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.villagevoice.com/nyclife/0423,haber,54075,15.html |title=village voice > nyclife > Forbidden Photos, Anyone? by Matt Haber |date=February 28, 2005 |access-date=March 18, 2016 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20050228050013/http://www.villagevoice.com/nyclife/0423%2Chaber%2C54075%2C15.html |archivedate=February 28, 2005 }}</ref> However, due to strong response from both the public and from civil rights groups, the rule of conduct was dropped. In November 2004, the MTA again put this rule up for approval, but was again denied,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://gothamist.com/2004/11/30/threat_of_subway_photo_ban_riseth_again.php |title=Threat Of Subway Photo Ban Riseth Again |work=Gothamist |date=November 30, 2004 |accessdate=July 7, 2008 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080420084907/http://gothamist.com/2004/11/30/threat_of_subway_photo_ban_riseth_again.php |archivedate=April 20, 2008 }}</ref> though many police officers and transit workers still confront or harass people taking photographs or videos.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kabak |first1=Benjamin |title=Unlawful arrest for subway photography costs city $30K |url=http://secondavenuesagas.com/2010/02/10/unlawfuly-arrest-for-subway-photography-costs-city-30k/ |website=Second Ave. Sagas |accessdate=November 24, 2015|date=February 10, 2010 }}</ref> However, on April 3, 2009, the NYPD issued a directive to officers stating that it is legal to take pictures within the subway system so long as it is not accompanied with suspicious activity.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_oItWZ7u21Rc/SvhNC98PJ0I/AAAAAAAAASs/TOJYqNO6a6g/s1600/NYPD+directive.jpg4-3-09 | title=Investigation of Individuals engaged in suspicious photography and video surveillance | publisher=New York City Police Department | date=April 3, 2009 | accessdate=March 25, 2016}}</ref> Currently, the MTA Rules of Conduct, Restricted Areas and Activities section states that anyone may take pictures or record videos, provided that they do not use any of three tools: lights, reflectors, or tripods. These three tools are permitted only by members of the press who have identification issued by the NYPD.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.mta.info/nyct/rules/rules.htm#restricted|title=mta.info {{!}} Rules of Conduct Section 1050.9 Restricted areas and activities|website=web.mta.info|access-date=March 13, 2016}}</ref> ====Terrorism prevention==== {{See also|New York City Transit Police}} On July 22, 2005, in response to [[July 2005 London bombings|bombings in London]], the [[New York City Transit Police]] introduced a new policy of randomly searching passengers' bags as they approached turnstiles. The NYPD claimed that no form of [[racial profiling]] would be conducted when these searches actually took place. The NYPD has come under fire from some groups that claim purely random searches without any form of [[threat assessment]] would be ineffectual. Donna Lieberman, Executive Director of the [[NYCLU]], stated, "This NYPD bag search policy is unprecedented, unlawful and ineffective. It is essential that police be aggressive in maintaining security in public transportation. But our very real concerns about terrorism do not justify the NYPD subjecting millions of innocent people to suspicionless searches in a way that does not identify any person seeking to engage in terrorist activity and is unlikely to have any meaningful deterrent effect on terrorist activity."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aclu.org/police/searchseizure/20054prs20050804.html |title=American Civil Liberties Union : NYCLU Sues New York City Over Subway Bag Search Policy |date=November 1, 2009 |access-date=March 18, 2016 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091101150005/http://www.aclu.org/police/searchseizure/20054prs20050804.html |archivedate=November 1, 2009 }}</ref> The searches were upheld by the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit]] in ''MacWade v. Kelly''.<ref>{{cite web |title=MacWade v. Kelly (Challenging the NYPD's subway bag-search program) |url=http://www.nyclu.org/case/macwade-v-kelly-challenging-nypds-subway-bag-search-program |website=New York Civil Liberties Union |accessdate=November 24, 2015|date=July 6, 2007 }}</ref> On April 11, 2008, MTA received a [[Ferrara Fire Apparatus]] [[Dangerous goods|Hazardous Materials Response Truck]], which went into service three days later. It will be used in the case of a [[chemical warfare|chemical]] or [[bioterrorism|bioterrorist]] attack.<ref>{{cite news |title=MTA NYC Transit Introduces New Hazmat Response Vehicle |date=April 11, 2008 |url=http://www.railpace.com/hotnews/ |accessdate=April 14, 2008}}</ref> [[Najibullah Zazi]] and others were arrested in September 2009 and pleaded guilty in 2010 to being part of an [[al-Qaeda]] plan to undertake suicide bombings on the New York City subway system.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/09/16/nyregion/16terror.html |title=Man in Queens Raids Denies Any Terrorist Link |last1=Zraick |first1=Karen |last2=Johnston |first2=David |date=September 15, 2009 |work=New York Times |accessdate=January 30, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/n-y-c-bomb-plot-suspect-zazi-pleads-guilty-1.883116 |title=N.Y.C. bomb plot suspect Zazi pleads guilty |agency=Associated Press News |publisher=CBC |date=February 20, 2010 |accessdate=January 30, 2014}}</ref> ==Challenges== ===2009–2010 budget cuts=== [[File:NYC MTA no W.jpg|thumb|left|[[28th Street (BMT Broadway Line)|28th Street]] station after the '''W''' train was discontinued in mid-2010. Note the dark grey tape masked over the '''W''' bullet. (This sign has since been replaced due to the restoration of the '''W''' in 2016.)]]The MTA faced a budget deficit of US$1.2 billion in 2009.<ref>{{cite web |title=M.T.A. Faces $1.2 Billion Deficit |url=http://cityroom.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/11/10/mta-faces-12-billion-deficit/?_r=0 |website=City Room|access-date = February 9, 2016 |first=Sewell Chan and William |last=Neuman|date=November 10, 2008 }}</ref> This resulted in fare increases (three times from 2008 to 2010)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nydailynews.com/new-york/straphangers-awake-fare-hiked-time-8-years-article-1.2159111|title=City straphangers feel sting as fares hiked again|website=NY Daily News|access-date=March 13, 2016}}</ref> and service reductions (including the elimination of two part-time subway services, the {{NYCS|V}} and {{NYCS|W}}). Several other routes were modified as a result of the deficit. The {{NYCS|N}} was made a full-time local in Manhattan (in contrast to being a weekend local/weekday express before 2010), while the {{NYCS|Q}} was extended nine stations north to [[Astoria–Ditmars Boulevard (BMT Astoria Line)|Astoria–Ditmars Boulevard]] on weekdays, both to cover the discontinued {{NYCS|W}}. The {{NYCS|M}} was combined with the {{NYCS|V}}, routing it over the [[Chrystie Street Connection]], [[IND Sixth Avenue Line]] and [[IND Queens Boulevard Line]] to [[Forest Hills–71st Avenue (IND Queens Boulevard Line)|Forest Hills–71st Avenue]] on weekdays instead of via the [[BMT Fourth Avenue Line]] and [[BMT West End Line]] to Bay Parkway. The {{NYCS|G}} was truncated to [[Court Square (IND Crosstown Line)|Court Square]] full-time. Construction headways on eleven routes were lengthened, and off-peak service on seven routes were lengthened.<ref name="MTA 2010">{{cite web | title=MTA/New York City Transit – NYC Transit 2010 Service Reduction Proposals | website=MTA | date=March 19, 2010 | url=http://web.mta.info/nyct/service/ServiceReduction/part1.htm | accessdate=March 25, 2016}}</ref> === 2017 state of emergency === {{Main|2017 New York City transit crisis}} In June 2017, Governor [[Andrew Cuomo]] signed an executive order declaring a state of emergency for the New York City Subway<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/29/nyregion/cuomo-declares-a-state-of-emergency-for-the-subway.html|title=Cuomo Declares a State of Emergency for New York City Subways|last=Fitzsimmons|first=Emma G.|date=June 29, 2017|work=The New York Times|access-date=July 25, 2017|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> after a series of derailments,<ref name=":022">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/27/nyregion/subway-train-derails-in-manhattan.html|title=Subway Derailment in Manhattan Injures Dozens|last=Santora|first=Marc|date=June 27, 2017|work=The New York Times|access-date=July 25, 2017|last2=Fitzsimmons|first2=Emma G.|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref name=":1102">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/07/21/nyregion/subway-derailment-brooklyn.html|title=Subway Train Derails in Brooklyn, Disrupting Morning Commute|last=Fitzsimmons|first=Emma G.|date=July 21, 2017|work=The New York Times|access-date=July 26, 2017|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> track fires,<ref name=":262">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/07/17/nyregion/subway-track-fire-sends-9-to-hospital-and-snarls-morning-commute.html|title=Subway Track Fire Sends 9 to Hospital and Snarls Morning Commute|last=Fitzsimmons|first=Emma G.|date=July 17, 2017|work=The New York Times|access-date=July 26, 2017|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://nymag.com/daily/intelligencer/2017/07/track-fire-disrupts-subway-service.html|title=Track Fire Is the Latest Subway Disaster|last=Kirby|first=Jen|date=July 17, 2017|work=Daily Intelligencer|access-date=July 26, 2017|language=en}}</ref> and overcrowding incidents.<ref name=":262" /><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/new-york-subway-a-train-delay-trash-fire-2017-7|title=These photos sum up just how bad New York's commuter nightmare has gotten|last=Muoio|first=Danielle|date=July 16, 2017|work=Business Insider|access-date=July 26, 2017|language=en}}</ref> On June 27, 2017, thirty-nine people were injured when an [[A (New York City Subway service)|A]] train derailed at [[125th Street (IND Eighth Avenue Line)|125th Street]],<ref name="NY120172">{{cite news|url=http://www.ny1.com/nyc/all-boroughs/transit/2017/06/27/a-train-derailment-cause-mta.html|title=MTA: Unsecure Rail Stored on Tracks Caused Harlem Subway Derailment|date=June 28, 2017|accessdate=June 29, 2017|agency=[[NY1]]|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628092936/http://www.ny1.com/nyc/all-boroughs/transit/2017/06/27/a-train-derailment-cause-mta.html|archivedate=June 28, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/mta-train-derailment-caused-by-improperly-secured-rail/2017/06/28/84743d9a-5bb8-11e7-aa69-3964a7d55207_story.html|title=l Supervisors suspended amid NYC subway derailment probe|last1=Armstrong|first1=Kiley|date=June 28, 2017|accessdate=June 29, 2017|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628053715/https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/mta-train-derailment-caused-by-improperly-secured-rail/2017/06/28/84743d9a-5bb8-11e7-aa69-3964a7d55207_story.html|archivedate=June 28, 2017|url-status=dead|agency=[[The Washington Post]]|last2=Eltman|first2=Frank}}</ref> damaging tracks and signals<ref name=":022" /> then catching on fire.<ref name=":022" /><ref name="Santora">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/27/nyregion/subway-train-derails-in-manhattan.html|title=Subway Derailment in Manhattan Injures Dozens|last=Santora|first=Marc|date=June 27, 2017|work=The New York Times|access-date=June 27, 2017|last2=Ferré-sadurní|first2=Luis|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> On July 21, 2017, the second set of wheels on a southbound [[Q (New York City Subway service)|Q]] train jumped the track near [[Brighton Beach (BMT Brighton Line)|Brighton Beach]], with nine people suffering injuries<ref name=":1102" /> due to improper maintenance of the car in question.<ref name="Honan">{{Cite web|url=https://www.dnainfo.com/new-york/20170724/sheepshead-bay/q-train-brighton-beach-sheepshead-bay-derailment-cause-mta|title='Abnormal Condition' on Car Caused Q Train Derailment, MTA Official Says|last=Honan|first=Katie|date=July 24, 2017|website=DNAinfo New York|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170815063406/https://www.dnainfo.com/new-york/20170724/sheepshead-bay/q-train-brighton-beach-sheepshead-bay-derailment-cause-mta|archivedate=August 15, 2017|url-status=dead|access-date=July 26, 2017}}</ref><ref name="Cook">{{Cite news|url=http://www.amny.com/transit/q-train-derailment-caused-by-improper-maintenance-resulting-in-abnormal-condition-on-car-mta-says-1.13820227|title=Q train derailment caused by improper maintenance: MTA|last=Cook|first=Lauren|date=July 24, 2017|work=am New York|access-date=July 26, 2017|language=en}}</ref> To solve the system's problems, the MTA officially announced the [[Genius Transit Challenge]] on June 28, where contestants could submit ideas to improve signals, communications infrastructure, or rolling stock.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/29/nyregion/mta-subway-contest-million-dollar-prize.html|title=M.T.A. Asks Transit Fans, ‘Who Wants to Be a Subway-Saving Millionaire?’|last=Barron|first=James|date=June 29, 2017|work=The New York Times|access-date=July 26, 2017|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.nydailynews.com/new-york/mta-seeks-genius-fix-subways-1m-prize-article-1.3289143|title=MTA seeks ‘genius’ to fix subways for $1M prize|last=Gabrielli|first=Sarah|date=June 29, 2017|work=NY Daily News|access-date=July 26, 2017|last2=McShane|first2=Larry|language=en}}</ref> On July 25, 2017, Chairman [[Joe Lhota]] announced a two-phase, $9 billion New York City Subway Action Plan to stabilize the subway system and to prevent the continuing decline of the system.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/07/25/nyregion/subway-rescue-plan-mta.html|title=Rescue Plan to Improve Subways Includes Removing Seats|last=Fitzsimmons|first=Emma G.|date=July 25, 2017|work=The New York Times|access-date=July 25, 2017|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref name=":422">{{Cite web|url=http://www.mta.info/press-release/mta-headquarters/mta-chairman-joseph-lhota-unveils-new-york-city-subway-action-plan|title=MTA {{!}} Press Release {{!}} MTA Headquarters {{!}} MTA Chairman Joseph Lhota Unveils New York City Subway Action Plan|website=www.mta.info|access-date=July 25, 2017}} *See also: {{Cite news|url=http://www.mtamovingforward.com|title=NYC Subway Action Plan|access-date=July 25, 2017}}</ref><ref name=":322">{{Cite news|url=http://www.nbcnewyork.com/news/local/Subway-Audit-State-of-Emergency-MTA-Plan-Modernize-Lhota-Cuomo-436541583.html|title=MTA Chair Unveils $836 Million Subway Stabilization Plan|last=|first=|date=July 25, 2017|work=NBC New York|access-date=July 26, 2017|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":522">{{Cite news|url=http://abc7ny.com/traffic/mta-chairman-unveils-plan-to-fix-nyc-subway-system/2248102/|title=MTA chairman unveils plan to fix NYC subway system|last=Clark|first=Dray|date=July 25, 2017|work=ABC7 New York|access-date=July 26, 2017|language=en-US}}</ref> The first phase, costing $836 million, consisted of five categories of improvements in Signal and Track Maintenance, Car Reliability, System Safety and Cleanliness, Customer Communication, and Critical Management Group. The $8 billion second phase would implement the winning proposals from the Genius Transit Challenge and fix more widespread problems.<ref name=":422" /><ref name=":322" /><ref name=":522" /> Six winning submissions for the Genius Transit Challenge were announced in March 2018.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rtands.com/index.php/passenger/commuter-regional/mta-genius-transit-challenge-winners-announced.html|title=MTA Genius Transit Challenge winners announced|last=Vantuono|first=William|date=March 12, 2018|website=Railway Track & Structures|access-date=March 14, 2018}}</ref> In October 2017, city comptroller [[Scott Stringer]] released an analysis that subway delays could cost up to $389 million or $243.1 million or $170.2 million per year depending on how long were the delays.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://comptroller.nyc.gov/reports/the-economic-cost-of-subway-delays/ |title=The Economic Cost of Subway Delays |last=Stringer|first=Scott M.|date=October 1, 2017 |website=[[Government of New York City|nyc.gov]] |publisher=Office of the [[New York City Comptroller]]|language=en-US |access-date=October 4, 2017}}</ref> In November 2017, ''The New York Times'' published its investigation into the crisis. It found that the crisis had arisen as a result of financially unsound decisions by local and state politicians from both the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] and [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] parties. According to the ''Times'', these decisions included overspending; overpaying unions and interest groups; advertising superficial improvement projects while ignoring more important infrastructure; and agreeing to high-interest loans that would have been unnecessary without these politicians' other interventions. By this time, the subway's 65% average on-time performance was the lowest among all major cities' transit systems, and every non-shuttle subway route's on-time performance had declined in the previous ten years.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/18/nyregion/new-york-subway-system-failure-delays.html|title=How Politics and Bad Decisions Starved New York’s Subways|last=Rosenthal|first=Brian M.|date=November 18, 2017|work=The New York Times|access-date=November 18, 2017|last2=Fitzsimmons|first2=Emma G.|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|last3=LaForgia|first3=Michael}}</ref> ===Capacity constraints=== [[File:Downtown Q Train Rush Hour.jpg|thumb|The interior of a '''{{NYCS|Q}}''' train during afternoon rush hour|alt=The Q train filled with commuters, many within one inch of each other. Several commuters are seen using smartphones; others are holding on to the train while standing.]] Several subway lines have reached their operational limits in terms of train frequency and passengers, according to data released by the Transit Authority. {{As of|2007|6}}, all of the [[A Division (New York City Subway)|A Division]] services except the [[42nd Street Shuttle]], as well as the E and L trains, were beyond capacity, as well as portions of the {{NYCS|N}} train.<ref name="NYTimes-NYCS-packed-2008">{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/26/nyregion/26mta.html |title=Some Subways Found Packed Past Capacity |work=The New York Times |date=June 26, 2007 |accessdate=July 7, 2008 |first=William |last=Neuman}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.nyc.gov/html/brt/downloads/pdf/brt_phase2_appendix.pdf | title=Appendix A: Service Needs Assessment Methodology MTA New York City Transit New York City Department of Transportation April 2009 | publisher=MTA New York City Transit | date=April 2009 | accessdate=March 25, 2016}}</ref> In April 2013, [[New York (magazine)|''New York'' magazine]] reported that the system was more crowded than it had been in the previous 66 years.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://nymag.com/arts/all/approvalmatrix/approval-matrix-2013-4-22/ |title=The Approval Matrix, bottom left quadrant |magazine=New York |date=April 22, 2013}}</ref> The subway reached a daily ridership of 6 million for 29 days in 2014, and was expected to record a similar ridership level for 55 days in 2015; by comparison, in 2013, daily ridership never reached 6 million.<ref>{{cite web |last=Harshbarger |first=Rebecca |title=Ridership below prediction at new 7 train station |website=am New York |date=September 21, 2015 |url=http://www.amny.com/transit/ridership-below-prediction-at-new-7-train-station-1.10874281 |accessdate=September 23, 2015}}</ref> In particular, the express tracks of the [[IRT Lexington Avenue Line]] and [[IND Queens Boulevard Line]] are noted for operating at full capacity during peak hours.<ref name=NYTimes-NYCS-packed-2008/><ref name=MTA-CBTC-July2015/> The [[Long Island Rail Road]] [[East Side Access]] project is expected to bring many more commuters to the Lexington Avenue Line when it opens around the year 2022, further overwhelming its capacity.<ref>{{cite web |title=MTR 124, Whose Mega-Project ? – Planners Say LIRR-Grand Central Project Folly Without Better East Side Transit |url=http://www.tstc.org/bulletin/19970502/mtr12403.htm |website=www.tstc.org |access-date=February 9, 2016 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160215221222/http://www.tstc.org/bulletin/19970502/mtr12403.htm |archivedate=February 15, 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gothamgazette.com/index.php/opinion/5811-good-and-bad-news-on-second-avenue-subway-plotch-bloom|title=Good and Bad News on Second Avenue Subway|last=Bloom|first=Philip M. Plotch and Nicholas D.|website=Gotham Gazette|access-date=April 15, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nysun.com/new-york/east-side-access-draws-opponents/8991/|title=East Side Access Draws Opponents – The New York Sun|website=www.nysun.com|access-date=April 15, 2016}}</ref> By early 2016, delays as a result of overcrowding were up to more than 20,000 every month, four times the amount in 2012. The overcrowded trains have resulted in an increase of assaults because of tense commuters. With less platform space, more passengers are forced to be on the edge of the platform resulting in the increased possibility of passengers falling on the track. One possible solution that the MTA is considering is [[platform screen doors]], which exist on the [[AirTrain JFK]] to prevent passengers from falling onto the tracks. In order to prevent hitting passengers who could fall onto the tracks, train operators are being instructed to go into stations at lower speeds. The increased proximity of riders could result in the spread of contagious diseases.<ref name=":3">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/04/nyregion/surge-in-ridership-pushes-new-york-subway-to-limit.html|title=Surge in Ridership Pushes New York Subway to Limit|last=Fitzsimmons|first=Emma G.|date=May 3, 2016|newspaper=The New York Times|issn=0362-4331|access-date=May 3, 2016}}</ref> ==== Expanding service frequency via CBTC ==== {{further|Signaling of the New York City Subway#Automation}} The [[Second Avenue Subway]], which has provisions for [[communications-based train control]] (CBTC), was built to relieve pressure on the Lexington Avenue Line ({{NYCS trains|Lexington}}) by shifting an estimated 225,000 passengers.<ref name=":4">{{cite web| url = http://nymag.com/daily/intelligencer/2016/02/mta-one-day-625-delays.html| title = How a Single Mechanical Failure Sparked 625 MTA Delays| website = Daily Intelligencer| access-date = February 29, 2016| date = February 23, 2016}}</ref> In addition, CBTC installation on the [[IRT Flushing Line|Flushing Line]] is expected to increase the rate of trains per hour on the {{NYCS trains|Flushing}}, but little relief will come to other crowded lines until later. CBTC on the Flushing Line is expected to be completed in September 2017.<ref name=":12" /> The {{NYCS trains|Canarsie}}, which is overcrowded during rush hours, already has CBTC operation.<ref name="chan-January14">{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/01/14/nyregion/14subway.html |title=Subways Run by Computers Start on L Line This Summer |accessdate=May 24, 2007 |first=Sewell |last=Chan |authorlink=Sewell Chan |date=January 14, 2005 |newspaper=The New York Times}}</ref> The installation of CBTC has reduced the L's running time by 3%.<ref name=":4" /> Even with CBTC, there are limits on the potential increased service. For L service to be increased further, a power upgrade as well as additional space for the L to turn around at its Manhattan terminus, [[14th Street–Eighth Avenue (New York City Subway)|Eighth Avenue]], are needed.<ref name=":8" /> The MTA is also seeking to implement CBTC on the IND Queens Boulevard Line. CBTC is to be installed on this line in five phases, with phase one ([[50th Street (IND Queens Boulevard Line)|50th Street/8th Avenue]] and [[47th–50th Streets–Rockefeller Center (IND Sixth Avenue Line)|47th–50th Streets–Rockefeller Center]] to [[Kew Gardens–Union Turnpike (IND Queens Boulevard Line)|Kew Gardens–Union Turnpike]]) being included in the 2010–2014 capital budget. The $205.8 million contract for the installment of phase one was awarded in 2015 to [[Siemens]] and [[Thales Group|Thales]]. Planning for phase one started in 2015, with major engineering work to follow in 2017.<ref name="MTA-CBTC-July2015">{{cite web |url=http://www.mta.info/news-cbtc-new-york-city-transit-subway-l-7/2015/07/20/2058m-contracts-approved-install |title=MTA – news – $205.8M in Contracts Approved to Install Communications-Based Train Control System |publisher=[[Metropolitan Transportation Authority]]|date=July 20, 2015}}</ref><ref name="MTA-CapitalOversight-July2015">{{cite web|title=Capital Program Oversight Committee Meeting: July 2015|url=http://web.mta.info/mta/news/books/pdf/150720_1345_CPOC.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906021415/http://web.mta.info/mta/news/books/pdf/150720_1345_CPOC.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=September 6, 2015|publisher=[[Metropolitan Transportation Authority]]|accessdate=August 11, 2015|location=[[New York City]]|date=July 2015}}</ref> The total cost for the entire Queens Boulevard Line is estimated at over $900 million.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mta.info/mta/pdf/2010-14questions_and_answers_v2.pdf |title=MTA 2010–2014 Capital Program Questions and Answers |website=mta.info |publisher=Metropolitan Transportation Authority |access-date=March 16, 2016 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120302010603/http://mta.info/mta/pdf/2010-14questions_and_answers_v2.pdf |archivedate=March 2, 2012 }}</ref> The Queens Boulevard CBTC project is expected to be completed in 2021.<ref name=":12" /> Funding for CBTC on the [[IND Eighth Avenue Line]] is also provided in the 2015–2019 capital project.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.mta.info/mta/capital/pdf/TYN2015-2034.pdf|title=MTA Twenty-Year Capital Needs Assessment 2015–2034|date=|website=mta.info|publisher=Metropolitan Transportation Authority|access-date=March 18, 2016}}</ref> The MTA projects that 355 miles of track will receive CBTC signals by 2029, including most of the IND, as well as the [[IRT Lexington Avenue Line]] and the [[BMT Broadway Line]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.mta.info/mta/pdf/CP/NeedsAssessment.pdf|title=Twenty Year Capital Needs Assessment 2010–2029|date=|website=mta.info|publisher=Metropolitan Transportation Authority|access-date=March 18, 2016}}</ref> The MTA also is planning to install CBTC equipment on the [[IND Crosstown Line]], the [[BMT Fourth Avenue Line]] and the [[BMT Brighton Line]] before 2025.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.mta.info/capconstr/sas/documents/feis/chapter02.pdf |title=Second Avenue Subway FEIS Chapter 2 |website=mta.info |publisher=Metropolitan Transportation Authority |access-date=March 18, 2016 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140409063322/http://web.mta.info/capconstr/sas/documents/feis/chapter02.pdf |archivedate=April 9, 2014 }}</ref> As part of the installation of CBTC, the whole fleet of subway cars needs to be remodeled or replaced.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Service frequency and car capacity ==== Due to an increase of ridership, the MTA has tried to increase capacity wherever possible by adding more frequent service, specifically during the evening hours. However, this increase will not likely keep up with the growth of subway ridership.<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.streetsblog.org/2015/10/26/mta-service-bump-next-june-wont-keep-up-with-growth-in-subway-trips/ |title=MTA Service Bump Next June Won't Keep Up With Growth in Subway Trips {{!}} Streetsblog New York City|access-date=March 13, 2016|date=October 26, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://gothamist.com/2015/10/22/mta_subway_more.php |title=MTA Announces More Frequent Service On 11 Subway Lines, Plus The Times Square Shuttle |last=Whitford|first=Emma|website=Gothamist|access-date=March 13, 2016 |url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160301162736/http://gothamist.com/2015/10/22/mta_subway_more.php|archivedate=March 1, 2016}}</ref> Some lines have capacity for additional trains during peak times, but there are too few subway cars for this additional service to be operated.<ref name=":8" /> [[File:34th St Hudson Yards td 30 - R211 Open House.jpg|left|thumb|Mockup of the proposed experimental open-gangway configuration for the R211T subway car]] As part of the [[R211 (New York City Subway car)|R211]] subway car order, the MTA is planning to test a train of 10 [[Articulated train|open-gangway]] experimental prototype cars, which could increase capacity by up to 10% by utilizing space between cars. The order could be expanded to include up to 750 open-gangway cars.<ref name="MTACapital-15-19-2015">{{cite web| url = http://web.mta.info/capital/pdf/CapitalProgram2015-19_WEB%20v4%20FINAL_small.pdf | title = MTA Capital Program 2015–2019| date = October 28, 2015 | website = [[Metropolitan Transportation Authority|mta.info]] | publisher = [[Metropolitan Transportation Authority]]| accessdate = October 28, 2015}}</ref><ref name="MTA-CapitalOversight-Jan2016">{{cite web| url = http://web.mta.info/mta/news/books/pdf/160125_1345_CPOC.pdf | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160129071849/http://web.mta.info/mta/news/books/pdf/160125_1345_CPOC.pdf | url-status = dead| archive-date = January 29, 2016 | title = MTA Capital Program Oversight Committee Meeting: January 2016| date = January 2016 | website = mta.info| publisher = Metropolitan Transportation Authority| access-date = January 23, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.citylab.com/commute/2016/02/nyc-finally-gets-on-board-with-the-subway-car-of-the-future-open-gangway/459300/ | title = NYC: Look Forward to Finally Riding the Subway Car of the Future | website = CityLab| language = en-US| access-date = February 29, 2016}}</ref> ==== Platform crowd control ==== The MTA is also testing smaller ideas on some services. Starting in late 2015, 100 "station platform controllers" were deployed for the [[F (New York City Subway service)|F]], [[6 (New York City Subway service)|6]], and [[7 (New York City Subway service)|7]] trains, to manage the flow of passengers on and off crowded trains during morning rush hours. There were a total of 129 such employees, who also answer passengers' questions about subway directions, rather than having conductors answer them and thus delaying the trains.<ref>{{Citation|last=mtainfo |title=Platform Controller Program|date=November 16, 2015 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Tlc9Q5MVZXw|accessdate=December 13, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.mta.info/nyct/service/YourRideMatters/platformControllers.htm |title=Your Ride Matters Platform Controllers|last=|first=|date=2015 |website=web.mta.info|publisher=Metropolitan Transportation Authority|access-date=March 13, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.mta.info/nyct/service/YourRideMatters/StrategiesforImprovingService.htm |title=Your Ride Matters Working to Improve Your Ride|last=|first=|date=2015 |website=web.mta.info|publisher=Metropolitan Transportation Authority|access-date=March 13, 2016}}</ref><ref name=":14">{{cite web|url=https://nypost.com/2015/05/18/mta-fights-overcrowding-by-getting-trains-out-of-stations-faster/ |title=MTA to fight overcrowding by getting trains out of stations faster |last=Harshbarger|first=Rebecca|date=May 18, 2015 |website=New York Post|publisher=|access-date=December 13, 2016}}</ref> In early 2017, the test was expanded to the afternoon peak period with an increase of 35 platform conductors.<ref name=":12" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.mta.info/mta/budget/pdf/MTA%202017%20Budget%20and%202017-2020%20Financial%20Plan%20Adoption%20Materials.pdf |title=MTA 2017 Budget and 2017–2020 Financial Plan Adoption Materials|last=|first=|date=December 12, 2016|website=mta.info |publisher=Metropolitan Transportation Authority|access-date=December 13, 2016}}</ref> In November of the same year, 140 platform controllers and 90 conductors gained [[iPhone 6S]] devices so they could receive notifications of, and tell riders about, subway disruptions.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nydailynews.com/amp/new-york/mta-workers-iphones-riders-informed-delays-article-1.3617315 |title=MTA workers to get iPhones to keep riders informed during delays |last=Rivoli|first=Dan|date=November 7, 2017 |website=New York Daily News|language=en|access-date=November 8, 2017}}</ref> Subway guards, the predecessors to the platform controllers, were first used during the [[Great Depression]] and [[World War II]].<ref name=":3" /> Shortened "next stop" announcements on trains were being tested on the [[2 (New York City Subway service)|2]] and [[5 (New York City Subway service)|5]] trains. "Step aside" signs on the platforms, reminding boarding passengers to let departing passengers off the train first, are being tested at [[Grand Central–42nd Street (IRT Lexington Avenue Line)|Grand Central–42nd Street]], [[51st Street (IRT Lexington Avenue Line)|51st Street]], and [[86th Street (IRT Lexington Avenue Line)|86th Street]] on the Lexington Avenue Line.<ref name=":14" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.mta.info/nyct/service/YourRideMatters/StepAside.htm|title=mta.info {{!}} Your Ride Matters|website=web.mta.info|access-date=March 13, 2016}}</ref> Cameras would also be installed so the MTA could observe passenger overcrowding.<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.amny.com/transit/nyc-subway-overcrowding-plan-to-be-tested-out-on-some-lines-1.10447588 |title=NYC subway overcrowding plan to be tested out on some lines |work=AM New York |date=May 19, 2015 |accessdate=May 19, 2015 |author=Rivoli, Dan}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://nypost.com/2015/05/18/mta-fights-overcrowding-by-getting-trains-out-of-stations-faster/ |title=MTA to fight overcrowding by getting trains out of stations faster |work=New York Post |date=May 18, 2015 |accessdate=May 19, 2015 |author=Rebecca Harshbarger}}</ref><ref name="Scribd 2015">{{cite web | title=Subway Delay Presentation | website=Scribd | date=May 18, 2015 | url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/265785364/Subway-Delay-Presentation | accessdate=March 25, 2016}}</ref> In systems like the [[London Underground]], stations are simply closed off when they are overcrowded, such as the busy [[Oxford Circus tube station]], which had to close more than 100 times in a year. That type of restriction is not necessary yet on the New York City Subway, according to MTA spokesman Kevin Ortiz.<ref name=":3" /> === Subway flooding === [[File:New York City Subway 100 1888 edited.JPG|thumb|left|Rain from [[drainage]] pipes comes into a subway car|alt=Rain from drainage pipes comes into a subway car]] Service on the subway system is occasionally disrupted by flooding from rainstorms, even minor ones.<ref name="Mancini 2010">{{cite web | last=Mancini | first=John | title=Search Results | website=TWC News | date=October 2, 2010 | url=http://www.twcnews.com/archives/nyc/all-boroughs/2010/10/1/latest-rainstorm-no-match-for-city-s-subway-pumps-NYC_126428.old.html | accessdate=March 25, 2016 | url-status=dead | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306201115/http://www.twcnews.com/archives/nyc/all-boroughs/2010/10/1/latest-rainstorm-no-match-for-city-s-subway-pumps-NYC_126428.old.html | archivedate=March 6, 2016 | df=mdy-all }}</ref> Rainwater can disrupt signals underground and require the electrified [[third rail]] to be shut off. Every day, the MTA moves 13 million gallons of water when it is not raining.<ref name="Subway Flooding">{{cite web| url = http://cityroom.blogs.nytimes.com/2007/08/08/why-do-the-subways-flood/| title = Why the Subways Flood| last = Chan| first = Sewell| website = City Room| access-date = February 28, 2016| date = August 8, 2007}}</ref> Since 1992, $357 million has been used to improve 269 pump rooms. By August 2007, $115 million was earmarked to upgrade the remaining 18 pump rooms.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Donohue |first=Pete |title=Downpour swamps subways, stranding thousands of riders |newspaper=[[New York Daily News]] |date=August 9, 2007 |url=http://www.nydailynews.com/news/2007/08/09/2007-08-09_its_transit_hell_from_heavens.html |accessdate=August 23, 2007 |postscript=<!--None-->}}</ref> Despite these improvements, the transit system continues to experience flooding problems. On August 8, 2007, after more than {{convert|3|in|mm}} of rain fell within an hour, the subway system flooded, causing almost every subway service to either be disabled or seriously disrupted, effectively halting the morning rush.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nyc.gov/html/misc/html/2007/mta_updates.html|title=MTA Evening Update |date= August 8, 2007|website=www.nyc.gov|access-date=March 13, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2007-08/09/content_6018690.htm|title=Rain cripples New York City transit|website=www.chinadaily.com.cn|access-date=March 13, 2016}}</ref> This was the third incident in 2007 in which rain disrupted service. The system was disrupted on this occasion because the pumps and drainage system can handle only a rainfall rate of {{convert|1.75|in|mm}} per hour; the incident's severity was aggravated by the scant warning as to the severity of the storm.<ref name="Subway Flooding"/><ref name="flood report">{{cite web|title=August 8, 2007 Storm Report |publisher=[[Metropolitan Transportation Authority]] |date=September 20, 2007 |url=http://mta.info/mta/pdf/storm_report_2007.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=October 27, 2007 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071029025238/http://mta.info/mta/pdf/storm_report_2007.pdf |archivedate=October 29, 2007 }}</ref>{{Rp|10}} In addition, as part of a $130 million and an estimated 18-month project, the MTA began installing new subway grates in September 2008 in an attempt to prevent rain from overflowing into the subway system. The metallic structures, designed with the help of architectural firms and meant as a piece of public art, are placed atop existing grates but with a {{convert|3|to|4|in|mm|adj=on}} sleeve to prevent debris and rain from flooding the subway. The racks will at first be installed in the three most flood-prone areas as determined by hydrologists: [[Jamaica, Queens|Jamaica]], [[Tribeca]], and the [[Upper West Side]]. Each neighborhood has its own distinct design, some featuring a wave-like deck which increases in height and features seating (as in Jamaica), others with a flatter deck that includes seating and a bike rack.<ref>{{cite news |last=Dunlap |first=David W. |title=New Subway Grates Add Aesthetics to Flood Protection |work=The New York Times |date=September 19, 2008 |url=http://cityroom.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/09/19/new-subway-grates-add-aesthetics-to-flood-protection/ |accessdate=October 7, 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Lee |first=Jennifer |title=Three in One – Flood Protection, Benches and Bike Parking |work=The New York Times |date=October 1, 2008 |url=http://cityroom.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/10/01/three-in-one-flood-protection-benches-and-bike-parking-in-a-new-design/ |accessdate=October 7, 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://secondavenuesagas.com/2010/04/16/new-raised-storm-grates-earn-architectural-praise/|title=New raised storm grates earn architectural praise|website=Second Ave. Sagas|access-date=March 13, 2016|date=April 16, 2010}}</ref> In October 2012, [[Hurricane Sandy]] caused [[Hurricane Sandy in New York|significant damage to New York City]], and many subway tunnels were inundated with floodwater. The subway opened with limited service two days after the storm and was running at 80 percent capacity within five days; however, some infrastructure needed years to repair. A year after the storm, MTA spokesperson Kevin Ortiz said, "This was unprecedented in terms of the amount of damage that we were seeing throughout the system."<ref>{{cite web |last1=Boissoneault |first1=Lorraine |title=Superstorm Sandy Anniversary – How the Subway Survived |url=http://www.weather.com/storms/hurricane/news/devastating-effects-water-how-superstorm-sandy-shut-down-subway-swamped-city |website=The Weather Channel |accessdate=November 24, 2015}}</ref><ref name=":9">{{cite web|url=http://subwaynut.com/sandy/|title=Hurricane Sandy: Effects on Subway & Rail Service|last=Cox|first=Jeremiah|website=subwaynut.com|access-date=March 13, 2016}}</ref> The storm flooded nine of the system's 14 underwater tunnels, many subway lines, and several subway yards, as well as completely destroying a portion of the [[IND Rockaway Line]] and much of the [[South Ferry (IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line)|South Ferry]] terminal station. Reconstruction required many weekend closures on several lines as well as the [[IND Queens Boulevard Line|53rd Street Tunnel]], [[IRT Seventh Avenue Line|Clark Street Tunnel]], [[IND Eighth Avenue Line|Cranberry Street Tunnel]], [[IRT Eastern Parkway Line|Joralemon Street Tunnel]] and [[IRT Flushing Line|Steinway Tunnel]]; several long-term closures were also included on the [[IND Crosstown Line|Greenpoint Tunnel]], [[Montague Street Tunnel]], Rockaway Line, and the South Ferry station, with [[14th Street Tunnel shutdown|a partial closure]] planned for the [[BMT Canarsie Line|14th Street Tunnel]]; some reconstruction is expected to last until at least 2020.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.mta.info/sandy/nyct_girds.htm|title=mta.info {{!}} Superstorm Sandy: One Year Later|website=web.mta.info|publisher=[[Metropolitan Transportation Authority]]|access-date=July 23, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160803224532/http://web.mta.info/sandy/nyct_girds.htm|archive-date=August 3, 2016|url-status=dead|df=mdy-all}}</ref> <gallery mode="packed" heights="150"> File:Pumping125Street.jpg|Flooding at [[125th Street (IND Eighth Avenue Line)|125th Street]] after a water main break File:Bowling Green Station Entrance in Flood Prep vc.jpg|Preparations for [[Hurricane Sandy]] at [[Bowling Green (IRT Lexington Avenue Line)|Bowling Green]] File:South Ferry Subway Station Entrance under Water vc.jpg|alt=New South Ferry station after Hurricane Sandy|[[South Ferry (IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line)|South Ferry]] after Hurricane Sandy File:Pump Train in Cranberry Street Tunnel after Hurricane Sandy vc.jpg|alt=A pump train is seen removing water from the Cranberry Street Tube shortly after Hurricane Sandy. The water is brown in color.|Pump train in the [[Cranberry Street Tunnel|Cranberry Street Tube]] after Hurricane Sandy </gallery> ===Full and partial subway closures=== On August 27, 2011, due to the approach of [[Hurricane Irene (2011)|Hurricane Irene]], the MTA suspended subway service at noon in anticipation of heavy flooding on tracks and in tunnels. It was the first weather-caused shutdown in the history of the system.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.nypost.com/p/news/local/mass_transit_shutdown_mode_ge2t81TM8fgggFhhBkbHoJ |title=Hurricane Irene halts NY, NJ mass transit |work=The New York Post |author1=Aaron Feis, Sabrina Ford |author2=Jennifer Fermino |lastauthoramp=yes |date=August 27, 2011 |accessdate=August 28, 2011}}</ref> Service was restored by August 29.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/travel/nycs-subway-service-running-ok-monday-after-irene/2011/08/29/gIQA1NnInJ_story.html?wpisrc=nl_headlines |title=NYC's subway service running OK Monday after Irene |work=The Washington Post |date=August 29, 2011 |accessdate=August 29, 2011}}{{Dead link|date=March 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ny1.com/content/top_stories/145962/straphangers-have-relatively-easy-monday-morning-rush |title=Straphangers Have Relatively Easy Monday Morning Rush |work=[[NY1]] |first=Roger |last=Clark |date=August 29, 2011 |accessdate=August 30, 2011 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121005120801/http://www.ny1.com/content/top_stories/145962/straphangers-have-relatively-easy-monday-morning-rush |archivedate=October 5, 2012 }}</ref> On October 29, 2012, another full closure was ordered before the arrival of [[Hurricane Sandy]].<ref name=":9" /> All services on the subway, the [[Long Island Rail Road]] and [[Metro-North]] were gradually shut down that day at 7:00 P.M., to protect passengers, employees and equipment from the coming storm.<ref>{{Cite news| url = http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/10/28/mta-shutdown-hurricane-sandy-subway-cuomo_n_2034337.html| title = MTA Shuts Down Sunday Night, As Hurricane Nears| newspaper = Huffington Post| access-date = February 28, 2016| date = October 28, 2012}}</ref> The storm [[Effects of Hurricane Sandy in New York|caused serious damage]] to the system, especially the [[IND Rockaway Line]], upon which many sections between [[Howard Beach–JFK Airport (IND Rockaway Line)|Howard Beach–JFK Airport]] and [[Hammels Wye]] on the [[Rockaway, Queens|Rockaway Peninsula]] were heavily damaged, leaving it essentially isolated from the rest of the system.<ref name="asandy">{{cite web|url=http://www.mta.info/nyct/service/RebuildingRockawaysAfterHurricanSandy.htm |title=Rebuilding the Rockaways After Hurricane Sandy |publisher=Metropolitan Transportation Authority |work=mta.info |accessdate=November 18, 2012 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121111173605/http://www.mta.info/nyct/service/RebuildingRockawaysAfterHurricanSandy.htm |archivedate=November 11, 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://newyork.cbslocal.com/2013/05/16/cuomo-mta-to-restore-a-train-subway-service-to-the-rockaways/|title=Cuomo: MTA To Restore A Train Subway Service To The Rockaways « CBS New York|publisher=|date=May 16, 2013}}</ref> This required the NYCTA to truck in 20 [[R32 (New York City Subway car)|R32]] subway cars to the line to provide some interim service (temporarily designated the {{NYCS|H}}).<ref>{{cite web| url = https://twitter.com/MTAInsider/status/270625005337993216| title = MTA on Twitter| work = Twitter}}</ref><ref name="SandyRecoveryMap">{{cite web | url=http://alert.mta.info/sites/default/files/pdf/hurricane_recovery_map_bw_Nov_20_rock_shtl.pdf | title=Hurricane Sandy Recovery Service As of November 20 | publisher=Metropolitan Transportation Authority | date=November 20, 2012 | accessdate=March 25, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = http://mta.info/news/stories/?story=878| title = MTA News| work = mta.info}}</ref> Also, several of the system's tunnels under the [[East River]] were flooded by the storm surge.<ref>{{youtube|mhJrrGNvcFk|Raw: Sandy Leaves NYC Subways Flooded}}</ref> [[South Ferry (IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line)|South Ferry]] suffered serious water damage and did not reopen until April 4, 2013 by restoring service to the older [[South Ferry loops|loop-configured station]] that had been replaced in 2009;<ref name="Mann 2013">{{cite web | last=Mann | first=Ted | title=Downtown, Old Stop on Subway to Reopen | website=WSJ | date=March 8, 2013 | url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424127887323628804578346922530133006 | accessdate=March 25, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://cityroom.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/03/08/old-subway-station-will-temporarily-replace-new-station-damaged-by-sandy/|title=Storm Damage Prompts Return of Old Subway Stop|last=Flegenheimer|first=Matt|date=March 8, 2013|work=The New York Times}}</ref> the stub-end terminal tracks remained out of service until June 2017.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://web.mta.info/nyct/service/RestoringSouthFerryStation.htm |title=mta.info – Restoring South Ferry Station |work=mta.info}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://web.mta.info/nyct/service/SouthFerryStationReopenApril2013.htm |title=mta.info – Old South Ferry Station to Reopen for Service |work=mta.info}}</ref><ref name="bidprocesssouthferry">{{cite news |last1=Donohue |first1=Peter |title=$194 million contract awarded to upgrade South Ferry subway station |url=http://www.nydailynews.com/new-york/194-million-contract-awarded-upgrade-south-ferry-station-article-1.2037938 |accessdate=February 7, 2015 |work=Daily News |publisher=NYDailyNews.com |date=December 8, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Furfaro |first=Danielle |title=Sandy-ravaged subway entrance to be closed 9 months |website=New York Post |date=October 29, 2015 |url=https://nypost.com/2015/10/29/sandy-ravaged-subway-station-to-be-closed-for-nearly-a-year/ |accessdate=October 31, 2015}}</ref> Since 2015, there have been three blizzard-related subway shutdowns. On January 26, 2015, another full closure was ordered by [[New York Governor]] [[Andrew Cuomo]] due to the [[January 2015 nor'easter]], which was originally projected to leave New York City with {{convert|20|to|30|in|cm}} of snow.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/01/27/nyregion/new-york-blizzard.html?_r=0 |title=Snowstorm Barrels Into Northeast; New York City Subways and Buses Are Halted |work=NY Times |date=January 26, 2015 |accessdate=January 26, 2015 |author=Marc Santora}}</ref> The next day, the subway system was partially reopened.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://gothamist.com/2015/01/27/snowpe_back_to_work.php |title=[Update] NYC Travel Ban Lifted, MTA Service Will Resume This Morning |work=Gothamist |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150129020044/http://gothamist.com/2015/01/27/snowpe_back_to_work.php |archivedate=January 29, 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://abcnews.go.com/US/blizzard-2015-travel-bans-lifted-snowfall-totals-fall/story?id=28505431 |title=Blizzard 2015: New England Gets Walloped by More Than 2 Feet of Snow |author=ABC News |work=ABC News|date=January 28, 2015 }}</ref> A number of New York City residents criticized Cuomo's decision to shut down the subway system for the first time ever due to snow. The nor'easter dropped much less snow in the city than originally expected, totaling only {{convert|9.8|in|cm}} in [[Central Park]].<ref name="controversy">{{cite news |last1=Flegenheimer |first1=Matt |title=Leaders in New York and New Jersey Defend Shutdown for a Blizzard That Wasn't |url=http://nytimes.com/2015/01/28/nyregion/new-york-blizzard.html?referrer= |website=nytimes.com |accessdate=January 28, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Dolce |first1=Chris |last2=Lam |first2=Linda |last3=Wiltgen |first3=Nick |title=Juno: Heavy Snow Continues in New England |url=http://www.weather.com/storms/winter/news/winter-storm-juno-blizzard-boston-nyc-new-england |website=Weather.com |publisher=The Weather Channel, LLC |accessdate=January 28, 2015}}</ref> On January 23, 2016, a partial subway closure was ordered due to the [[January 2016 United States blizzard]], wherein all aboveground stations were closed; the underground lines remained open during the blizzard.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/2016/01/23/winter-storn-jonas-shuts-down-nyc/79226352/|title=NYC grinds to a halt amid deadly East Coast blizzard|date=January 23, 2016|work=USA TODAY}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://secondavenuesagas.com/2016/01/23/subways-running-for-now-bus-service-suspended-at-noon/ |title=Above-ground subway service shutting down at 4 p.m.; bus service suspended at noon |work=Second Ave. Sagas|date=January 23, 2016 }}</ref> Most of the subway resumed service the next day, with some lingering delays due to an average of {{convert|26|in|cm}} of snow in the area.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nbcnewyork.com/news/local/Snowbound-NYC-Clings-to--366308291.html |title=Mass Transit Ramping Back Up After Blizzard |work=NBC New York}}</ref> On March 13, 2017, another partial subway closure of all aboveground stations was ordered for the next day due to the [[March 2017 nor'easter]], which was forecast to bring up to {{Convert|20|in|cm}} of snow to the area.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dnainfo.com/new-york/20170313/cobble-hill/snow-commute-subway-bus-de-blasio-ferry-lirr-metro-north-mta|title=Above-Ground Subway Service Shuts Down at 4 a.m. Tuesday, Cuomo Says|last=Gardiner|first=Aidan|last2=Honan|first2=Katie|date=March 13, 2017|website=DNAinfo New York|access-date=March 14, 2017|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170314154944/https://www.dnainfo.com/new-york/20170313/cobble-hill/snow-commute-subway-bus-de-blasio-ferry-lirr-metro-north-mta|archivedate=March 14, 2017}}</ref> ===Litter and rodents=== {{Further|Rats in New York City}} Litter accumulation in the subway system is perennial. In the 1970s and 1980s, dirty trains and platforms, as well as graffiti were a serious problem. The situation had improved since then, but the 2010 budget crisis, which caused over 100 of the cleaning staff to lose their jobs, threatened to curtail trash removal.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kabak |first1=Benjamin |title=Less Transit money leads to dirtier stations |url=http://secondavenuesagas.com/2009/06/22/less-transit-money-leads-to-dirtier-stations/ |website=Second Ave. Sagas |accessdate=November 24, 2015|date=June 22, 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Kabak |first1=Benjamin |title=ABC 7: MTA cleaners slacking on the job |url=http://secondavenuesagas.com/2010/09/30/abc-7-mta-cleaners-slacking-on-the-job/ |website=Second Ave. Sagas |accessdate=November 24, 2015|date=September 30, 2010 }}</ref> Every day, the MTA removes 40 tons of trash from 3,500 trash receptacles.<ref name=":17">{{Cite news|url=http://www.amny.com/transit/mta-ends-trash-can-removal-pilot-program-in-subway-stations-1.13330827|title=MTA trashes pilot program that removed bins from stations|last=Barone|first=Vincent|date=March 28, 2017|work=am New York|access-date=April 2, 2017|language=en}}</ref> The New York City Subway system is infested with [[rat]]s.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.upi.com/Top_News/2009/03/24/NYC-takes-aim-at-subway-rats/UPI-79751237928283/ |title=NYC takes aim at subway rats |work=[[United Press International]] |date=March 24, 2009 |accessdate=June 27, 2009}}</ref> Rats are sometimes seen on platforms,<ref>"[http://www.newsday.com/long-island/transportation/rats-rule-the-subway-rails-platforms-1.883713 Rats rule the subway rails, platforms"], Matthew Sweeney, ''Newsday'', August 13, 2008</ref> and are commonly seen foraging through garbage thrown onto the tracks. They are believed to pose a health hazard, and on rare instances have been known to bite humans.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.amny.com/urbanite-1.812039/rat-bites-woman-in-subway-station-as-she-waits-for-train-1.3152338 |title=Rat bites woman in subway station as she waits for train |work=amNewYork |first=Marc |last=Beja |date=September 8, 2011 |accessdate=September 12, 2011 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111128110652/http://www.amny.com/urbanite-1.812039/rat-bites-woman-in-subway-station-as-she-waits-for-train-1.3152338 |archivedate=November 28, 2011 }}</ref> Subway stations notorious for rat infestation include [[Chambers Street – World Trade Center (IND Eighth Avenue Line)|Chambers Street]], [[Jay Street–MetroTech (IND Fulton Street Line)|Jay Street–MetroTech]], [[West Fourth Street – Washington Square (New York City Subway)|West Fourth Street]], [[Spring Street (IND Eighth Avenue Line)|Spring Street]] and [[145th Street (IRT Lenox Avenue Line)|145th Street]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.brooklyntoday.info:80/component/content/article/2-general-news/152-rats-in-subway-are-health-hazard-for-new-yorkers.html |title=Rats in subway are health hazard for New Yorkers |date=January 12, 2010 |publisher=Brooklyn Today – The Brooklyn News Network |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100313194115/http://www.brooklyntoday.info/component/content/article/2-general-news/152-rats-in-subway-are-health-hazard-for-new-yorkers.html |archive-date=March 13, 2010 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Decades of efforts to eradicate or simply thin the rat population in the system have been unsuccessful. In March 2009, the Transit Authority announced a series of changes to its vermin control strategy, including new [[Rodenticide|poison]] formulas and experimental trap designs.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.nypost.com/seven/03242009/news/regionalnews/you_dirty_rats__new_traps_target_subway__161096.htm |title=You Dirty Rats! New Traps Target Subway Vermin |first=Tom |last=Namako |work=New York Post |date=March 24, 2009 |accessdate=June 27, 2009}}</ref> In October 2011, they announced a new initiative to clean 25 subway stations, along with their garbage rooms, of rat infestations.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ny1.com/content/news_beats/transit/148410/mta-to-launch-new-cleaning-initiative-to-combat-rat-infestations |title=MTA To Launch New Cleaning Initiative To Combat Rat Infestations |work=[[NY1]] |first=Tina |last=Redwine |date=October 5, 2011 |accessdate=October 5, 2011 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111008132358/http://www.ny1.com/content/news_beats/transit/148410/mta-to-launch-new-cleaning-initiative-to-combat-rat-infestations |archivedate=October 8, 2011 }}</ref> That same month, the MTA announced a pilot program aimed at reducing levels of garbage in the subways by removing all garbage bins from the subway platforms. The initiative was tested at the [[Eighth Street–New York University (BMT Broadway Line)|Eighth Street–New York University]] and [[Flushing–Main Street (IRT Flushing Line)|Flushing–Main Street]] stations.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.metro.us/newyork/local/article/1005728--mta-removes-bins-hoping-to-reduce-trash |title=MTA removes bins hoping to reduce trash |work=Metro |first=Emily |last=Epstein |date=October 24, 2011 |accessdate=December 13, 2011 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111027192558/http://www.metro.us/newyork/local/article/1005728--mta-removes-bins-hoping-to-reduce-trash |archivedate=October 27, 2011 }}</ref> As of March 2016, stations along the [[BMT Jamaica Line]], [[BMT Myrtle Avenue Line]], and various other stations had their garbage cans removed due to the success of the program.<ref name="auto4">{{cite web|url=http://www.mta.info/news-trash-new-york-city-transit-subway/2015/08/06/mta-new-york-city-transit-trash-can-free-stations|title=MTA {{!}} news {{!}} MTA New York City Transit: Trash Can Free Stations Pilot Yields Positive Results|website=www.mta.info|access-date=March 11, 2016}}</ref> In March 2017 the program was ended as a failure.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.amny.com/transit/mta-ends-trash-can-removal-pilot-program-in-subway-stations-1.13330827|title=MTA trashes pilot program that removed bins from stations|website=am New York|language=en|access-date=December 24, 2018}}</ref> The old vacuum trains that are designed to remove trash from the tracks are ineffective and often broken.<ref name="auto4" /> A 2016 study by Travel Math had the New York City Subway listed as the dirtiest subway system in the country based on the number of viable bacteria cells.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://247wallst.com/transportation/2016/03/10/new-york-city-has-dirtiest-subway-system/|title=New York City Has Dirtiest Subway System|website=247wallst.com|access-date=March 13, 2016}}</ref> In August 2016, the MTA announced that it had initiated Operation Track Sweep, an aggressive plan to dramatically reduce the amount of trash on the tracks and in the subway environment. This was expected to reduce track fires and train delays. As part of the plan, the frequency of station track cleaning would be increased, and 94 stations would be cleaned per two-week period, an increase from the previous rate of 34 stations every two weeks.<ref name=":17" /> The MTA launched an intensive two-week, system-wide cleaning on September 12, 2016.<ref>{{cite web | title= NYC Transit – MTA Launches Phase 2 of Operation Track Sweep: A Two-Week Track Cleaning Blitz | website=MTA | date=September 12, 2016 | url=http://www.mta.info/press-release/nyc-transit/mta-launches-phase-2-operation-track-sweep-two-week-track-cleaning-blitz | access-date=December 21, 2018}}</ref> Three new powerful vacuum trains were later ordered; one arrived in 2018, and the others are expected in 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ny1.com/nyc/all-boroughs/news/2018/10/31/new-vacuum-trains-aim-to-suck-trash-in-its-tracks|title=New Vacuum Trains Aim to Suck Trash Right in its Tracks|website=www.ny1.com|language=en|access-date=December 21, 2018}}</ref> The operation will also include 27 new refuse cars <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mta.info/news-operation-track-sweep-new-york-city-transit-subway-tracks/2016/08/05/sustained-mta-effort-keep|title=MTA {{!}} news {{!}} Sustained MTA Effort to Keep the Tracks Clean Includes Two-Week Track Cleaning Blitz at All 469 Subway Stations and New Cleaning Equipment|website=www.mta.info|access-date=August 10, 2016}}</ref> On March 28, 2017, the [[New York State Comptroller]], [[Thomas DiNapoli]], announced the MTA's pilot program to remove trash cans had been scrapped. His office had criticized the agency for the program.<ref name=":17" /> <gallery mode="packed" heights="150"> File:NYCS tagged IRT train.jpg|alt=A subway car covered with graffiti can be seen. The image has faint amounts of yellow throughout.|Typical subway car exterior in the late 1970s File:Rats in the NYC Subway 2 vc.jpg|Measures against rats File:Trash in the NYC Subway vc.jpg|alt=Notice about trash|Program for removing garbage bins from stations </gallery> ===Noise=== Rolling stock on the New York City Subway produces high levels of noise that exceed guidelines set by the [[World Health Organization]] and the [[U.S. Environmental Protection Agency]].<ref name="ScienceDaily 2016">{{cite web | title=New York Subway Noise Levels Can Result In Hearing Loss For Daily Riders | website=ScienceDaily | date=March 25, 2016 | url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/10/061012185519.htm | accessdate=March 25, 2016}}</ref> In 2006, [[Columbia Mailman School of Public Health|Columbia University's Mailman School of Public Health]] found noise levels averaged 95 [[decibel|decibel (dB)]] inside subway cars and 94 dB on platforms.<ref name="ScienceDaily 2016" /> Daily exposure to noise at such levels for as little as 30 minutes can lead to hearing loss.<ref name="ScienceDaily 2016" /> Noise on one in 10 platforms exceeded 100 dB.<ref name="ScienceDaily 2016" /> Under WHO and EPA guidelines, noise exposure at that level is limited to 1.5 minutes.<ref name="ScienceDaily 2016" /> A subsequent study by Columbia and the [[University of Washington]] found higher average noise levels in the subway (80.4 dB) than on commuter trains including [[Port Authority Trans-Hudson|Port Authority Trans-Hudson (PATH)]] (79.4 dB), [[Metro-North]] (75.1 dB) and [[Long Island Rail Road|Long Island Rail Road (LIRR)]] (74.9 dB).<ref name="Internet Archive 2010">{{cite web | title=Got Ear Plugs? You May Want to Sport Them on the Subway and Other.... – News – Mailman School of Public Health | website=Internet Archive | date=June 24, 2010 | url=http://www.mailman.columbia.edu/news/article?article=761 | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100624104046/http://www.mailman.columbia.edu/news/article?article=761 | archivedate=June 24, 2010 | accessdate=March 25, 2016}}</ref> Since the decibel scale is a [[logarithmic scale]], sound at 95 dB is 10 times more intense than at 85 dB, 100 times more intense than at 75 dB, and so forth.<ref name="Internet Archive 2010" /> In the second study, peak subway noise registered at 102.1 dB.<ref name="Internet Archive 2010" /> For the construction of the Second Avenue Subway, the MTA, with the engineering firm Arup, worked to reduce the noise levels in stations. In order to reduce noise for all future stations starting with the Second Avenue Subway, the MTA is investing in low-vibration track using ties encased in concrete-covered rubber and neoprene pads. Continuously welded rail, which is also being installed, reduces the noise being made by the wheels of trains. The biggest change that is going to be made is in the design of stations. Current stations were built with tile and stone, which bounce sound everywhere, while newer stations will have the ceilings lined with absorbent fiberglass or mineral wool that will direct sound toward the train and not the platform. With less noise from the trains, platform announcements could be heard more clearly. They will be clearer with speakers spaced periodically on the platform, angled so that announcements can be heard by the riders. The Second Avenue Subway has the first stations to test this technology.<ref name="Marshall 2016">{{Cite journal | last=Marshall | first=Aarian | title=Get Ready for Quieter NYC Subway Stations (Yes, It's Possible) | journal=WIRED | date=June 16, 2016 | url=https://www.wired.com/2016/06/get-ready-quieter-nyc-subway-stations-yes-possible/ | accessdate=June 19, 2016}}</ref> ==Public relations== The [[New York City Board of Transportation]], and its successor, [[New York City Transit Authority|MTA New York City Transit]], has had numerous events that promote increased ridership of their transit system. === Miss Subways === {{main|Miss Subways}} [[File:NYC Transit Museum Miss Subways.jpg|thumb|An advertisement for Miss Subways at the [[New York Transit Museum]]|alt=An advertisement for Miss Subways at the New York Transit Museum]] From 1941 to 1976, the Board of Transportation/[[New York City Transit Authority]] sponsored the "Miss Subways" publicity campaign.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.nydailynews.com/new-york/subways-nyc-iconic-beauty-queens-gallery-1.1311904| title = Miss Subways through the years: The iconic NYC beauty queens then and now| website = NY Daily News| access-date = February 28, 2016}}</ref> In the musical ''[[On the Town (musical)|On the Town]]'', the character Miss Turnstiles is based on the Miss Subways campaign.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Bayen |first=Ann |title=Token Women |newspaper=New York Magazine |volume= |issue= |date=March 29, 1976 |page=46 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y-MCAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA46&lpg=PA46&dq=on+the+town+miss+subway&q=on%20the%20town%20miss%20subway |publisher=New York Media, LLC |postscript=<!--None-->}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Klein |first=Alvin |title='On the Town' in Revival at Goodspeed Opera |newspaper=The New York Times |volume= |issue= |date=June 6, 1993 |page= |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1993/06/06/nyregion/theater-on-the-town-in-revival-at-goodspeed-opera.html?scp=6&sq=miss%20subway%20on%20the%20town&st=cse |postscript=<!--None-->}}</ref> The campaign was resurrected in 2004, for one year, as "Ms. Subways". It was part of the 100th anniversary celebrations. The monthly campaign, which included the winners' photos and biographical blurbs on placards in subway cards, featured such winners as [[Mona Freeman]] and prominent New York City restaurateur [[Ellen Goodman]]. The winner of this contest was Caroline Sanchez-Bernat, an actress from [[Morningside Heights]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://gothamist.com/2004/10/26/ms_subway_2004_crowned.php |title=Ms. Subway 2004 Crowned |work=Gothamist |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131026000826/http://gothamist.com/2004/10/26/ms_subway_2004_crowned.php |archivedate=October 26, 2013 }}</ref> === Subway Series === {{main|Subway Series}} [[File:NYCS R142 subway series 2000 Yankees.jpg|thumb|An R142 subway train in a special livery for the 2000 Subway Series]] Subway Series is a term applied to any series of baseball games between New York City teams, as opposing teams can travel to compete merely by using the subway system. Subway Series is a term long used in New York, going back to series between the [[Brooklyn Dodgers]] or [[New York Giants (NL)|New York Giants]] and the [[New York Yankees]] in the 1940s and 1950s. Today, the term is used to describe the [[Mets–Yankees rivalry|rivalry]] between the Yankees and the [[New York Mets]]. During the [[2000 World Series]], cars on the '''[[4 (New York City Subway service)|4]]''' [[4 (New York City Subway service)|train]] (which stopped at [[Yankee Stadium (1923)|Yankee Stadium]]) were painted with Yankee colors, while cars on the '''[[7 (New York City Subway service)|7]]''' [[7 (New York City Subway service)|train]] (which stopped at [[Shea Stadium]]) had Mets colors.<ref>{{cite web|title=Mets/Yankees Metrocard|url=http://www.mta.nyc.ny.us/mtacc/demo/doc205.htm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/19970614003443/http://www.mta.nyc.ny.us/mtacc/demo/doc205.htm|archivedate=June 14, 1997|date=June 14, 1997|access-date=February 15, 2016}}</ref> The term could also be applied to the rivalry between the [[New York Knicks]] and the [[Brooklyn Nets]] of the [[National Basketball Association]], or the [[New York Rangers]] and the [[New York Islanders]] of the [[National Hockey League]] ever since the Nets and the Islanders moved to the [[Barclays Center]] in Brooklyn.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Nets Move to Brooklyn With Legitimacy in Sight |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/05/sports/basketball/nets-move-to-brooklyn-with-legitimacy-in-sight.html |newspaper=The New York Times |date=July 4, 2012|access-date = February 7, 2016 |issn=0362-4331 |first=Harvey |last=Araton}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=The NHL's coming Subway Series: Islanders vs. Rangers|url=http://www.sportingnews.com/nhl-news/4636329-hockeys-new-subway-series-big-apple-new-york-islanders-new-york-rangers-nhl-barclays-center-madison-square-garden-brooklyn-brett-yormark |newspaper=The Sporting News |date=February 21, 2015|access-date = April 11, 2016 |first=Michael |last=McCarthy}}</ref> ===Holiday Train=== [[File:Nostalgia train 2nd Av a jeh.jpg|thumb|Nostalgia Train at [[Second Avenue (IND Sixth Avenue Line)|Second Avenue]] station in 2016|alt=Nostalgia Train at Second Avenue station in 2016]] Since 2003, the MTA has operated a Holiday Train on Sundays in November and December, from the first Sunday after Thanksgiving to the Sunday before Christmas Day.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://web.mta.info/mta/news/releases/?en=081125-NYCT188 |title=Press Releases |work=mta.info }}{{dead link|date=March 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> This train was made of cars from the [[Arnines|R1 through R9]] series, which have been preserved by Railway Preservation Corp. and the [[New York Transit Museum]]. The route made all stops between [[Second Avenue (IND Sixth Avenue Line)|Second Avenue]] in Manhattan and [[Queens Plaza (IND Queens Boulevard Line)|Queens Plaza]] in Queens via the [[IND Sixth Avenue Line]] and the [[IND Queens Boulevard Line|IND Queens Boulevard]] Line. In 2011, the train operated on Saturdays instead of Sundays.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Watch: MTA Adds A Dose Of 'Nostalgia' With Vintage Trains |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/11/28/mta-adds-nostalgia-train-_n_1116571.html |newspaper=Huffington Post|access-date = February 10, 2016|date=November 28, 2011 }}</ref> In 2017, the train ran between [[Second Avenue (IND Sixth Avenue Line)|Second Avenue]] and [[96th Street (Second Avenue Subway)|96th Street]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.metro.us/things-to-do/new-york/holiday-train-mta-nostalgia-subway-buses-2017|title=Ride into the past with the MTA Holiday Nostalgia Train|date=November 20, 2017|work=Metro US|access-date=December 22, 2017|language=en}}</ref> The contract, car numbers (and year built) used were [[Arnines]], specifically [[R1 (New York City Subway car)|R1]] 100 (built 1930), [[R1 (New York City Subway car)|R1]] 381 (1931), [[R4 (New York City Subway car)|R4]] 401 (1932), [[R4 (New York City Subway car)|R4]] 484 (1932) – Bulls Eye lighting and a test P.A. system added in 1946, [[R6 (New York City Subway car)|R6]]-3 1000 (1935), [[R6 (New York City Subway car)|R6]]-1 1300 (1937), [[R7A (New York City Subway car)|R7A]] 1575 (1938) – rebuilt in 1947 as a prototype for the [[R10 (New York City Subway car)|R10]] subway car, and [[R9 (New York City Subway car)|R9]] 1802 (1940).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://forgotten-ny.com/2011/12/holiday-subway/|title=Holiday Subway|publisher=Forgotten New York|website=forgotten-ny.com|access-date=March 25, 2016}}</ref> ===Full train wraps=== Since 2008, the MTA has tested full train wraps on [[42nd Street Shuttle]] rolling stock. In full train wraps, advertising entirely covers the interiors and exteriors of the train, as opposed to other routes, whose stock generally only displays advertising on placards inside the train.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://untappedcities.com/2014/03/11/untapped-mailbag-advertising-takeovers-on-the-shuttle-to-times-square/|title=Untapped Mailbag: Advertising Takeovers on the Shuttle to Times Square|work=Untapped Cities|accessdate=May 2, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://cityroom.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/10/02/a-full-body-wrap-for-times-sq-shuttle/|title=A 'Full Body Wrap' for Times Sq. Shuttle|last=Lee|first=Jennifer|date=October 2, 2008|newspaper=The New York Times|access-date=January 15, 2017|issn=0362-4331|via=}}</ref> While most advertisements are well received, a few advertisements have been controversial. Among the more contentious wraps that were withdrawn are a 2015 ad for the TV show ''[[The Man in the High Castle (TV series)|The Man in the High Castle]]'', which featured a [[Flag of Germany#Nazi Germany|Nazi flag]],<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2015/nov/25/nazi-inspired-ads-for-the-man-in-the-high-castle-pulled-from-new-york-subway|title=Nazi-inspired ads for The Man in the High Castle pulled from New York subway|last=Reuters|date=November 25, 2015|work=The Guardian|access-date=October 4, 2017|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theverge.com/2015/11/24/9793096/amazon-pulls-man-in-the-high-castle-nazi-subway-ads|title=Amazon pulls Nazi symbols from New York subway ad campaign|last=Robertson|first=Adi|date=November 24, 2015|work=The Verge|access-date=October 4, 2017}}</ref> and an ad for [[Fox Sports 1]], in which a shuttle train and half of its seats were plastered with negative quotes about the [[New York Knicks]], one of the city's [[National Basketball Association|NBA]] teams.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.nydailynews.com/sports/basketball/knicks/hopeless-knicks-greet-nyc-subway-riders-due-fs1-ad-campaign-article-1.3538210|title='Hopeless' Knicks greet NYC subway riders due to FS1 ad campaign|last=Bodner|first=Brett|date=October 3, 2017|work=NY Daily News|access-date=October 4, 2017|last2=Becker|first2=Jake|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/early-lead/wp/2017/10/03/sit-here-if-youre-hopeless-nyc-subway-ads-taunt-knicks-fans/|title=Knicks owner James Dolan reportedly ‘furious’ at Fox Sports ‘hopeless’ ads|last=Bonesteel|first=Matt|date=October 3, 2017|work=Washington Post|access-date=October 4, 2017|last2=Bieler|first2=Des|language=en-US|issn=0190-8286}}</ref> Other routes have seen limited implementation of full train wraps. For instance, in 2010, one [[R142A (New York City Subway car)|R142A]] train set on the [[6 (New York City Subway service)|6]] route was wrapped with a [[Target Corporation|Target]] advertisement.<ref>{{cite web | last=Associated Press | title=MTA Wraps Subway in Train-Length Ad | website=NBC New York | date=June 28, 2010 | url=http://www.nbcnewyork.com/news/local/MTA-Wraps-Subway-in-Train-Length-Ad-97355324.html | access-date=June 18, 2019}}</ref> In 2014, the [[Jaguar F-Type]] was advertised on train sets running on the [[F (New York City Subway service)|F]] route.<ref>{{cite web|last=Vranica |first=Suzanne |url=https://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424052702304856504579338704254890072 |title=And Now, Ads for the Super Bowl Ads – WSJ |publisher=Online.wsj.com |date=2014-01-28 |accessdate=2015-06-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Dastardly, British and Brand New to the Super Bowl | website=The New York Times | date=January 14, 2014 | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/14/business/media/dastardly-british-and-brand-new-to-the-super-bowl.html | access-date=June 18, 2019}}</ref> Some of these wraps have also been controversial, such as a [[Lane Bryant]] wrap in 2015 that displayed lingerie models on the exteriors of train cars.<ref>{{cite web | last=Jennings | first=Rebecca | title=Lane Bryant's #ImNoAngel Subway Ads Causing Controversy in Brooklyn Orthodox Communities | website=Racked NY | date=April 15, 2015 | url=https://ny.racked.com/2015/4/15/8420645/lane-bryant-imnoangel-subway-ads | access-date=June 18, 2019}}</ref> ===LGBT Pride-themed trains and MetroCards=== [[File:MTA Pride Month MetroCard for NYC Subway.jpg|thumb|upright|MetroCard for Pride Month in June 2019]] The New York City Subway system commemorates [[LGBT Pride|Pride Month]] in June with Pride-themed posters.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/06/16/us/nyc-subway-pride-trains-trnd/index.html|title=PRIDE + PROGRESS New York subways celebrate Pride Month with new 'Pride Trains' and MetroCards|author=Emily Bass and Julia Jones|publisher=[[CNN]]|date=June 16, 2019|accessdate=June 17, 2019}}</ref> The MTA celebrated [[Stonewall 50 - WorldPride NYC 2019]] in June 2019 with rainbow-themed Pride logos on the subway trains as well as Pride-themed MetroCards.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nydailynews.com/new-york/ny-mta-celebrates-lgbt-pride-with-trains-metrocards-20190614-hd3odbkev5hdvoonrxsjiu2l6q-story.html|title=Everyone on board the Pride train! MTA celebrates LGBTQ culture with Pride-themed trains, MetroCards|author=Clayton Guse and Thomas Tracy|newspaper=New York Daily News|date=June 14, 2019|accessdate=June 17, 2019}}</ref> == See also == {{div col|colwidth=40em}} * [[List of metro systems]] * [[List of United States rapid transit systems by ridership]] * [[Graffiti in New York]] * [[Staten Island Railway]] * [[Subway Challenge]] * [[New York City Subway in popular culture]] * [[Transportation in New York City]] {{div col end}} ==Notes== {{reflist|group=note}} ==References== {{Reflist}} ==External links== {{attached KML|from=New York City Subway|display=inline,title}} {{commons category|New York City Subway}} * {{official website|http://www.mta.info/nyct}} * [https://www.nycsubway.org/wiki/Main_Page Unofficial website] * [http://www.nycsubwayguide.com The Absolute Beginner's Guide to the New York Subway] {{Clear}} {{subject bar|book1=New York City Subway|portal1=New York City|portal2=Trains|commons=New York City Subway|d=Q7733|d-search=Q7733}} {{navboxes|list= {{NYCS navbox}} {{Transportation in New York City|state=autocollapse}} {{MTA (New York)}} {{New York metro area rail}} {{USSubway}} {{NYCS lines navbox}} {{NYCS rolling stock}} {{Internationally Metro Organizations}} }} [[Category:Busking venues]] [[Category:New York City Subway| ]] [[Category:Rapid transit in New York (state)]] [[Category:Articles containing video clips]] [[Category:Railway lines opened in 1863]] [[Category:Underground rapid transit in the United States]] [[Category:Standard gauge railways in the United States]] [[Category:600 V DC railway electrification]] {{short description|Highway in Puerto Rico}} {{More citations needed|date=July 2010}} {{use dmy dates|date=August 2019}} {{Infobox road |state=PR |type=PR |route=30 |alternate_name=''Expreso Cruz Ortiz Stella'' |length_km=30.70 | length_ref=<ref>[http://www.dtop.gov.pr/carretera/det_content.asp?cn_id=126 ''Guía de Carreteras Principales, Expresos y Autopistas.''] Departamento de Transportación y Obras Publicas de Puerto Rico. Accessed 5 May 2019.</ref> |direction_a=West |terminus_a={{jct|state=PR|PR|1|PR|52}} in [[Caguas, Puerto Rico|Caguas]] |junction= {{jct|state=PR|Urban|189}} in [[Gurabo, Puerto Rico|Gurabo]] <br> {{jct|state=PR|Sec|203}} in Gurabo <br> {{jct|state=PR|Sec|181}} in Gurabo <br> {{jct|state=PR|Sec|185}} in [[Juncos, Puerto Rico|Juncos]] <br> {{jct|state=PR|Sec|31|Ter|9913}} in Juncos <br> {{jct|state=PR|Sec|204}} in [[Las Piedras, Puerto Rico|Las Piedras]] <br> {{jct|state=PR|Sec|183}} in Las Piedras <br> {{jct|state=PR|PR|60}} in [[Humacao, Puerto Rico|Humacao]] <br> {{jct|state=PR|Urban|3}} in Humacao |direction_b=East |terminus_b={{jct|state=PR|PR|53}} in Humacao |previous_type=Ter |previous_route=29 |next_type=Sec |next_route=31 }} '''Puerto Rico Highway 30''' ('''PR-30'''), known as '''Expreso Cruz Ortiz Stella''', is a main [[freeway]] in [[Puerto Rico]] which connects the city of [[Caguas]] to the town of [[Humacao]].<ref name="NGAdvMap">{{cite map |author = National Geographic Maps |year = 2011 |title=Puerto Rico |series = Adventure Map |scale = 1:125,000 |location = Evergreen, CO |publisher = National Geographic Maps |sections = |isbn=978-1566955188 |oclc = 756511572 }}</ref> ==Problems== This highway is considered highly dangerous{{by whom|date=April 2019}} due to the number of cars that transit it, partly because many people in Humacao and nearby municipalities work in San Juan.{{citation needed|date=April 2019}} There are also concerns of cracks and holes, most of them in the right lane in both directions.{{citation needed|date=April 2019}} The highway is in frequent repairs, especially the Caguas-Gurabo segment. There are possibilities{{original research inline|date=April 2019}} that this highway has not been properly repaired, intentionally, because drivers speed up to more than the specified speed limit (55 mph) and having the highway repaired would mean more fatal accidents as a good highway would invite people to drive faster. Nevertheless, the segment between Caguas and Gurabo has been repaired and repaved,{{when|date=April 2019}} and the segment in Las Piedras is being repaired and expanded near the exit to PR-183 mainly because of the large number of vehicles taking this exit and creating a congestion in the freeway. The segments between Gurabo and Juncos are not repaired and have a significant number of cracks and holes. Another problem{{according to whom|date=April 2019}} with PR-30 is that it turns very slippery when wet and cars still drive above speed limit (55 mph). Many people have died in the freeway and is considered one of the most dangerous in the island.{{citation needed|date=April 2019}} ==Parallel routes== PR-198 and PR-189 parallel the freeway almost in its entire length, and they never get far from the freeway. PR-189 (Caguas-Juncos) has two junctions with PR-30- one in Gurabo near Caguas and the other in Juncos. PR-198 does the same in Juncos and Humacao. PR-183 also parallels the highway but it lies significantly south, and two connectors and one exit connect them- PR-203 from Gurabo to San Lorenzo, PR-204 in Las Piedras and the Exit 21 in the same town. PR-183 ends in Las Piedras. ==Exit list== {{PRinttop|exit|length_ref=}} {{PRint|exit |municipality=Caguas |mspan=2 |location_special=[[Bairoa, Caguas, Puerto Rico|Bairoa]] |lspan=2 |km=0.00 |exit=0A-B |road={{jct|state=PR|PR|1|PR|52|name2=[[Interstate PR1|PRI-1]] / Expreso Luis A. Ferré|city1=San Juan|city2=Caguas|city3=Ponce|city4=Cayey|city5=Bayamón|city6=Carolina|extra=hospital}} |notes=West end of PR-30. <!-- Coming from PR-52 from south, drivers can access PR-30 without having to go through PR-1, and people from PR-30 can directly access PR-52 north taking the Exit 0A. People who want to take south have to first go through PR-1, taking the Exit 0B, then take PR-52, and people from San Juan going to PR-30 have also to take PR-1. --> Access to Menonita Caguas Regional Hospital}} {{PRint|exit |km=2.95 |exit=3 |road=Avenida Rafael Cordero – [[Caguas|Caguas Centro]] |notes=The first exit, which connect PR-30 to its parallel route PR-189. This exits grants access to [[Plaza Centro]], the second most important shopping center in Caguas.}} {{PRint|exit |municipality=Gurabo |mspan=4 |location_special=[[Rincón, Gurabo, Puerto Rico|Rincón]] |lspan=2 |km=4.05 |exit=4 |road={{jct|state=PR|Urban|189|city1=Caguas|city2=Gurabo}} |notes=Grants access to [[University of Turabo]] and West Gurabo.}} {{PRint|exit |km=5.50 |exit=5 |road={{jct|state=PR|Sec|203|dir1=south|name1=Expreso Chayanne|city1=San Lorenzo}} |notes=Connects PR-30 with [[Puerto Rico Highway 183|PR-183]].}} {{PRint|exit |location_special=[[Jaguar, Gurabo, Puerto Rico|Jaguar]] |km=7.80 |exit=7-8 |road={{jct|state=PR|Sec|181|city1=Gurabo|city2=Trujillo Alto|location3=[[Jaguar, Gurabo, Puerto Rico|Jaguar]]}} |notes=Access to the main downtown of Gurabo, south to [[Jaguar, Gurabo, Puerto Rico|Jaguar barrio]] in San Lorenzo and further north to [[Trujillo Alto]].}} {{PRint|exit |location_special=[[Mamey, Gurabo, Puerto Rico|Mamey]] |km=9.10 |exit=9 |road={{jct|state=PR|Ter|189|Ter|9030|city1=Gurabo}} |type=incomplete |notes=Complete, No westbound exit, Eastbound entrance ramp closed.<ref>http://goo.gl/maps/mb5ZM</ref>}} {{PRint|exit |municipality=Juncos |mspan=3 |location_special=[[Mamey, Juncos, Puerto Rico|Mamey]] |lspan=2 |km=13.15 |exit=12 |road={{jct|state=PR|Ter|189|Sec|185|city1=Juncos|city2=Canóvanas}} |type=incomplete |notes=Eastbound exit and westbound entrance. Connects PR-30 with [[PR-66]] and [[Puerto Rico Highway 3|PR-3]].}} {{PRint|exit |km=13.70 |exit=13 |road={{jct|state=PR|Ter|189|Ter|9929|Sec|185|city1=Juncos Centro|city2=Canóvanas|location3=Canta Gallo}} |notes=Access to downtown Juncos and [[Lirios|Lirios barrio]].}} {{PRint|exit |location_special=[[Ceiba Norte]] |km=14.65 |exit=14T |road={{jct|state=PR|Sec|31|Ter|189|Ter|9913|city1=Juncos|location2=[[Ceiba, Las Piedras, Puerto Rico|Ceiba]]}} |notes=}} {{PRint|exit |municipality=Las Piedras |mspan=3 |location_special=[[Ceiba, Las Piedras, Puerto Rico|Ceiba]] |km=20.30 |exit=19 |road={{jct|state=PR|Sec|204|location1=[[Valenciano Abajo]]|location2=[[Ceiba, Las Piedras, Puerto Rico|Ceiba]]}} |notes=Exit to Valenciano area of Las Piedras. A small shopping center with a movie theatre, the largest in the southeast is there.}} {{PRint|exit |location_special=[[Montones]] |km=21.90 |exit=21 |road={{jct|state=PR|Sec|183|city1=Las Piedras|location2=[[Montones]]}} |notes=Access to downtown Las Piedras, and the [[Montones|Montones barrio]].}} {{PRint|exit |location_special=[[Tejas, Las Piedras, Puerto Rico|Tejas]] |km=23.10 |exit=22 |road={{jct|state=PR|Ter|921|location1=[[Tejas, Las Piedras, Puerto Rico|Tejas]]}} |notes=Access to East Las Piedras and the [[Tejas, Las Piedras, Puerto Rico|Tejas barrio]]}} {{PRint|exit |municipality=Humacao |mspan=5 |location_special=[[Tejas, Humacao, Puerto Rico|Tejas]] |lspan=2 |km=26.10 |exit=25 |road={{jct|state=PR|PR|60|dir1=east|name1=Avenida Dionisio Casillas|Urban|198|city1=Humacao Centro}} |notes=Access to Center Humacao and North Humacao.}} {{PRint|exit |km=27.80 |exit=26 |road={{jct|state=PR|Ter|908|city1=Humacao Oeste|location2=[[Tejas, Humacao, Puerto Rico|Tejas]]}} |notes=Access to the [[University of Puerto Rico at Humacao]] and the Patagonia area.}} {{PRint|exit |location_special=[[Cataño, Humacao, Puerto Rico|Cataño]] |lspan=2 |km=28.55 |exit=28 |road={{jct|state=PR|Ter|909|city1=Humacao Sur|location2=[[Mariana, Humacao, Puerto Rico|Mariana]]}} |notes=Access to the [[Mariana, Humacao, Puerto Rico|Mariana barrio]]. For traffic from PR-30 Eastbound to PR-909 must take exit 29.}} {{PRint|exit |km=29.45 |exit=29 |road={{jct|state=PR|Urban|3|city1=Humacao Sur|location2=[[Mariana, Humacao, Puerto Rico|Mariana]]|location3=[[Cataño, Humacao, Puerto Rico|Cataño]]}} |notes=Access to [[Candelero Arriba]] and South Humacao. <!-- This exit can only be taken from PR-30 to PR-3, but not from PR-3 to PR-30. The exit serves as a pass-by route to Palmas del Mar [[Shunpiking|without having to pay the toll]] found immediately entering PR-53 from PR-30 in the south direction. -->}} {{PRint|exit |location_special=[[Buena Vista, Humacao, Puerto Rico|Buena Vista]] |km=30.50 |exit=30A-B |road={{jct|state=PR|PR|53|name1=Expreso Dr. José Celso Barbosa|city1=Humacao|city2=Fajardo|city3=Yabucoa|location4=[[Palmas del Mar]]}} |notes=East end of PR-30. To the south (Exit 30A) is Yabucoa and going north (Exit 30B) is Fajardo, 30 kilometers from Humacao}} {{jctbtm|exit|keys=incomplete}} ==See also== {{Portal|Puerto Rico|U.S. Roads}} *[[List of highways in Puerto Rico]] *[[List of highways numbered 30]] ==References== {{Reflist}} ==External links== {{commons category|Puerto Rico Highway 30}} * http://www.dtop.gov.pr/act/default.htm * http://elname.com/2008/01/dtop-revela-que-las-condiciones-de-las.html * http://www.miperiodico.org/noticiasread.asp?r=HBHIXYOAML{{dead link|date=April 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}} [[Category:Highways in Puerto Rico|030]] {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} [[File:InflatableBalloons.jpg|thumb|[[Balloons]] with different colors]] [[File:En-Balloon Fetish-article.ogg|thumb|This is a spoken word version of the article: Balloon Fetish]] A '''balloon fetish''' is a [[sexual fetish]] that involves [[balloon]]s.<ref name=gates>Gates, Katharine (1999); [https://books.google.com/books?id=C--gIzIGo5UC&q=%22balloon+fetish%22 ''Deviant Desires: Incredibly Strange Sex''], [[Juno Books]], {{ISBN|1-890451-03-7}} (retrieved 22 August 2010 from [[Google Books]])</ref><ref>[http://www.nerve.com/ididitforscience/i-did-it-for-science-balloon-fetish I Did It for Science: Balloon Fetishism], Rev. Jen Miller, [[Nerve.com]], 2005 (retrieved 22 August 2010)</ref><ref>Reverend Jen (2009), [https://books.google.com/books?id=mla0q3xBHE4C&pg=PA55 ''Live Nude Elf: The Sexperiments of Reverend Jen''], [[Counterpoint Press]], {{ISBN|978-1-59376-244-5}} (retrieved 22 August 2010 from Google Books)</ref><ref>[http://www.asylum.com/2008/09/10/balloon-fetish-is-it-porn/ Balloon Fetish, Is It Porn?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100305021942/http://www.asylum.com/2008/09/10/balloon-fetish-is-it-porn |date=5 March 2010 }}, Emily McCombs, Asylum.com, 10 September 2008 (retrieved 22 August 2010)</ref> A balloon fetishist is also referred to as a "'''looner'''".<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20071110095616/http://thewavemagazine.com/pagegen.php?pagename=article&articleid=22026 Fetish Confessions: Telling loved ones about your fetish is as easy as solving fractured quadratic equations], Sandy Brundage, ''The Wave Magazine'' Volume 2 Issue 15, 31 July 2002 (retrieved 22 August 2010 on [[Internet Archive Wayback Machine]])</ref> Some balloon fetishists "revel in the popping of balloons and [others] may become anxious and tearful at the very thought of popping balloons".<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=l_8pAQAAIAAJ&q=balloon+fetish ''Headpress'': journal of sex, religion, death, Issues 21-23], David Kerekes, Headpress, p.142 (retrieved 22 August 2010 from Google Books)</ref> Others enjoy blowing up balloons or sitting and lying on them.<ref>Gates pp. 83,89-90</ref> ==Psychology== Like many [[paraphilia]]s, the origins of a balloon fetish are complex and vary between individuals, but may be explained as a form of [[imprinting (psychology)#Sexual imprinting|sexual imprinting]]. Many "looners" attribute their fetish to early sexual or pre-sexual experiences with balloons, often involving their being burst by members of the desirable sex.{{citation needed|date=December 2019}} These experiences frequently accompany or instigate a [[phobia]] of balloons in the individual,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.balloonland.com/Fet/Fetdangers.htm|title=Dangerous balloons !|website=Balloonland.com|accessdate=2017-09-16}}</ref> most often associated with the sudden loud noise when they burst, a form of [[phonophobia]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.phobia-fear-release.com/fear-of-balloons-popping.html|title=Get Rid of Fear Of Balloons Popping. How To Cure Fear Of Balloons Popping|website=Phobia-fear-release.com|accessdate=2017-09-16}}</ref> Depending on the extent to which this phobia persists through and after [[puberty]], balloon fetishists may regard balloons bursting as either essential to the sexual experience (and frequently refer to themselves as '''poppers'''), or to be avoided at all costs (as '''non-poppers'''). Even those who are not phobic of the act of a balloon popping may prefer not to pop due to an [[anthropomorphized]] emotional attachment to the balloon, which is perfectly normal to non-poppers. One hallmark of the distinction between poppers and non-poppers may be in seeing balloons' bursting either as a metaphor for [[orgasm]],<ref>{{cite web |title=B is for... |url=http://www.iateskinny.com/2013/01/b-is-for.html |website=I Ate Skinny |accessdate=17 June 2018 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140223135525/http://www.iateskinny.com/2013/01/b-is-for.html |archivedate=23 February 2014 |date=24 January 2013}}</ref> or as a metaphor for [[death]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mistressofasia.com/fetish-balloon.php|title=Balloon Fetish / Mistress of Asia|website=Mistressofasia.com|accessdate=2017-09-16}}</ref> That popping balloons is central to several popular [[party games]] suggests that enjoyment of the act, the challenge, and the anticipation of popping is not confined to fetishists. However, for fetishists the [[wikt:adrenaline rush|adrenaline rush]] associated with the "danger" that a balloon will pop produces a sexual response. This helps to explain why even non-poppers who have an intense phobia of balloons popping in non-sexual contexts may be aroused by the possibility within safe sexual contexts. It may even suggest that balloon fetish, for poppers and non-poppers alike, is part of the [[BDSM]] spectrum of fetishes in which a controlled amount of danger is used to elicit a pleasurable [[fight-or-flight response]] in participants.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.health.harvard.edu/newsletters/Harvard_Mental_Health_Letter/2011/March/understanding-the-stress-response|title=Understanding the stress response|author=Harvard Health Publications|website=Health.harvard.edu|accessdate=2017-09-16}}</ref> ==Hazard== A true [[sexual fetishism|fetish]] is characterized in the [[DSM-IV]] by its social and occupational impedance.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/26861774_The_DSM_diagnostic_criteria_for_fetishism/file/79e4150ec25370dde7.pdf|title=ResearchGate - Share and discover research|website=Researchgate.net|accessdate=2017-09-16}}</ref> However, it is currently in the DSM-V (see Paraphilic Disorders)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.psychiatry.org/File%20Library/Practice/DSM/DSM-5/Changes-from-DSM-IV-TR--to-DSM-5.pdf |title=Page Not Found |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150226050453/http://www.psychiatry.org/File%20Library/Practice/DSM/DSM-5/Changes-from-DSM-IV-TR--to-DSM-5.pdf |archivedate=26 February 2015 }}</ref> to where a fetish is no longer considered as a disorder (except for fetishistic disorder where if the fetish interferes with the person's life).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://globophilia.blogspot.com/2014/05/from-kink-to-fetish-to-dsm-vi.html?zx=c89b7bf74f6e3567|title=Globophilia|author=Tim Popper|website=Globophiliablogspot.com|accessdate=2017-09-16}}</ref> Yet, fetishism is classified as code F65.0 in the ICD-10.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://apps.who.int/classifications/icd10/browse/2015/en#/F65.0|title=ICD-10 Version:2015|website=Apps.who.int|accessdate=2017-09-16}}</ref> Aside from these hazards, balloon fetishism carries with it the hazards of bursting balloons in close proximity to one's body. Eye and ear protection is recommended for such exposure to avoid eye damage or hearing loss. These hazards may be heightened since balloon fetishists often employ larger-than-average balloons and high-energy forms of popping them, such as overinflation.{{citation needed|date=December 2019}} In addition, those who sit, stomp, or lie on large balloons may be vulnerable to [[Falling (accident)|fall injuries]] when the balloons burst. Additional injuries may occur due to friction and static electricity during prolonged interactions with balloons. Choking is a potential risk for those "looners" for whom the fetish includes kissing or mouthing the balloon. Although largely hypothetical, a "looner" engaged in an orgy with multiple helium-filled balloons may sustain impact injuries such as pelvic fractures, falling from heights at the moment of climax. One way of reducing the chances of injuries, if a large, such as a 96" balloon is inflated to not more than 50% of its full air capacity, the balloon would be less likely to burst. ==Variations== A different form of this fetish is the "Bubblegum Balloon Fetish" or "Bubblegum Looning", where, instead of latex balloons, [[Bubblegum]] is used to produce small to big balloons in the form of bubbles (depending on the size of the gum). In this case, the "popper" or "non-popper" difference is absent since balloons can be produced over and over (differently from latex ones, that, once burst, have to be discarded). Bubblegum looners tend to like watching people produce balloons with bubblegum or producing balloons themselves. As with balloon looning, Bubblegum Looning can be used in sexual activities to enhance sexual performances. In this case, bubblegum balloons may also be blown against some partner's body parts to enhance sexual excitement or as a form of game play. A number of looners also enjoy other variations, such as rubber glove balloons (mainly latex and nitrile [[medical glove]]s), condoms, beach balls, the Wubble Bubble Ball, inflatable PVC plastic toys (like sharks or whales), and inflating bin liners or garbage bags. The latter is often combined with a [[crush fetish]] where the looner is aroused the sight of glossy, polyethylene garbage sacks being compressed by the hydraulic compactor of a [[garbage truck]] or other similar apparatus to the point where they burst or explode - in its most extreme form this may even be combined with a form of [[vorarephilia]], where the looner desires to be crushed and consumed by the machine itself along with the sacks. ==Media== * In the 1975 British comedy film ''[[The Sexplorer]]'', an alien from Planet Venus travels to London disguised as a woman. Her mission is to explore human sexual behavior. She encounters different men, one of whom has a balloon fetish. * ''[[So Graham Norton]]'', 1998-2002 British television series that featured a recurring segment where the main character, Graham Norton, looked for people on the Internet with different fetishes, including balloon fetish. * ''[[Little Children (film)|Little Children]]'', 2006 movie containing a small reference about a man addicted to a porn website which involves women and balloons. * ''[[NCIS (TV series)|NCIS]]'' ''The Truth is Out There'', 2004, [[Abby Sciuto]] comments that she dated a man with a balloon fetish. * ''[[The Poughkeepsie Tapes]]'', 2007 mockumentary horror film. * ''[[SexTV]]'' season 9 episode 23, 9 June 2007.<ref>[http://www.sextelevision.net/archives/episodeArchivesDisplay.asp?segmentID=536&seasonID=9 Balloon Fetish] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100617041244/http://www.sextelevision.net/archives/episodeArchivesDisplay.asp?segmentID=536&seasonID=9 |date=17 June 2010 }}, ''SexTV'' Archives (retrieved 22 August 2010)</ref><ref>{{IMDb title|1048907|SexTV: Amanda Lepore/Balloon Fetish/Flying: Confessions of a Free Woman}}</ref> * ''[[Strange Sex]]'' episode 5, 1 August 2010. * ''[[The United States of Tara]]'', season 2 episode 8, 10 May 2010, ''Explosive Diorama''. Supporting character Kate films herself performing 'favors' live to get things on her wishlist from internet admirers. One of them is a looner, for whom she agrees to blow up and pop a large number of balloons to get a [[Vespa]]. * ''[[Taboo (2002 TV series)|Taboo]]'', 2012 episode on [[National Geographic Channel]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://channel.nationalgeographic.com/channel/taboo/videos/balloon-infatuation/|title=Balloon Infatuation|date=24 July 2012|website=Channel.nationalgeographic.com|accessdate=16 September 2017}}</ref> * [[Arte]] aired a documentary about the Balloon, Inflatable & Latex Fetish on 19 May 2012. * ''[[Bob's Burgers]]'', the 2013 episode ''[[It Snakes a Village]]'' features a character with a balloon fetish. * In the 65th episode of the [[stop-motion]] web series ''[[The Most Popular Girls in School]]'' Mackenzie Zales is revealed to have a balloon fetish in a video. * Japanese DVD and movie maker "Fruitful" makes a lot of Balloon fetish movies. These sample movies are uploaded on YouTube (NashiYo). ==See also== * [[Body inflation]] * [[Inflatable doll]] * [[Latex and PVC fetishism]] * [[Bubble dance]] ==References== {{Reflist}} {{Sexual fetishism}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Balloon Fetish}} [[Category:Balloons (entertainment)]] [[Category:Sexual fetishism]] {{inline|date=November 2019}} {{short description|Spanish company based in Tavernes Blanques, Valencia}} {{Infobox company | name = Lladró Comercial SA | logo = Lladro.Logo.gif | slogan = | type = [[S.A. (corporation)]] | foundation = 1953 | location_city = [[Tavernes Blanques]] | location_country = [[Spain]] | products = [[Ceramic art|Porcelain art]] and [[figurine]]s | homepage = [https://www.lladro.com/ www.lladro.com] }} '''Lladró''' ({{IPA-va|ʎaˈðɾo}}) is a [[Spain|Spanish]] company based in [[Tavernes Blanques]], [[Valencia (autonomous community)|Valencia]], that produces [[ceramic]] [[figurine]]s.<ref>{{cite book|title= Lladró: the magic world of porcelain|publisher=Salvat Editores (Barcelona, Spain)|date= 1988 |isbn=978-8434548602 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title= The Lladró Guide: A Collector's Reference to Retired Porcelain Figurines in Lladró Brands |first=Peggy Rose |last=Whiteneck|publisher=Schiffer Publishing|date= 2019|isbn= 978-0764358395}}</ref> ==History== The company was founded in 1953 by three brothers, Juán, José and Vicente Lladró, in the village of [[Almàssera]] not so near Valencia. Starting with items such as vases and jugs, it wasn't until 1956 that they started producing the sculptures for which they are now known for. Interest in the items produced by the Lladró brothers saw their small workshop expand several times until eventually they moved to Tavernes Blanques in 1958. * 1962, the brothers open the Professional Training School at their site in Tavernes Blanques to share their knowledge and experience. * 1969, on 13 October the City of Porcelain was opened by the [[Spanish Minister for Industry]]. It took 2 years to build, and currently over 2,000 people work there. [[Image:Lladro.jpg|thumb|220px|right|A set of Lladró figurines]] * 1970, Lladró begins to use a new material, gres, for its sculptures. It has earthy colours and is used frequently in natural themes. * 1973, Lladró buys 50% of the North American company Weil Ceramics & Glass. * 1974, the first blue emblem, consisting of a bellflower and ancient chemical symbol, appears on the base to show the origin of the sculpture. The Elite Collection is also launched. * 1984, Rosa, Mari Carmen and Juan Vicente Lladró joined the company. One child of each of the founding members. They underwent a long apprenticeship before they were permitted responsibility in the company. * 1985, the Collector's Society is formed. The first annual sculpture, called "Little Pals", can fetch several thousand US dollars at auction due to the small number of members able to purchase it in the early years. * 1986, Lladró forms an alliance with the Mitsui Group creating a subsidiary called Bussan Lladró based in [[Tokyo]] * 1988, on September 18 in [[New York City]] the Lladró Museum and Gallery is opened on 57th Street in [[Manhattan]]. * 1993, Lladró receives the Principe Felipe award for internationalisation. * 2001, Lladró Privilege, a new customer loyalty programme, takes over from the Lladró Collectors Society. * 2004, Lladró Privilege Gold, a new level of loyalty programme within the Privilege programme. * 2011, Lladró Privilege Society changes into Lladro Gold, Privilege name is dropped and only one level of membership is offered. * 2013, Lladró Expands into the lighting market with Belle De Nuit, a collection of chandeliers, lamps and sconces. * 2013, Lladro Releases the first piece in their new Dazzle collection which uses a geometric black and white design. ==Technique== [[Image:Lladro - En Sus Pensamientos.jpg|thumbnail|Lladró figurine called "En sus pensamientos"]] The manufacturing ingredients are kept closely guarded. The process is detailed in a number of Lladró publications and is on view for tours at the City of Porcelain. Lladró figurines are made of [[hard-paste porcelain]]. ==Marketing== Lladró figurines are given an additional title in [[English language|English]] as well as the [[Spanish language|Spanish]] original, however these names are frequently not translations (figurative or literal) but new names that are more likely to appeal to an English speaking audience. An area for some confusion is that the names of the pieces can change throughout their run so the same figurine may end up with several titles. ==Popular culture== {{Globalize|section|USA|2name=the United States|date=December 2010}} *In an episode of the [[sitcom]] ''[[Will and Grace]]'' (season 7 episode 12, "Christmas Break"), [[Will Truman|Will]]'s mother Marilyn (portrayed by [[Blythe Danner]]) had a collection of Lladró, her favourite being 'Ouisan, the bashful [[geisha]].' She was described as being priceless; the humour of the episode revolved around [[Grace Adler|Grace's]] breaking the figurine and was fearful of Marilyn finding out, as she was very precious to her (she declared she would "wait until April and pour bleach on her (the culprit's) roses"). *In ''[[The Sopranos]]'', [[Carmela Soprano]] boasts about her Lladró figurine in "[[Everybody Hurts (The Sopranos episode)|Everybody Hurts]]" (season 4 episode 6). In the episode "[[Chasing It]]" (season 6 episode 16), Carmela breaks the figurine by throwing it at [[Tony Soprano]]. *In ''[[The Nanny]]'' (season 5 episode 5), Fran's paternal aunt Freida contemplates on whether she may or may not hire Niles as a butler. She decides that she should because she wants someone to dust her Lladró collection. Nonetheless, she pronounces it wrong ("Lardo") and makes a remark about it to Fran's mother Sylvia ("You can pronounce it, I can afford it"). *In ''[[Big Love]]'' Roman Grant's wife Adaleen has a large Lladró collection. *In ''Russell Brand Radio Show'' (BBC Radio 2 episode), Russell refers to the chink of his hard buttocks hitting the seat of the toilet as 'making the sound of two Lladro figurines kissing'. *In the musical comedy ''[[Crazy Ex-Girlfriend (TV series)]]'', titular heroine Rachel Bloom casually gifts a figurine as an off-handed kind gesture, fully aware that at least one other character would recognize the market value of a limited edition peacock and allow her to set a grand plan in motion. ==See also== * [[Porcelain manufacturing companies in Europe]] ==References== {{reflist}} ==External links== *[http://www.lladro.com/ Lladró official website] *[http://www.theprudentcollector.com/lladro_marks.html Lladró trademarks reference guide] *[http://www.lladroblog.com Lladró Informational Blog] {{DEFAULTSORT:Lladro}} [[Category:Ceramics manufacturers of Spain]] [[Category:Porcelain]] [[Category:Valencian Community]] [[Category:Spanish brands]] [[Category:Figurine manufacturers]] [[Category:Companies based in the Valencian Community]] [[Category:Design companies established in 1953]] [[Category:1953 establishments in Spain]] [[Category:Manufacturing companies established in 1953]] {{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}} [[File:Mi-8 (RA-24477) Helicopter in SPB.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|The [[Mil Mi-8]] is the [[List of most-produced aircraft|most-produced]] [[helicopter]] in history.]] [[File:Cessna172-CatalinaTakeOff.JPG|thumb|upright=1.35|The [[Cessna 172]] ''Skyhawk'' is the [[List of most-produced aircraft|most produced aircraft]] in history.]] An '''aircraft''' is a [[vehicle]] that is able to [[flight|fly]] by gaining support from the [[Atmosphere of Earth|air]].<!-- English word "aircraft" is singular and plural with no "s". See also the link to Wiktionary below. --> It counters the force of gravity by using either [[Buoyancy|static lift]] or by using the [[Lift (force)|dynamic lift]] of an [[airfoil]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/aircraft|title=Aircraft — Define Aircraft at Dictionary.com|work=Dictionary.com|access-date=1 April 2015|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150328141634/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/aircraft|archivedate=28 March 2015}}</ref> or in a few cases the [[Powered lift|downward thrust]] from [[jet engine]]s. Common examples of aircraft include [[airplane]]s, [[helicopter]]s, [[airship]]s (including [[blimp]]s), [[Glider (aircraft)|gliders]], [[Powered paragliding|paramotors]] and [[hot air balloon]]s.<ref name="wingsoverkansas">{{Cite web|title=Different Kinds & Types of Aircraft|url=http://www.wingsoverkansas.com/features/a1037/|website=www.wingsoverkansas.com|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161121165354/http://www.wingsoverkansas.com/features/a1037/|archivedate=21 November 2016}}</ref> The human activity that surrounds aircraft is called ''[[aviation]]''. The science of aviation, including designing and building aircraft, is called ''[[aeronautics]].'' [[Aircrew|Crewed]] aircraft are flown by an onboard [[Aircraft pilot|pilot]], but [[unmanned aerial vehicle]]s may be remotely controlled or self-controlled by onboard [[computers]]. Aircraft may be classified by different criteria, such as lift type, [[Powered aircraft#Methods of propulsion|aircraft propulsion]], usage and others. == History == {{Main|History of aviation}} {{See also|Timeline of aviation}} Flying model craft and stories of manned [[flight]] go back many centuries; however, the first manned ascent — and safe descent — in modern times took place by larger hot-air balloons developed in the 18th century. Each of the two [[World Wars]] led to great technical advances. Consequently, the history of aircraft can be divided into five eras: * [[Early flying machines|Pioneers of flight]], from the earliest experiments to 1914. * [[Aviation in World War I|First World War]], 1914 to 1918. * [[Aviation between the World Wars]], 1918 to 1939. * [[Air warfare of World War II|Second World War]], 1939 to 1945. * [[Post-war|Postwar era]], also called the [[Jet Age]], 1945 to the present day. == Methods of lift == === Lighter than air – aerostats{{Anchor|Lighter than air}} === {{Main|Aerostat}} [[File:Colorado Springs Hot Air Balloon Competition.jpg|thumb|left|Hot air [[Balloon (aeronautics)|balloons]]]] [[Aerostat]]s use [[buoyancy]] to float in the air in much the same way that ships float on the water. They are characterized by one or more large cells or canopies, filled with a relatively low-density gas such as [[helium]], [[hydrogen]], or [[hot air balloon|hot air]], which is less dense than the surrounding air. When the weight of this is added to the weight of the aircraft structure, it adds up to the same weight as the air that the craft displaces. Small hot-air balloons, called [[sky lantern]]s, were first invented in ancient China prior to the 3rd century BC and used primarily in cultural celebrations, and were only the second type of aircraft to fly, the first being [[kite]]s, which were first invented in ancient China over two thousand years ago. (See [[History of science and technology in China#Han Dynasty|Han Dynasty]]) [[File:USS Akron (ZRS-4) in flight over Manhattan, circa 1931-1933.jpg|thumb|Airship [[USS Akron|USS ''Akron'']] over Manhattan in the 1930s]] A [[Balloon (aeronautics)|balloon]] was originally any aerostat, while the term [[airship]] was used for large, powered aircraft designs — usually fixed-wing.<ref>[http://texashistory.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metapth172915/ US patent 467069] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140223070653/http://texashistory.unt.edu/ark%3A/67531/metapth172915/ |date=23 February 2014}} "Air-ship" referring to a compound aerostat/rotorcraft.</ref><ref>[[Ezekiel Airship]] (1902) [http://www.wright-brothers.org/History_Wing/History_of_the_Airplane/History_of_the_Airplane_Intro/History_of_the_Airplane_Intro.htm wright-brothers.org] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203131729/http://www.wright-brothers.org/History_Wing/History_of_the_Airplane/History_of_the_Airplane_Intro/History_of_the_Airplane_Intro.htm |date=3 December 2013}}[http://altereddimensions.net/2012/burrell-cannon-flies-first-airplane altereddimensions.net] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222065900/http://altereddimensions.net/2012/burrell-cannon-flies-first-airplane |date=22 February 2014}} "airship," – referring to an HTA aeroplane.</ref><ref>[http://gustavewhitehead.org/news_journalism/1901_-_flying.html The Bridgeport Herald, August 18, 1901] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130803021718/http://gustavewhitehead.org/news_journalism/1901_-_flying.html |date=3 August 2013}} – "air ship" referring to Whitehead's aeroplane.</ref><ref>Cooley Airship of 1910, also called the Cooley monoplane.{{Cite web |url=http://www.wright-brothers.org/History_Wing/Aviations_Attic/UFOs/UFOs.htm |title=Unbelievable Flying Objects |access-date=2014-02-10 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102031147/http://www.wright-brothers.org/History_Wing/Aviations_Attic/UFOs/UFOs.htm |archivedate=2 November 2013 }}{{Cite web |url=http://celticowboy.com/Round%20Aircraft%20Designs.htm |title=Archived copy |access-date=2011-09-07 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402075442/http://celticowboy.com/Round%20Aircraft%20Designs.htm |archivedate=2 April 2012 }} – a heavier-than-air monoplane.</ref><ref>Frater, A.; ''The Balloon Factory'', Picador (2009), p. 163. Wright brothers' "airship."</ref><ref>[http://www.technovelgy.com/ct/content.asp?Bnum=879 George Griffith, ''The angel of the Revolution'', 1893] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222154830/http://www.technovelgy.com/ct/content.asp?Bnum=879 |date=22 February 2014}} — "air-ship," "vessel" referring to a VTOL compound rotorcraft (not clear from the reference if it might be an aerostat hybrid.)</ref> In 1919 [[Frederick Handley Page]] was reported as referring to "ships of the air," with smaller passenger types as "Air yachts."<ref>[http://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/cgi-bin/paperspast?a=d&d=AS19190224.2.104 Auckland Star, 24 February 1919] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140324163806/http://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/cgi-bin/paperspast?a=d&d=AS19190224.2.104 |date=24 March 2014}} "Ships of the air," "Air yachts" – passenger landplanes large and small</ref> In the 1930s, large intercontinental flying boats were also sometimes referred to as "ships of the air" or "flying-ships".<ref>[http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article17455790 The Sydney Morning Herald, Monday 11 April 1938] – "ship of the airs," "flying-ship," referring to a large flying-boat.</ref><ref>[http://airandspace.si.edu/exhibitions/america-by-air/online/innovation/innovation16.cfm Smithsonian, America by air] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140118135217/http://airandspace.si.edu/exhibitions/america-by-air/online/innovation/innovation16.cfm |date=18 January 2014}} "Ships of the Air" referring to Pan Am's Boeing Clipper flying-boat fleet.</ref> — though none had yet been built. The advent of powered balloons, called dirigible balloons, and later of rigid hulls allowing a great increase in size, began to change the way these words were used. Huge powered aerostats, characterized by a [[rigid airship|rigid]] outer framework and separate aerodynamic skin surrounding the gas bags, were produced, the [[Zeppelin]]s being the largest and most famous. There were still no fixed-wing aircraft or non-rigid balloons large enough to be called airships, so "airship" came to be synonymous with these aircraft. Then several accidents, such as the [[Hindenburg disaster]] in 1937, led to the demise of these airships. Nowadays a "balloon" is an unpowered aerostat and an "airship" is a powered one. A powered, steerable aerostat is called a ''[[Airship|dirigible]]''. Sometimes this term is applied only to non-rigid balloons, and sometimes ''dirigible balloon'' is regarded as the definition of an airship (which may then be rigid or non-rigid). Non-rigid dirigibles are characterized by a moderately aerodynamic gasbag with stabilizing fins at the back. These soon became known as ''[[blimp]]s''. During [[World War II]], this shape was widely adopted for [[Barrage balloon|tethered balloons]]; in windy weather, this both reduces the strain on the tether and stabilizes the balloon. The nickname ''blimp'' was adopted along with the shape. In modern times, any small dirigible or airship is called a blimp, though a blimp may be unpowered as well as powered. === Heavier-than-air – aerodynes{{Anchor|Heavier than air}} === <!-- Note: there are links to this section from other articles --> Heavier-than-air aircraft, such as [[airplane]]s, must find some way to push air or gas downwards, so that a reaction occurs (by Newton's laws of motion) to push the aircraft upwards. This dynamic movement through the air is the origin of the term ''aerodyne''. There are two ways to produce dynamic upthrust — [[aerodynamics|aerodynamic lift]], and [[powered lift]] in the form of engine thrust. Aerodynamic lift involving [[wing]]s is the most common, with [[fixed-wing aircraft]] being kept in the air by the forward movement of wings, and [[rotorcraft]] by spinning wing-shaped rotors sometimes called rotary wings. A wing is a flat, horizontal surface, usually shaped in cross-section as an [[airfoil|aerofoil]]. To fly, air must flow over the wing and generate [[Lift (force)|lift]]. A ''flexible wing'' is a wing made of fabric or thin sheet material, often stretched over a rigid frame. A ''[[kite]]'' is tethered to the ground and relies on the speed of the wind over its wings, which may be flexible or rigid, fixed, or rotary. With powered lift, the aircraft directs its engine thrust [[Vertical and horizontal|vertically]] downward. [[V/STOL]] aircraft, such as the [[Harrier Jump Jet]] and [[Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II#F-35B|Lockheed Martin F-35B]] take off and land vertically using powered lift and transfer to aerodynamic lift in steady flight. A pure [[rocket]] is not usually regarded as an aerodyne, because it does not depend on the air for its lift (and can even fly into space); however, many aerodynamic lift vehicles have been powered or assisted by rocket motors. Rocket-powered missiles that obtain aerodynamic lift at very high speed due to airflow over their bodies are a marginal case. ==== Fixed-wing ==== {{Main|fixed-wing aircraft}} [[File:Emirates Airbus A380-861 A6-EER MUC 2015 04.jpg|thumb|An [[Airbus A380]], the world's largest passenger [[airliner]]]] The forerunner of the fixed-wing aircraft is the [[kite]]. Whereas a fixed-wing aircraft relies on its forward speed to create airflow over the wings, a kite is tethered to the ground and relies on the [[wind]] blowing over its wings to provide lift. Kites were the first kind of aircraft to fly, and [[History of science and technology in China|were invented in China]] around 500 BC. Much aerodynamic research was done with kites before test aircraft, [[wind tunnel]]s, and computer modelling programs became available. The first heavier-than-air craft capable of controlled free-flight were [[glider (aircraft)|gliders]]. A glider designed by [[George Cayley]] carried out the first true manned, controlled flight in 1853. The practical, powered, fixed-wing aircraft (the [[airplane]] or aeroplane) was invented by [[Wright brothers|Wilbur and Orville Wright]]. Besides the method of [[#Propulsion|propulsion]], fixed-wing aircraft are in general characterized by their [[wing configuration]]. The most important wing characteristics are: * Number of wings — [[monoplane]], [[biplane]], etc. * Wing support — Braced or cantilever, rigid, or flexible. * Wing planform — including [[aspect ratio]], angle of [[Swept wing|sweep]], and any variations along the span (including the important class of [[delta wing]]s). * Location of the horizontal stabilizer, if any. * [[Dihedral (aeronautics)|Dihedral angle]] — positive, zero, or negative (anhedral). A [[Wing configuration#Variable geometry|variable geometry]] aircraft can change its wing configuration during flight. A ''[[flying wing]]'' has no fuselage, though it may have small blisters or pods. The opposite of this is a ''[[lifting body]]'', which has no wings, though it may have small stabilizing and control surfaces. [[Ground-effect vehicle|Wing-in-ground-effect]] vehicles are not considered aircraft. They "fly" efficiently close to the surface of the ground or water, like conventional aircraft during takeoff. An example is the Russian ekranoplan (nicknamed the "Caspian Sea Monster"). [[History of human-powered aircraft|Man-powered aircraft]] also rely on [[Ground effect (aerodynamics)|ground effect]] to remain airborne with a minimal pilot power, but this is only because they are so underpowered—in fact, the airframe is capable of flying higher. ==== Rotorcraft ==== {{Main|Rotorcraft}} [[File:20100627 Xenon2 Krakow 1328.jpg|thumb|An [[autogyro]]]] Rotorcraft, or rotary-wing aircraft, use a spinning rotor with aerofoil section blades (a ''rotary wing'') to provide lift. Types include [[helicopter]]s, [[autogyro]]s, and various hybrids such as [[gyrodyne]]s and compound rotorcraft. ''[[Helicopter]]s'' have a rotor turned by an engine-driven shaft. The rotor pushes air downward to create lift. By tilting the rotor forward, the downward flow is tilted backward, producing thrust for forward flight. Some helicopters have more than one rotor and a few have rotors turned by gas jets at the tips. ''[[Autogyro]]s'' have unpowered rotors, with a separate power plant to provide thrust. The rotor is tilted backward. As the autogyro moves forward, air blows upward across the rotor, making it spin. This spinning increases the speed of airflow over the rotor, to provide lift. [[Rotor kite]]s are unpowered autogyros, which are towed to give them forward speed or tethered to a static anchor in high-wind for kited flight. ''[[Cyclogyro]]s'' rotate their wings about a horizontal axis. ''Compound rotorcraft'' have wings that provide some or all of the lift in forward flight. They are nowadays classified as ''[[powered lift]]'' types and not as rotorcraft. ''[[Tiltrotor]]'' aircraft (such as the [[Bell Boeing V-22 Osprey]]), [[tiltwing]], [[tail-sitter]], and [[coleopter]] aircraft have their rotors/[[Propeller (aeronautics)|propellers]] horizontal for vertical flight and vertical for forward flight. ==== Other methods of lift ==== [[File:X-24B on Lakebed - GPN-2000-000209.jpg|thumb|X-24B lifting body.]] * A ''[[lifting body]]'' is an aircraft body shaped to produce lift. If there are any wings, they are too small to provide significant lift and are used only for stability and control. Lifting bodies are not efficient: they suffer from high drag, and must also travel at high speed to generate enough lift to fly. Many of the research prototypes, such as the [[Martin Marietta X-24]], which led up to the [[Space Shuttle]], were lifting bodies, though the Space Shuttle is not, and some [[Supersonic speed|supersonic]] [[missile]]s obtain lift from the airflow over a tubular body. * ''[[Powered lift]]'' types rely on engine-derived lift for vertical takeoff and landing ([[VTOL]]). Most types transition to fixed-wing lift for horizontal flight. Classes of powered lift types include [[VTOL]] jet aircraft (such as the [[Harrier Jump Jet]]) and [[tiltrotor]]s, such as the [[Bell Boeing V-22 Osprey]], among others. A few experimental designs rely entirely on engine thrust to provide lift throughout the whole flight, including personal fan-lift hover platforms and jetpacks. [[VTOL]] research designs include the [[Rolls-Royce Thrust Measuring Rig]]. * The ''[[Flettner airplane]]'' uses a rotating cylinder in place of a fixed wing, obtaining lift from the [[Magnus effect]]. * The ''[[ornithopter]]'' obtains thrust by flapping its wings. == Scale, sizes and speeds == === Sizes === The '''smallest aircraft''' are toys/recreational items, and even smaller, [[nano-aircraft]]. The '''largest aircraft by dimensions and volume''' (as of 2016) is the 302-foot-long (about 95 meters) British [[Airlander 10]], a hybrid blimp, with helicopter and fixed-wing features, and reportedly capable of speeds up to 90 mph (about 150 km/h), and an airborne endurance of two weeks with a payload of up to 22,050 pounds (11 tons).<ref name="airlander_2016_08_18_telegraph_co_uk">[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/08/17/worlds-largest-aircraft-the-airlander-takes-first-flight/ "World's largest aircraft the Airlander makes maiden flight in UK,"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161122224818/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/08/17/worlds-largest-aircraft-the-airlander-takes-first-flight/ |date=22 November 2016}} 16 August 2016, London 'Daily Telegraph' via Telegraph.co.uk, retrieved 22 November 2016.</ref><ref name="airlander_2016_08_19_cbs_news">["Airlander 10, the world's largest aircraft, takes off for the first time,"] 19 August 2016, CBS News(TV) retrieved 22 November 2016.</ref><ref name="airlander_crash_2016_08_24_cnn">Kottasova, Ivana [http://money.cnn.com/2016/08/24/technology/worlds-largest-aircraft-crash-airlander-10/ "The world's largest aircraft crashes after 2nd test flight"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161122224325/http://money.cnn.com/2016/08/24/technology/worlds-largest-aircraft-crash-airlander-10/ |date=22 November 2016}}, 24 August 2016, ''CNN Tech'' on [[CNN]], the Cable News Network, retrieved 22 November 2016.</ref> The '''largest aircraft by weight''' and '''largest regular fixed-wing aircraft''' ever built, {{as of|2016|lc=y}}, is the [[Antonov An-225 Mriya|Antonov An-225 ''Mriya'']]. That Ukrainian-built six-engine Russian transport of the 1980s is 84 meters (276 feet) long, with an 88-meter (289 foot) wingspan. It holds the world payload record, after transporting 428,834 pounds (200 tons) of goods, and has recently flown 100-ton loads commercially. Weighing in at somewhere between 1.1 and 1.4 million pounds (550–700 tons) maximum loaded weight, it is also the heaviest aircraft to be built, to date. It can cruise at 500 mph.<ref>{{Cite web|last1=July|first1=Dyre|title=Fly Drive Aanbiedingen |url=https://www.flydrivereizen.nl/aanbiedingen/|website=www.flydrivereizen.nl|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104014121/https://www.flydrivereizen.nl/aanbiedingen/|archivedate=4 November 2016}}</ref><ref name="watch_worlds_biggest_2016_05_16_foxnews">[http://www.foxnews.com/tech/2016/05/16/watch-worlds-biggest-plane-land-in-australia.html "Watch the world's biggest plane land in Australia,"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161122072300/http://www.foxnews.com/tech/2016/05/16/watch-worlds-biggest-plane-land-in-australia.html |date=22 November 2016}} 16 May 2016, Fox News, retrieved 22 November 2016.</ref><ref name="worlds_biggest_airplane_2016_11_18_chron_com">Rumbaugh, Andrea, [http://www.chron.com/business/article/World-s-largest-airplane-lands-at-Bush-airport-10622046.php#item-38488 "World's biggest airplane lands at Bush airport,"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161123052928/http://www.chron.com/business/article/World-s-largest-airplane-lands-at-Bush-airport-10622046.php |date=23 November 2016}} Updated 18 November 2016, ''Houston Chonicle'' / Chron.com, retrieved 22 November 2016.</ref><ref name="worlds_largest_might_lose_smithsonian_2015">Lewis, Danny, [http://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/worlds-largest-aircraft-might-lose-its-title-blimp-180956677/ "The World's Largest Aircraft Might Lose its Title to a Blimp,"], 18 September 2015, ''Smart News'', Smithsonian.com, [[Smithsonian Institution]], Washington, D.C., retrieved 22 November 2016.</ref><ref name="largest_plane_aerospaceweb_org">[http://www.aerospaceweb.org/question/design/q0188.shtml "Ask Us – Largest Plane in the World,"] Aerospaceweb.org, retrieved 22 November 2016.</ref> The '''largest military airplanes''' are the Ukrainian/Russian [[Antonov An-124 Ruslan|Antonov An-124 ''Ruslan'']] (world's second-largest airplane, also used as a civilian transport),<ref name="worlds_2nd_largest_aircraft_nasa">[https://www.nasa.gov/centers/glenn/multimedia/imagegallery/image_feature_028_Antonov.html "World's Second Largest Aircraft,"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161122222701/https://www.nasa.gov/centers/glenn/multimedia/imagegallery/image_feature_028_Antonov.html |date=22 November 2016}} 28 July 2013, [[NASA]], retrieved 22 November 2016.</ref> and American [[Lockheed C-5 Galaxy]] transport, weighing, loaded, over 765,000 pounds (over 380 tons).<ref name="largest_plane_aerospaceweb_org" /><ref name="wide_body_transports_loftin_nasa">Loftin, Laurence K., Jr., [https://history.nasa.gov/SP-468/ch13-5.htm "Wide-Body Transports"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130607034616/http://history.nasa.gov/SP-468/ch13-5.htm |date=7 June 2013}}, in Chapter 13, "Jet Transports," in Part II, "The Jet Age," in ''Quest for Performance: The Evolution of Modern Aircraft'', NASA SP-468, 1985, Scientific and Technical Information Branch, [[NASA]], Washington, D.C., Updated: 6 August 2004, retrieved 22 November 2016.</ref> The 8-engine, piston/propeller [[Hughes H-4 Hercules|Hughes H-4 ''Hercules'']] "Spruce Goose" — an American [[World War II]] wooden flying boat transport with a greater wingspan (94 meters / 260 feet) than any current aircraft and a tail height equal to the tallest (Airbus A380-800 at 24.1 meters / 78 feet) — flew only one short hop in the late 1940s and never flew out of [[Ground effect (aerodynamics)|ground effect]].<ref name="largest_plane_aerospaceweb_org" /> The '''largest civilian airplanes,''' apart from the above-noted An-225 and An-124, are the [[Airbus Beluga]] cargo transport derivative of the [[Airbus A300]] jet airliner, the [[Boeing Dreamlifter]] cargo transport derivative of the [[Boeing 747]] jet airliner/transport (the 747-200B was, at its creation in the 1960s, the heaviest aircraft ever built, with a maximum weight of 836,000 pounds (over 400 tons)),<ref name="wide_body_transports_loftin_nasa" /> and the double-decker [[Airbus A380]] "super-jumbo" jet airliner (the world's '''largest passenger airliner''').<ref name="largest_plane_aerospaceweb_org" /><ref name="airbus_reviews_2008_04_29_ny_times">[https://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/29/business/worldbusiness/29iht-airbus.4.12438349.html "Airbus reviews A380 schedule,"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202002211/http://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/29/business/worldbusiness/29iht-airbus.4.12438349.html |date=2 February 2017}} 29 April 2008, ''[[The New York Times]]'', retrieved 22 November 2016.</ref> {{Main|List of large aircraft}} === Speeds === The '''fastest recorded powered aircraft flight''' and '''fastest recorded aircraft flight of an air-breathing powered aircraft''' was of the [[NASA X-43]]A ''Pegasus'', a [[scramjet]]-powered, [[Hypersonic speed|hypersonic]], [[lifting body]] experimental research aircraft, at '''[[Mach number|Mach]] 9.6 (nearly 7,000 mph).''' The X-43A set that new mark, and broke its own world record of Mach 6.3, nearly 5,000 mph, set in March 2004, on its third and final flight on 16 November 2004.<ref name="x43_nasa">[https://www.nasa.gov/missions/research/x43-main.html "Hypersonic X-43A Takes Flight.htm,"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161102015325/http://www.nasa.gov/missions/research/x43-main.html |date=2 November 2016}} [[NASA]] retrieved November 2016.</ref><ref name="fastest_air_breathing_2016_12_guinness">[http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/fastest-aircraft-air-breathing-engine "Fastest aircraft, air-breathing engine,"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220091658/http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/fastest-aircraft-air-breathing-engine |date=20 December 2016}} Guinness World Records, retrieved 2 December 2016.</ref> Prior to the X-43A, the '''fastest recorded powered airplane flight''' (and still the record for the '''fastest manned, powered airplane''' / '''fastest manned, non-spacecraft aircraft''') was of the [[North American X-15|North American X-15A-2]], '''rocket-powered airplane''' at 4,520 mph (7,274 km/h), Mach 6.72, on 3 October 1967. On one flight it reached an altitude of 354,300 feet.<ref name="aircraft_speed_records_aerospaceweb_org">Jackson, Doug, [http://www.aerospaceweb.org/question/performance/q0023.shtml "Ask Us – Aircraft Speed Records,"] 22 April 2001, Aerospaceweb.org, retrieved 22 November 2016.</ref><ref name="fastest_manned_non_spacecraft_2016_12_guinness">[http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/fastest-speed-in-a-non-spacecraft-aircraft "Fastest speed in a non-spacecraft aircraft,"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220054424/http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/fastest-speed-in-a-non-spacecraft-aircraft |date=20 December 2016}} Guinness World Records, retrieved 2 December 2016.</ref><ref name="fastest_airplanes_2014_09_17_flying_magz">Bergqvist, Pia, [http://www.flyingmag.com/aircraft/fastest-aircraft-top-performers-their-class "Fastest Airplanes: Top Performers in Their Class,"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170903072940/http://www.flyingmag.com/aircraft/fastest-aircraft-top-performers-their-class |date=3 September 2017}} 17 September 2014, ''[[Flying (magazine)|Flying]]'', retrieved 3 December 2016</ref> The '''fastest known, production aircraft''' (other than rockets and missiles) currently or formerly operational (as of 2016) are: * The fastest '''fixed-wing aircraft,''' and '''fastest glider,''' is the [[Space Shuttle]], a rocket-glider hybrid, which has re-entered the atmosphere as a fixed-wing glider at more than Mach 25 — ver 25 times the speed of sound, about 17,000 mph at re-entry to Earth's atmosphere.<ref name="aircraft_speed_records_aerospaceweb_org" /><ref name="speed_regimes_nasa">Benson, Tom, ed., [https://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/BGH/hihyper.html "Speed Regimes: Hypersonic Re-Entry,"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161123052843/https://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/BGH/hihyper.html |date=23 November 2016}} Glenn Research Center, [[NASA]], retrieved 22 November 2016.</ref> * The fastest '''military airplane''' ever built: [[Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird]], a U.S. [[reconnaissance]] jet fixed-wing aircraft, known to fly beyond Mach 3.3 (about 2,200 mph at cruising altitude). On 28 July 1976, an SR-71 set the record for the '''fastest and highest-flying operational aircraft''' with an '''absolute speed record of 2,193 mph''' and an '''absolute altitude record of 85,068 feet.''' At its retirement in the January 1990, it was the '''fastest air-breathing aircraft''' / '''fastest jet aircraft''' in the world, a record still standing {{as of|August 2016|lc=y}}.<ref name="aircraft_speed_records_aerospaceweb_org" /><ref>[https://www.nasa.gov/centers/armstrong/news/FactSheets/FS-030-DFRC.html "NASA Armstrong Fact Sheet: SR-71 Blackbird"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161123054447/https://www.nasa.gov/centers/armstrong/news/FactSheets/FS-030-DFRC.html |date=23 November 2016}} NASA. Retrieved 22 November 2016</ref><ref name="lockheed_2015_05_29_usaf_museum"> [http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/Visit/MuseumExhibits/FactSheets/Display/tabid/509/Article/198054/lockheed-sr-71a.aspx "Lockheed SR-71A,"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220161807/http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/Visit/MuseumExhibits/FactSheets/Display/tabid/509/Article/198054/lockheed-sr-71a.aspx |date=20 December 2016}} display notes, 29 May 2015, [[National Museum of the United States Air Force]] retrieved 2 December 2016</ref><ref name="sr71_gone_2016_12_02_usaf">Trujillo, Staff Sgt. Robert M.,[http://www.beale.af.mil/News/ArticleDisplay/tabid/6961/Article/667024/sr-71-blackbird-gone-but-not-forgotten.aspx "SR-71 Blackbird: Gone but not forgotten,"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220030831/http://www.beale.af.mil/News/ArticleDisplay/tabid/6961/Article/667024/sr-71-blackbird-gone-but-not-forgotten.aspx |date=20 December 2016}} 26 January 2016, 9th Reconnaissance Wing Public Affairs, U.S. Air Force, retrieved 2 December 2016</ref><ref name="absolute_speed_record_2016_07_27_ga_news">"Absolute speed record still stands 40 years later," 27 July 2016 ''General Aviation News'', retrieved 22 November 2016.</ref><ref name="sr71_pilots_2016_08_06_usaf">Woolen, Angela, [http://www.af.mil/News/ArticleDisplay/tabid/223/Article/909026/sr-71-pilots-crew-relive-absolute-speed-record.aspx "SR-71 pilots, crew relive absolute speed record,"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220031451/http://www.af.mil/News/ArticleDisplay/tabid/223/Article/909026/sr-71-pilots-crew-relive-absolute-speed-record.aspx |date=20 December 2016}} 9 August 2016, 78th Air Base Wing Public Affairs, United States Air Force, retrieved 2 December 2016</ref> :Note: Some sources refer to the above-mentioned X-15 as the "fastest military airplane" because it was partly a project of the U.S. Navy and Air Force; however, the X-15 was not used in non-experimental actual military operations.<ref name="fastest_airplanes_2014_09_17_flying_magz" /> * The '''fastest current military aircraft''' are the Soviet/Russian [[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-25]] — capable of Mach 3.2 (2,170 mph), at the expense of engine damage, or Mach 2.83 (1,920 mph) normally — and the Russian [[Mikoyan MiG-31]]E (also capable of Mach 2.83 normally). Both are fighter-interceptor jet airplanes, in active operations as of 2016.<ref name="9_fastest_planes_2015_09_18_business_insider"> Bender, Jeremy and Amanda Macias, [http://www.businessinsider.com/the-9-fastest-piloted-planes-in-the-world-2015-9/#mikoyan-gurevich-mig-25-foxbat-7 "The 9 fastest piloted planes in the world,"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220032130/http://www.businessinsider.com/the-9-fastest-piloted-planes-in-the-world-2015-9/ |date=20 December 2016}} 18 September 2015, ''Business Insider'', retrieved 3 December 2016</ref><ref name="fast_and_furious_2016_business_insider">[http://www.airforce-technology.com/features/featurefast-and-furious---the-worlds-fastest-military-aircraft-4214937/ "Fast and furious — the world's fastest military aircraft,"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220031242/http://www.airforce-technology.com/features/featurefast-and-furious---the-worlds-fastest-military-aircraft-4214937/ |date=20 December 2016}} ''Airforce Technology'', retrieved 3 December 2016</ref><ref name="five_fastest_military_2016_bloomberg">[https://www.bloomberg.com/news/videos/b/b8c1600e-38db-4bca-aed1-ccb4539f91dc The Five Fastest Military Jets Ever Made","] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160806085553/http://www.bloomberg.com/news/videos/b/b8c1600e-38db-4bca-aed1-ccb4539f91dc |date=6 August 2016}} 2016, Bloomberg, retrieved 3 December 2016</ref> * The fastest '''civilian airplane''' ever built, and '''fastest passenger airliner''' ever built: the briefly operated [[Tupolev Tu-144]] supersonic jet airliner (Mach 2.35, 1,600 mph, 2,587 km/h), which was believed to cruise at about Mach 2.2. The Tu-144 (officially operated from 1968 to 1978, ending after two crashes of the small fleet) was outlived by its rival, the ''[[Concorde]]'' (Mach 2.23), a French/British supersonic airliner, known to cruise at Mach 2.02 (1.450 mph, 2,333 kmh at cruising altitude), operating from 1976 until the small Concorde fleet was grounded permanently in 2003, following the crash of one in the early 2000s.<ref name="aircraft_speed_records_aerospaceweb_org" /><ref name="fastest_airplanes_2014_09_17_flying_magz" /><ref name="fastest_airliner_aerospaceweb_org" /><ref name="fastest_airliner_2016_12_guinness">[http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/fastest-aircraft-airliner "Fastest aircraft, airliner,"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220164223/http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/fastest-aircraft-airliner |date=20 December 2016}} Guinness World Records, retrieved 2 December. 2016.</ref> * The fastest '''civilian airplane currently flying''': the [[Cessna Citation X]], an American business jet, capable of Mach 0.935 (over 600 mph at cruising altitude). Its rival, the American [[Gulfstream G650]] business jet, can reach Mach 0.925<ref name="aircraft_speed_records_aerospaceweb_org" /><ref name="fastest_airplanes_2014_09_17_flying_magz" /><ref>Whitfield, Bethany, [http://www.flyingmag.com/aircraft/jets/cessna-citation-ten-chases-mach-0935-top-speed "Cessna Citation Ten Chases Mach 0.935 Top Speed: Jet would retake speed prize from G650,"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160720144729/http://www.flyingmag.com/aircraft/jets/cessna-citation-ten-chases-mach-0935-top-speed |date=20 July 2016}} 28 August 2012, ''[[Flying (magazine)|Flying]]'', retrieved 22 November 2016.</ref><ref name="cessna_rolls_out_2016_04_15_wbj">[http://www.bizjournals.com/wichita/news/2013/04/15/cessna-rolls-out-first-production-unit.html "Cessna rolls out first production unit of new Citation X,"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161122221443/http://www.bizjournals.com/wichita/news/2013/04/15/cessna-rolls-out-first-production-unit.html |date=22 November 2016}} 15 April 2013, ''Wichita Business Journal'', retrieved 22 November 2016.</ref> * The fastest '''airliner currently flying''' is the [[Boeing 747]], quoted as being capable of cruising over Mach 0.885 (over 550 mph). Previously, the fastest were the troubled, short-lived Russian (Soviet Union) [[Tupolev Tu-144]] SST (Mach 2.35) and the French/British ''Concorde'' (Mach 2.23, normally cruising at Mach 2) .<ref name="aircraft_speed_records_aerospaceweb_org" /><ref name="fastest_airliner_aerospaceweb_org">[http://www.aerospaceweb.org/question/design/q0188.shtml "Ask Us – Fastest Airliner and Area Rule,"] Aerospaceweb.org, retrieved 22 November 2016.</ref><ref name="fastest_airliner_2016_12_guinness" /> Before them, the [[Convair 990 Coronado]] jet airliner of the 1960s flew at over 600 mph. {{Main|Flight airspeed record}} == Propulsion == === Unpowered aircraft === {{Main|Unpowered aircraft}} [[Glider (aircraft)|Gliders]] are heavier-than-air aircraft that do not employ propulsion once airborne. Take-off may be by launching forward and downward from a high location, or by pulling into the air on a tow-line, either by a ground-based winch or vehicle, or by a powered "tug" aircraft. For a glider to maintain its forward air speed and lift, it must descend in relation to the air (but not necessarily in relation to the ground). Many gliders can "soar", ''i.e.'', gain height from updrafts such as thermal currents. The first practical, controllable example was designed and built by the British scientist and pioneer [[George Cayley]], whom many recognise as the first aeronautical engineer. Common examples of gliders are [[Glider (sailplane)|sailplanes]], [[Hang gliding|hang gliders]] and [[Paragliding|paragliders]]. [[Balloon (aeronautics)|Balloons]] drift with the wind, though normally the pilot can control the altitude, either by heating the air or by releasing ballast, giving some directional control (since the wind direction changes with altitude). A wing-shaped hybrid balloon can glide directionally when rising or falling; but a spherically shaped balloon does not have such directional control. [[Kite]]s are aircraft<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/guided.htm|title=Guided Tours of the BGA|work=nasa.gov|access-date=1 April 2015|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150325054529/http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/guided.htm|archivedate=25 March 2015}}</ref> that are tethered to the ground or other object (fixed or mobile) that maintains tension in the tether or [[kite line]]; they rely on virtual or real wind blowing over and under them to generate lift and drag. [[Kytoon]]s are balloon-kite hybrids that are shaped and tethered to obtain kiting deflections, and can be lighter-than-air, neutrally buoyant, or heavier-than-air. === Powered aircraft === {{Main|Powered aircraft}} Powered aircraft have one or more onboard sources of mechanical power, typically [[aircraft engine]]s although rubber and manpower have also been used. Most aircraft engines are either lightweight [[reciprocating engine]]s or [[gas turbine]]s. Engine fuel is stored in tanks, usually in the wings but larger aircraft also have additional [[fuel tank]]s in the [[fuselage]]. ==== Propeller aircraft ==== {{Main|Powered aircraft#Propeller aircraft}} [[File:WestCoastAirFloatplane.jpg|thumb|A [[turboprop]]-engined [[De Havilland Canada DHC-6 Twin Otter|DeHavilland Twin Otter]] adapted as a [[Seaplane|floatplane]]]] [[Powered aircraft#Propeller aircraft|Propeller aircraft]] use one or more [[Propeller (aeronautics)|propellers]] (airscrews) to create thrust in a forward direction. The propeller is usually mounted in front of the power source in ''[[tractor configuration]]'' but can be mounted behind in ''[[pusher configuration]]''. Variations of propeller layout include ''[[contra-rotating propellers]]'' and ''[[ducted fan]]s''. Many kinds of power plant have been used to drive propellers. Early airships used man power or [[Steam aircraft|steam engines]]. The more practical [[Internal combustion engine|internal combustion piston engine]] was used for virtually all fixed-wing aircraft until [[World War II]] and is still used in many smaller aircraft. Some types use turbine engines to drive a propeller in the form of a [[turboprop]] or [[propfan]]. [[History of human-powered aircraft|Human-powered flight]] has been achieved, but has not become a practical means of transport. Unmanned aircraft and models have also used power sources such as [[Electric aircraft|electric motors]] and rubber bands. ==== Jet aircraft ==== {{Main|Jet aircraft}} [[File:Lockheed Martin F-22A Raptor JSOH.jpg|thumb| [[Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor|Lockheed Martin F-22A Raptor]]]] [[Jet aircraft]] use [[airbreathing jet engine]]s, which take in air, burn fuel with it in a [[combustion chamber]], and accelerate the exhaust rearwards to provide thrust. [[Turbojet]] and [[turbofan]] engines use a spinning turbine to drive one or more fans, which provide additional thrust. An [[afterburner]] may be used to inject extra fuel into the hot exhaust, especially on military "fast jets". Use of a turbine is not absolutely necessary: other designs include the [[pulsejet]] and [[ramjet]]. These mechanically simple designs cannot work when stationary, so the aircraft must be launched to flying speed by some other method. Other variants have also been used, including the [[motorjet]] and hybrids such as the [[Pratt & Whitney J58]], which can convert between turbojet and ramjet operation. Compared to propellers, jet engines can provide much higher thrust, higher speeds and, above about {{Convert|40000|ft|m|abbr=on}}, greater efficiency.<ref name=hist8>{{Cite web|url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/pao/History/SP-468/ch10-3.htm|title=ch10-3|publisher=Hq.nasa.gov|access-date=26 March 2010|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100914184628/http://www.hq.nasa.gov/pao/History/SP-468/ch10-3.htm|archivedate=14 September 2010}}</ref> They are also much more fuel-efficient than [[rocket]]s. As a consequence nearly all large, high-speed or high-altitude aircraft use jet engines. ==== Rotorcraft ==== {{Main|Rotorcraft}} Some rotorcraft, such as [[helicopter]]s, have a powered rotary wing or ''rotor'', where the rotor disc can be angled slightly forward so that a proportion of its lift is directed forwards. The rotor may, like a propeller, be powered by a variety of methods such as a piston engine or turbine. Experiments have also used [[Tip jet|jet nozzles at the rotor blade tips]]. ==== Other types of powered aircraft ==== * ''[[Rocket-powered aircraft]]'' have occasionally been experimented with, and the [[Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet|Messerschmitt Me 163 ''Komet'']] fighter even saw action in the Second World War. Since then, they have been restricted to research aircraft, such as the [[North American X-15]], which traveled up into space where air-breathing engines cannot work (rockets carry their own oxidant). Rockets have more often been used as a supplement to the main power plant, typically for the [[JATO|rocket-assisted take off]] of heavily loaded aircraft, but also to provide high-speed dash capability in some hybrid designs such as the [[Saunders-Roe SR.53]]. * The ''[[ornithopter]]'' obtains thrust by flapping its wings. It has found practical use in a [[Ornithopter#Applications for unmanned ornithopters|model hawk]] used to freeze prey animals into stillness so that they can be captured, and in toy birds. == Design and construction == Aircraft are [[aircraft design process|designed]] according to many factors such as customer and manufacturer demand, [[Aviation safety|safety]] protocols and physical and economic constraints. For many types of aircraft the design process is regulated by national airworthiness authorities. The key parts of an aircraft are generally divided into three categories: * The ''structure'' comprises the main load-bearing elements and associated equipment. * The ''propulsion system'' (if it is powered) comprises the power source and associated equipment, as described above. * The ''avionics'' comprise the control, navigation and communication systems, usually electrical in nature. === Structure === The approach to structural design varies widely between different types of aircraft. Some, such as paragliders, comprise only flexible materials that act in tension and rely on aerodynamic pressure to hold their shape. A [[Balloon (aeronautics)|balloon]] similarly relies on internal gas pressure, but may have a rigid basket or gondola slung below it to carry its payload. Early aircraft, including [[airship]]s, often employed flexible [[Aircraft dope|doped]] [[aircraft fabric covering]] to give a reasonably smooth aeroshell stretched over a rigid frame. Later aircraft employed semi-[[monocoque]] techniques, where the skin of the aircraft is stiff enough to share much of the flight loads. In a true monocoque design there is no internal structure left. The key structural parts of an aircraft depend on what type it is. ==== Aerostats ==== {{Main|Aerostat}} Lighter-than-air types are characterised by one or more gasbags, typically with a supporting structure of flexible cables or a rigid framework called its hull. Other elements such as engines or a gondola may also be attached to the supporting structure. ==== Aerodynes ==== [[File:Merlin Airframe Material.jpg|thumb|Airframe diagram for an [[AgustaWestland AW101]] [[helicopter]]]] Heavier-than-air types are characterised by one or more wings and a central [[fuselage]]. The fuselage typically also carries a tail or [[empennage]] for stability and control, and an undercarriage for takeoff and landing. Engines may be located on the fuselage or wings. On a [[fixed-wing aircraft]] the wings are rigidly attached to the fuselage, while on a [[rotorcraft]] the wings are attached to a rotating vertical shaft. Smaller designs sometimes use flexible materials for part or all of the structure, held in place either by a rigid frame or by air pressure. The fixed parts of the structure comprise the [[airframe]]. === Avionics === {{Main|Avionics}} The avionics comprise the [[aircraft flight control system]]s and related equipment, including the [[cockpit]] instrumentation, navigation, [[radar]], monitoring, and [[communications system]]s. == Flight characteristics == === Flight envelope === {{Main|Flight envelope}} The flight envelope of an aircraft refers to its approved design capabilities in terms of [[airspeed]], [[Load factor (aeronautics)|load factor]] and altitude.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ecfr.gpoaccess.gov/cgi/t/text/text-idx?type=simple;c=ecfr;cc=ecfr;sid=a8f38006e777ba46ba8000f7c2fe6641;region=DIV1;q1=23.335;rgn=div8;view=text;idno=14;node=14%3A1.0.1.3.10.3.70.8|title=eCFR — Code of Federal Regulations|work=gpoaccess.gov|access-date=1 April 2015|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402202400/http://ecfr.gpoaccess.gov/cgi/t/text/text-idx?type=simple%3Bc%3Decfr%3Bcc%3Decfr%3Bsid%3Da8f38006e777ba46ba8000f7c2fe6641%3Bregion%3DDIV1%3Bq1%3D23.335%3Brgn%3Ddiv8%3Bview%3Dtext%3Bidno%3D14%3Bnode%3D14%3A1.0.1.3.10.3.70.8|archivedate=2 April 2012}}</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20100601204507/http://www.access.gpo.gov/ecfr/graphics/pdfs/ec28se91.001.pdf Flight envelope – diagram]</ref> The term can also refer to other assessments of aircraft performance such as maneuverability. When an aircraft is abused, for instance by diving it at too-high a speed, it is said to be flown ''outside the envelope'', something considered foolhardy since it has been taken beyond the design limits which have been established by the manufacturer. Going beyond the envelope may have a known outcome such as flutter or entry to a non-recoverable spin (possible reasons for the boundary). === Range === [[File:Boeing 777-200LR banking over mountain.jpg|thumb|The [[Boeing 777#777-200LR|Boeing 777-200LR]] is one of the longest-range airliners, capable of flights of more than halfway around the world.]] {{Main|Range (aeronautics)}} The range is the distance an aircraft can fly between [[takeoff]] and [[landing]], as limited by the time it can remain airborne. For a powered aircraft the time limit is determined by the fuel load and rate of consumption. For an unpowered aircraft, the maximum flight time is limited by factors such as weather conditions and pilot endurance. Many aircraft types are restricted to daylight hours, while balloons are limited by their supply of lifting gas. The range can be seen as the average ground speed multiplied by the maximum time in the air. The [[Airbus A350]] is now the longest range airliner. === Flight dynamics === {{Main|Flight dynamics (fixed-wing aircraft)}} [[File:Flight dynamics with text.png|right|200px]] '''Flight dynamics''' is the science of air vehicle orientation and control in three dimensions. The three critical flight dynamics parameters are the [[Angle of rotation|angles of rotation]] around [[Aircraft principal axes|three axes]] which pass through the vehicle's [[Center of mass#Center of gravity|center of gravity]], known as ''[[Aircraft principal axes#Pitch|pitch]]'', ''[[Aircraft principal axes#Roll|roll]],'' and ''[[Aircraft principal axes#Yaw|yaw]]''. * Roll is a rotation about the longitudinal axis (equivalent to the rolling or [[Sailing#Heeling|heeling]] of a ship) giving an up-down movement of the wing tips measured by the roll or bank angle. * Pitch is a rotation about the sideways horizontal axis giving an up-down movement of the aircraft nose measured by the [[angle of attack]]. * Yaw is a rotation about the vertical axis giving a side-to-side movement of the nose known as sideslip. Flight dynamics is concerned with the stability and control of an aircraft's rotation about each of these axes. ==== Stability ==== [[File:Aircraft tail.JPG|thumb|The [[empennage]] of a [[Boeing 747|Boeing 747–200]]]] An aircraft that is unstable tends to diverge from its intended flight path and so is difficult to fly. A very stable aircraft tends to stay on its flight path and is difficult to maneuver. Therefore, it is important for any design to achieve the desired degree of stability. Since the widespread use of digital computers, it is increasingly common for designs to be inherently unstable and rely on computerised control systems to provide artificial stability. A fixed wing is typically unstable in pitch, roll, and yaw. Pitch and yaw stabilities of conventional fixed wing designs require [[Stabilizer (aeronautics)|horizontal and vertical stabilisers]],<ref name="Crane">Crane, Dale: ''Dictionary of Aeronautical Terms, third edition'', p. 194. Aviation Supplies & Academics, 1997. {{ISBN|1-56027-287-2}}</ref><ref name="GroundUp">Aviation Publishers Co. Limited, ''From the Ground Up'', p. 10 (27th revised edition) {{ISBN|0-9690054-9-0}}</ref> which act similarly to the feathers on an arrow.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.airlines.org/ATAResources/Handbook/Pages/AirlineHandbookChapter5HowAircraftFly.aspx |title=Airline Handbook Chapter 5: How Aircraft Fly |work=Airline Handbook |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100620150339/http://airlines.org/ATAResources/Handbook/Pages/AirlineHandbookChapter5HowAircraftFly.aspx |archivedate=20 June 2010 |publisher=[[Airlines for America|Air Transport Association]]}}</ref> These stabilizing surfaces allow equilibrium of aerodynamic forces and to stabilise the [[flight dynamics]] of pitch and yaw.<ref name="Crane" /><ref name="GroundUp" /> They are usually mounted on the tail section ([[empennage]]), although in the [[Canard (aeronautics)|canard]] layout, the main aft wing replaces the canard foreplane as pitch stabilizer. [[Tandem wing]] and [[tailless aircraft]] rely on the same general rule to achieve stability, the aft surface being the stabilising one. A rotary wing is typically unstable in yaw, requiring a vertical stabiliser. A balloon is typically very stable in pitch and roll due to the way the payload is slung underneath the center of lift. ==== Control ==== [[Flight control surfaces]] enable the pilot to control an aircraft's [[Flight dynamics (fixed-wing aircraft)|flight attitude]] and are usually part of the wing or mounted on, or integral with, the associated stabilizing surface. Their development was a critical advance in the history of aircraft, which had until that point been uncontrollable in flight. [[Aerospace engineering|Aerospace engineers]] develop [[control system]]s for a vehicle's orientation (attitude) about its [[center of mass]]. The control systems include actuators, which exert forces in various directions, and generate rotational forces or [[Moment (physics)|moments]] about the [[aerodynamic center]] of the aircraft, and thus rotate the aircraft in pitch, roll, or yaw. For example, a [[pitching moment]] is a vertical force applied at a distance forward or aft from the aerodynamic center of the aircraft, causing the aircraft to pitch up or down. Control systems are also sometimes used to increase or decrease drag, for example to slow the aircraft to a safe speed for landing. The two main aerodynamic forces acting on any aircraft are lift supporting it in the air and [[Drag (physics)|drag]] opposing its motion. Control surfaces or other techniques may also be used to affect these forces directly, without inducing any rotation. == Impacts of aircraft use == {{Main|Environmental impact of aviation}} Aircraft permit long distance, high speed [[Air travel|travel]] and may be a more [[Energy efficiency in transport#Aircraft|fuel efficient]] mode of transportation in some circumstances. Aircraft have [[Environmental impact of aviation|environmental and climate impacts]] beyond fuel efficiency considerations, however. They are also relatively [[Aircraft noise pollution|noisy]] compared to other forms of travel and high altitude aircraft generate [[contrail]]s, which experimental evidence suggests may [[global dimming|alter weather patterns]]. == Uses for aircraft == Aircraft are produced in several different types optimized for various uses; [[military aircraft]], which includes not just combat types but many types of supporting aircraft, and [[civil aviation|civil aircraft]], which include all non-military types, experimental and model. === Military === [[File:Color Photographed B-17E in Flight.jpg|thumb|[[Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress|Boeing B-17E]] in flight]] {{Main|Military aircraft}} A military aircraft is any aircraft that is operated by a legal or insurrectionary armed service of any type.<ref name="gunston" /> Military aircraft can be either combat or non-combat: * Combat aircraft are aircraft designed to destroy enemy equipment using its own armament.<ref name="gunston" /> Combat aircraft divide broadly into [[Fighter aircraft|fighters]] and [[bomber]]s, with several in-between types, such as [[fighter-bomber]]s and [[attack aircraft]], including [[attack helicopter]]s. * Non-combat aircraft are not designed for combat as their primary function, but may carry weapons for self-defense. Non-combat roles include search and rescue, reconnaissance, observation, transport, training, and [[aerial refueling]]. These aircraft are often variants of civil aircraft. Most military aircraft are powered heavier-than-air types. Other types, such as gliders and balloons, have also been used as military aircraft; for example, balloons were used for observation during the [[American Civil War]] and [[World War I]], and [[military glider]]s were used during [[World War II]] to land troops. === Civil === [[File:Pilatus Agusta A109 Flug.jpg|thumb|[[AgustaWestland AW109|Agusta A109]] helicopter of the [[Rega (air rescue)|Swiss air rescue service]]]] {{Main|Civil aviation}} Civil aircraft divide into ''commercial'' and ''general'' types, however there are some overlaps. [[Commercial aviation|Commercial aircraft]] include types designed for scheduled and charter airline flights, carrying passengers, [[Airmail|mail]] and other [[cargo]]. The larger passenger-carrying types are the airliners, the largest of which are [[wide-body aircraft]]. Some of the smaller types are also used in [[general aviation]], and some of the larger types are used as [[Air transports of heads of state and government|VIP aircraft]]. [[General aviation]] is a catch-all covering other kinds of [[Private aviation|private]] (where the pilot is not paid for time or expenses) and commercial use, and involving a wide range of aircraft types such as [[Business jet|business jets (bizjets)]], [[Trainer aircraft|trainers]], [[Homebuilt aircraft|homebuilt]], [[glider (aircraft)|gliders]], [[warbird]]s and [[hot air balloon]]s to name a few. The vast majority of aircraft today are general aviation types. === Experimental === {{Main|Experimental aircraft}} An experimental aircraft is one that has not been fully proven in flight, or that carries a [[Airworthiness certificate#Special Airworthiness Certificate|Special Airworthiness Certificate]], called an Experimental Certificate in United States parlance. This often implies that the aircraft is testing new aerospace technologies, though the term also refers to amateur-built and kit-built aircraft, many of which are based on proven designs. [[File:MiniCeline ultralight aircraft.jpeg|thumb|A model aircraft, weighing six grams]] === Model === {{Main|Model aircraft}} A model aircraft is a small unmanned type made to fly for fun, for static display, for aerodynamic research or for other purposes. A [[scale model]] is a replica of some larger design. == See also == === Lists === * [[Early flying machines]] * [[Flight altitude record]] * [[List of aircraft]] * [[Flight altitude record]] * [[wikt:Appendix:Glossary of aviation, aerospace, and aeronautics|List of aviation, aerospace and aeronautical terms]] * [[List of civil aircraft]] * [[List of fighter aircraft]] * [[List of individual aircraft]] * [[List of large aircraft]] === Topics === {| | width=200px valign=top| * [[Aircraft spotting]] * [[Air traffic control]] * [[Airport]] * [[Flying car]] * [[Personal air vehicle]] * [[Powered parachute]] | width=10px| | width=160px valign=top| * [[Rocket]] * [[Spacecraft]] * [[Spaceplane]] * [[Steam aircraft]] |} == References == {{Reflist|30em|refs= <ref name="gunston">Gunston 1986, p. 274</ref> }} * {{Cite book |last= Gunston |first= Bill |title=Jane's Aerospace Dictionary 1987 |year=1987 |publisher=Jane's Publishing Company Limited |location=London, England |isbn=978-0-7106-0365-4}} == External links == {{Wiktionary|aircraft}} {{Commons category|Aircraft}} ;History * [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-468/contents.htm The Evolution of Modern Aircraft (NASA)] * [http://invention.psychology.msstate.edu/Tale_of_Airplane/taleplane.html Virtual Museum] * [http://www.nasm.si.edu/ Smithsonian Air and Space Museum] — Online collection with a particular focus on history of aircraft and spacecraft * [http://www.life.com/image/first/in-gallery/36582/amazing-early-flying-machines Amazing Early Flying Machines] slideshow by ''[[Life (magazine)|Life]]'' magazine ;Information * [http://www.airliners.net/ Airliners.net] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080624032037/http://www.aviationdictionary.org/ Aviation Dictionary] Free aviation terms, phrases and jargons * [https://www.newscientist.com/topic/aviation ''New Scientist's'' Aviation page] {{Aircraft types (by method of thrust and lift)}} {{Lists of aircraft}} {{Aircraft components}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Aircraft| ]] {{pp-move-vandalism|small=yes}} {{redirect|WP:VANDAL|Vandalism-only account|Wikipedia:VOA}} {{short description|English Wikipedia policy on editing deliberately intended to obstruct or defeat the Wikipedia project's purpose}} {{Hatnote|This is not a noticeboard for vandalism. Please report vandalism from specific users at [[Wikipedia:Administrator intervention against vandalism]], or [[Wikipedia:Requests for page protection]] for specific pages.}} {{Other uses|Vandalism (disambiguation)}} {{Distinguish|Wikipedia:Disruptive editing}} <noinclude>{{pp-vand|small=yes}}{{pp-move-indef}}</noinclude> {{Policy|WP:VD|WP:VAND|WP:VANDAL}} {{nutshell|Intentionally making abusive edits to Wikipedia will result in a [[Wikipedia:Blocking policy|block]].}} {{Wikipedia vandalism}} {{conduct policy list}} [[File:Wikipedia vandalism.svg|thumb|400px|The image shows the replacing of a content with an insult. This is a good example of vandalism in Wikipedia.]] On Wikipedia, '''vandalism''' has a very specific meaning: editing (or other behavior) {{em|{{strong|deliberately}} intended to obstruct or defeat the [[Wikipedia:Five pillars|project's purpose]]}}, which is to create a free encyclopedia, in a variety of languages, presenting the sum of all human knowledge. The malicious [[WP:PRESERVE|removal]] of encyclopedic content, or the changing of such content beyond all recognition, without any regard to our core content policies of [[Wikipedia:Neutral point of view|neutral point of view]] (which does not mean [[WP:YESPOV|no point of view]]), [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] and [[Wikipedia:No original research|no original research]], is a {{em|deliberate}} attempt to damage Wikipedia. There are, of course, more juvenile forms of vandalism, such as adding irrelevant [[Wikipedia:Offensive material|obscenities or crude humor]] to a page, illegitimately blanking pages, and inserting obvious nonsense into a page. Abusive creation or usage of user accounts and IP addresses may also constitute vandalism. {{strong|Vandalism is prohibited.}} While editors are encouraged to [[#Warnings|warn]] and [[Wikipedia:Blocking policy#Preliminary: education and warnings|educate]] vandals, warnings are by no means a prerequisite for blocking a vandal (although administrators usually block only when multiple warnings have been issued). Even if misguided, willfully against consensus, or disruptive, any [[Wikipedia:Assume good faith|good-faith]] effort to improve the encyclopedia is {{em|not}} vandalism. For example, [[Wikipedia:Edit warring|edit warring]] over how exactly to present encyclopedic content is not vandalism. Careful consideration may be required to differentiate between edits that are beneficial, edits that are detrimental but well-intentioned, and edits that are vandalism. If it is clear that an editor is intending to improve Wikipedia, their edits are not vandalism, {{em|even if}} they violate some core policy of Wikipedia. Mislabeling good-faith edits "vandalism" can be harmful, as it makes users less likely to respond to corrective advice or to engage collaboratively during a disagreement. For that reason, avoid using the term "vandalism" unless it is clear the user means to harm Wikipedia; this is even true when warning a user with a [[Wikipedia:Template messages/User talk namespace|standard warning template]]. Choose the template that most closely matches the behavior you are trying to correct. {{TOC limit|2}} ==Handling== Upon discovering vandalism, [[Help:Reverting|revert]] such edits, using the undo function or an [[Wikipedia:Cleaning up vandalism/Tools|anti-vandalism tool]]. Once the vandalism is undone, [[#Warnings|warn]] the vandalizing editor. Notify [[Wikipedia:Administrators|administrators]] at the [[Wikipedia:Administrator intervention against vandalism|vandalism noticeboard]] of editors who continue to vandalize after multiple warnings, and administrators should intervene to preserve content and prevent further disruption by [[Wikipedia:Blocking policy|blocking]] such editors. Users whose [[Wikipedia:Vandalism-only account|main or sole purpose is clearly vandalism]] may be blocked indefinitely without warning. ==How to spot vandalism== {{Policy shortcut|WP:HTSV|WP:SPOTVAN}} Useful ways to detect vandalism include: * [[Wikipedia:Recent changes patrol|Recent changes patrolling]], using the [[Special:Recentchanges|recent changes]] link to spot suspicious edits * Keeping an eye on your [[Special:Watchlist|watchlist]] * The [[Help:Page history|edit history]] of an article may be checked for any recent suspicious edits, and compared with the version after any previous revert or cluster of non-suspicious edits. This method can check many suspicious edits at the same time. The article size, as given in bytes, usually increases slightly with time, while a sudden large decrease may indicate a [[wp:section blanking|section blanking]]. {{quote box|width=23em|Even in Rome itself, the City of the Popes, the vandalism of the ignorant wrought dreadful havoc. |salign=right|source=Rev. James MacCaffrey, ''History of the Catholic Church From the Renaissance to the {{nobr|French Revolution}}''}} In all the three methods above, examples of suspicious edits are those performed by IP addresses, [[WP:RED|red linked]], or obviously improvised usernames. A good way to start is to click on every edit in watchlists, histories etc. with the least suspicion of being vandalism. Increased experience will probably give a sense of which edit descriptions are worth to check further and which may likely be ignored. Some descriptions like "Fixed typo" may be vandalism as that is one of the default edit summaries. IP editors should not be approached with the assumption that they are vandals. Although many vandals do vandalize without registering an account, there are many IP editors who are [[WP:HUMAN|great contributors to Wikipedia]]. Always read the actual changes made and judge on that, rather than who made the changes or what was entered in the [[Help:Edit summary|edit summary]]. * See the [[Help:What links here|what links here]] pages for [[Special:Whatlinkshere/Insert text|Insert text]], [[Special:Whatlinkshere/Link title|Link title]], [[Special:Whatlinkshere/Headline text|Headline text]], [[Special:Whatlinkshere/Bold text|Bold text]] and [[Special:Whatlinkshere/File:Example.jpg|Example Image]] to detect test edits. (See also {{tl|toolbar experiments}}) * The [[Wikipedia:automatic edit summaries|auto-summary feature]] can also help users spot vandalism. * Viewing the [[Special:AbuseLog|abuse log]] or this version[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:RecentChanges?hidebots=1&hidepreviousrevisions=1&tagfilter=de-userfying%7Cadding+email+address%7Cremoval+of+articles+for+deletion+template%7CExtraneous+formatting%7Cmw-blank%7Cblanking%7Ccanned+edit+summary%7Ccategories+removed%7Cchanging+height+or+weight%7CCiting+predatory+open+access+journal%7Cremoval+of+COI+template%7Cmw-contentmodelchange%7Ccontenttranslation%7Cremoval+of+copyvio+templates%7Cextraneous+markup%7Cbad+external%7Cmobile+app+edit%7Cmobile+edit%7Cmobile+web+edit%7Cnew+blank+article%7Cmw-new-redirect%7CRapid+reverts%7Cnon-English+content%7Cnonsense+characters%7Cnowiki+added%7Cautobiography%7Cpossible+libel+or+vandalism%7Ccoi-spam%7CPossible+self+promotion+in+userspace%7Cuserspace+spam%7Cpossible+vandalism%7CPossible+vandalism%7Cmw-changed-redirect-target%7Creferences+removed%7Cremoval+of+Category%3ALiving+People%7Cmw-removed-redirect%7Cpossible+link+spam%7Crepeating+characters%7Cmw-replace%7Creverting+anti-vandal+bot%7CPossible+disruption%7CSection+blanking%7Cself-renaming+and+bad+user+talk+moves%7Cshouting%7Cremoval+of+speedy+deletion+templates%7Ctalk+page+blanking%7CEnd+of+page+text%7Cunusual+redirect&limit=50&days=7&damaging__maybebad_color=c3&damaging__likelybad_color=c4&damaging__verylikelybad_color=c5&goodfaith__likelygood_color=c1&goodfaith__maybebad_color=c3&goodfaith__likelybad_color=c4&goodfaith__verylikelybad_color=c5&urlversion=2&highlight=1] if the regular abuse log is cluttered by spambots. * Watching for edits [[Special:tags|tagged]] by the abuse filter. However, many tagged edits are legitimate, so they should not be blindly reverted. That is, do not revert without at least reading the edit. * Plausible, subtle changes not supported by sources or by text elsewhere in the article, particularly without an edit summary, may suggest vandalism. Changing numbers, sometimes by 1, is a common stealth tactic. ==How to respond to vandalism== {{policy shortcut|WP:RVAN}} If you see vandalism in an article, the simplest thing to do is just to remove or undo it, but sometimes vandalism takes place on top of older, undetected vandalism. With undetected vandalism, editors may make edits without realizing the vandalism occurred. This can make it harder to detect and delete the vandalism, which is now hidden among other edits. Sometimes [[WP:Bots|bots]] try to fix collateral damage and accidentally make things worse. Check the [[Help:Page history|page history]] to make sure you're [[Help:Reverting|reverting]] to a "clean" version of the page. Alternatively, if you can't tell where the best place is, take your best guess and leave a note on the article's [[Wikipedia:Talk page guidelines|talk page]] so that someone more familiar with the page can address the issue—or you can manually remove the vandalism without reverting it. If you see vandalism on a list of changes (such as your [[Wikipedia:Watchlist|watchlist]]), then revert it immediately. You may use the "undo" button (and the automatic edit summary it generates), and mark the change as minor. It may be helpful to check the [[Help:Page history|page history]] to determine whether other recent edits by the same or other editors also represent vandalism. Repair all vandalism you can identify. For a new article, if all versions of the article are pure vandalism, mark it for {{strong|[[Wikipedia:Criteria for speedy deletion|speedy deletion]]}} by tagging it with {{tlx|Db-g3}}. To make vandalism reverts easier you can ask for the [[Wikipedia:Rollback|rollback feature]] to be enabled for your registered Wikipedia account. This feature is only for reverting vandalism and other obvious disruption, and lets you revert several recent edits with a single click. See [[Wikipedia:Requests for permissions]]. If you see that a user has added vandalism you may also check the {{strong|[[Help:User contributions|user's other contributions]]}} (click "User contributions" on the left sidebar of the screen). If most or all of these are obvious vandalism you may report the user immediately at [[Wikipedia:Administrator intervention against vandalism]], though even in this case you may consider issuing a warning first, unless there is an urgent need to block the user. Otherwise you can leave an appropriate [[wikipedia:Template messages/User talk namespace|warning message]] on the user's {{strong|[[Wikipedia:Talk page#User talk pages|talk page]]}}. Remember that any editor may freely remove messages from their own talk page, so they might appear only in the talk history. If a user continues to cause disruption after being warned, report them at [[Wikipedia:Administrator intervention against vandalism]]. An [[Wikipedia:Administrators|administrator]] will then decide whether to [[Wikipedia:Blocking policy|block]] the user. For repeated vandalism by an [[WP:IP|IP user]] it is helpful to trace the IP address (e.g. http://whois.domaintools.com/) and add {{tlx|whois|{{var|Name of owner}}}} to the user talk page of the address. If it appears to be a [[Proxy server|shared IP address]], add {{tlx|SharedIP|{{var|Name of owner}}}} or {{tlx|Shared IP edu|{{var|Name of owner}}}}. The ''OrgName'' on the IP trace result should be used as the <code>{{var|Name of owner}}</code> parameter in the above three templates. ===For beginners=== For relatively inexperienced Wikipedians, use these simple steps to quickly respond to what you consider vandalism. This is essentially an abridged version of '''Wikipedia:Vandalism'''. For a detailed guide, see [[User:Arnon Chaffin/Anti-Vandalism Center|Arnon Chaffin's Anti-Vandalism Center]]. # {{strong|Assess}} whether the edit was made in good or bad faith. If in good faith, it is {{em|not}} vandalism as such, so question the accuracy of information on the talk page or add an [[:Template:Inline cleanup tags|inline cleanup tag]], such as a "{{tl|dubious}}" tag, to the disputed edit. If it is in bad faith, then it {{em|is}} vandalism and you may take the appropriate steps to remove it. # {{strong|Revert}} the vandalism by viewing the page's history and selecting the most recent version of the page prior to the vandalism. Use an edit summary such as 'rv/v' or 'reverted vandalism' and click on 'Publish changes'. # {{strong|Warn}} the vandal. Access the vandal's talk page and warn them. A simple note explaining the problem with their editing is sufficient. If desired, a [[WP:UWT|series of warning templates]] exist to simplify the process of warning users, but {{strong|these templates are not required}}. These templates include #* Level one: {{tltts|uw-vandalism1}} This is a gentle caution regarding unconstructive edits; it encourages new editors to use a sandbox for test edits. This is the mildest warning. #* Level two: {{tltts|uw-vandalism2}} This warning is also fairly mild, though it explicitly uses the word 'vandalism' and links to this Wikipedia policy. #* Level three: {{tltts|uw-vandalism3}} This warning is sterner. It is the first to warn that further disruptive editing or vandalism may lead to a block. #* Level four: {{tltts|uw-vandalism4|}} This is the sharpest vandalism warning template, and indicates that any further disruptive editing may lead to a block without warning. #* Level four-im: {{tltts|uw-vandalism4im|}} This warning template should be used only in the worst conditions of vandalism. It indicates that this is the only warning the target will receive, and that further disruptive edits will result in a block without warning. # {{strong|Watch}} for future vandalism from the vandal by checking the user's contributions. If bad faith edits continue, revert them and warn them again, letting the users know that they can be blocked. Note that it is {{em|not}} necessary to use all four warning templates in succession, nor is it necessary to incrementally step through warnings. # {{strong|Report}} vandals that continue their behavior after being warned to [[Wikipedia:Administrator intervention against vandalism]]. While not strictly required, administrators there are most likely to respond rapidly to requests which include at least two warnings, culminating in the level-four "last chance" template. ===Template and CSS vandalism=== If no vandalizing edits appear in the page's edit history, or the vandalism obscures the page tabs so you can't easily access the history or edit the page, it is probably [[Wikipedia:Template|template]] or [[Help:Cascading style sheets|cascading style sheets]] vandalism. These are often not difficult to fix, but can be confusing. To access the page history or edit the page when the "View history" or "Edit" tabs are inaccessible, use [[Wikipedia:Keyboard shortcuts|Wikipedia keyboard shortcuts]]. You can also access the history through a [[Wikipedia:Cleaning up vandalism|vandalism patrolling tool]] if you're using one, or by going to another page and using the [[Wikipedia:My watchlist#Personal|"My Watchlist"]] link (if you are [[Help:Watching pages|watching the page]]) or [[Wikipedia:My watchlist#Personal|"My Contributions"]] link if you've edited the page recently. Or, enter the [[Uniform Resource Locator|URL]] manually into the [[address bar]] of your browser: it will take the form <code>https://<nowiki />en.wikipedia.org/wiki/{{var|Name_of_article}}?action=edit</code> or <code>https://<nowiki />en.wikipedia.org/wiki/{{var|Name_of_article}}?action=history</code>. If vandalizing edits do not appear in the page history, the vandalism is likely in a [[Wikipedia:Transclusion|transcluded]] template instead of the page itself. To find the template page, edit the article (using [[Wikipedia:Keyboard shortcuts|Wikipedia keyboard shortcuts]] if necessary); toward the bottom of the edit page is a list of all templates transcluded into the page. Look for vandalism in the transcluded templates not [[Wikipedia:Protection policy|protected]]. Alternatively, look for {{tlf|{{var|Template name}}}} or {{tlf|{{var|Template name}}|{{var|parameter{{nbsp}}...}}}} in the text, approximately where the vandalism appears, then go to the page Template:{{var|Template name}} and revert any vandalism. When you return to the original page, the vandalism should be gone, though you may need to [[Wikipedia:Purge|purge]] the page. ===Image vandalism=== [[WP:images|Images]] are occasionally used for vandalism, such as by placing shock or explicit images where they should not be. When an image has been created exclusively for vandalism, it can be requested for speedy deletion: under criterion [[WP:CSD|G3]] if hosted on Wikipedia or as [[Commons:Commons:Deletion policy#Self-promotion or vandalism/attack|vandalism]] if hosted on [[commons:|Commons]] (a file repository for [[Wikimedia Foundation]] projects). When an image is used for vandalism due to its explicit nature but has legitimate encyclopedic uses (Wikipedia [[WP:CENSOR|is not censored]]) or is hosted on Commons and has legitimate uses on other projects, it can be requested for being added to the [[MediaWiki talk:Bad image list|bad image list]], which precludes its addition on any page except those specified. ==How not to respond to vandalism== {{Policy shortcut|WP:NORESVAND}} [[File:Keep-calm-and-click-edit.svg|upright|200px|right|alt=Keep calm and click edit]] * Do not nominate an article for [[WP:DELETE|deletion]] because it is being vandalized. If an article is persistently vandalized, consider filing a request for [[WP:PROTECT|protection of the article]] at [[WP:RfPP]]. * Do not feed the [[Wikipedia:Deny recognition|trolls]]. Fanning the fire will only serve to make the situation worse. Similarly, [[Wikipedia:Do not insult the vandals|do not insult the vandals]]. If someone is doing something they know is wrong, insulting them over it is likely to make them vandalize more, just to get that reaction. Furthermore, [[Wikipedia:No personal attacks|Wikipedia is not the place for personal attacks]], it is [[Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not#BATTLE|not a battleground]], and [[Two wrongs make a right|two wrongs don't make a right]]. Instead, report them to the [[Wikipedia:Administrators|administrators]] if they continue. * [[Wikipedia:Avoid the word "vandal"|Avoid the word "vandal"]]. In particular, this word should not be used to refer to any contributor in good standing nor to any [[Wikipedia:Assume good faith|edits that might have been made in good faith]]. This is because if the edits were made in good faith, they are [[#NOT|not vandalism]]. Assume good faith yourself; instead of calling the person who made the edits a "vandal", discuss your concerns with him or her. Comment on the content and substance of the edits, instead of making [[ad hominem|personal attacks]]. {{clr}} ==Warnings== {{WarningsSmall|align=right}} {{Policy shortcut|WP:WARNVAND}} The purpose of warning a user who has vandalized is to inform the user that the user's conduct is abusive and prohibited, and seek the user's compliance. Not all that appears to be vandalism is in bad faith, and a warning can politely advise and correct users unaware of the nature of their actions. A warning may even dissuade a user acting in bad faith from continuing, particularly as the warnings escalate and the user is informed of the consequences of continuing. Warning a user for vandalism is generally a prerequisite to administrator intervention. Because of this, users should be warned for each and every instance of vandalism (see the guidance below on what constitutes a single instance). ===How to warn vandalizing users=== A list of user warning templates, with descriptions and instructions for their use, is at [[Wikipedia:Template messages/User talk namespace]]. In addition to a series of user warning templates for vandalism, there are series for specific types of vandalism. Use the most specific user warning template for the conduct. The existence of these templates is intended as a convenience, and {{strong|their use is not required}}. A specifically tailored note, written personally and directly addressing the problematic behavior is equally as acceptable as a form of warning, and in many cases, will often result in better engagement with the user in question. [[WP:Assume good faith|Assume good faith]] (such as that the user is simply unaware of the policies and guidelines) unless it is clear that the user is deliberately harming Wikipedia from the outset, such as the use of abusive, vulgar, or juvenile vandalism. If you do choose to use warning templates, please choose templates that are appropriate to the type and level of problem in question. If edits are questionable, but not clearly vandalism, consider using lower-level templates (level 1 or 2) and wait for a few further contributions to see if the other editor responds or changes their behavior. If the behavior continues, or if it is clear the edits are in bad faith from the outset, the use of a higher-level template (level 3 or 4) may be appropriate. If, after receiving multiple warnings, the behavior persists past the point where good faith can be extended, or it becomes clear that the user has {{em|had}} the opportunity to notice they have been warned, and they {{em|still}} persist with the problematic behavior, consider reporting them to [[WP:AIV|the Vandalism noticeboard]]. ===Administrator response to vandalism=== Response from administrators at the vandalism noticeboard varies depending on the type of vandalism and the specifics of the report. Keep in mind: *Admins are unlikely to block a user who has not been warned at all, or who has been warned, but has stopped editing since being warned. It must be clear that the user has been told to stop vandalizing, and still persists despite such warnings, except for egregious cases. *Reports of vandalism from registered accounts are handled differently than that from IP users, and reports from newly registered accounts are handled differently from accounts of well-experienced Wikipedia users. **IP addresses may or may not be kept by the same person for long periods of time; a dynamic address which appears to have stopped vandalizing will probably not be blocked, while one that {{em|is}} actively vandalizing will likely receive a short (1–2 day) block. If there is evidence that an IP address is being used by the same person over a long period of time to repeatedly vandalize Wikipedia, or if it is clear the IP address is being used by multiple people to vandalize Wikipedia (such as a school-based IP, which can sometimes attract lots of juvenile vandalism over long periods of time from many different people) then an administrator may block the IP for a longer time period (several months to a year). IP addresses are almost never blocked indefinitely. **Brand new accounts who repeatedly vandalize despite multiple warnings are usually blocked indefinitely, especially when there is no history of quality editing on the account. **Reports which involve experienced Wikipedia users rarely result in blocks for vandalism, as these reports are usually mislabeling other problematic behavior (such as misrepresenting sources, or removing text, or edit warring) as vandalism. The vandalism noticeboard is not designed to litigate disputes or to investigate complex behavior problems. Instead, other noticeboards such as [[WP:ANEW|the edit warring noticeboard]] or [[WP:ANI|The incidents noticeboard]] are more appropriate to deal with those issues. *Check back in to the vandalism noticeboard to see how your report has been dealt with. If an administrator declines to block someone you report, they will always leave a note explaining why they did not respond as you requested. Often, this does not mean the person you reported is behaving in a proper manner, or should not be dealt with, but merely that the {{em|mechanisms}} of the vandalism noticeboard are not well suited for handling many types of reports. Consider taking the issue up at a more appropriate noticeboard, which has been tailored to the specific type of problem you are seeing. Other times, a report is declined for being stale (blocks to abandoned accounts, or to IP addresses which have been dormant for some time are rarely done), or to the admin being unable to easily identify the edits as vandalism. *If the vandalism in question is "sneaky vandalism", is being committed by a person who was [[WP:SOCK|blocked under a prior account or IP address]], or requires in-depth and direct knowledge of a prior problem, consider taking the report to [[WP:ANI|the incidents noticeboard]] instead. There are hundreds of Wikipedia administrators, and many of them are unfamiliar with the intricacies of past cases. Unless it is the sort of vandalism that needs no explanation at all, it should be taken elsewhere and not [[WP:AIV]]. ===Reminding responding users to correctly warn=== Because warnings for vandalism are generally a prerequisite to administrator intervention, it is important that users responding to vandalism warn vandalizing users. To inform responding users of this responsibility, use the user warning template {{tl|uw-warn}}. Likewise, incorrect use of user warning templates, even if well-intended, should be identified to the mistaken user. The {{tl|uw-tempabuse}} series of user warning templates may be used, but a detailed talk page message is better. ==Tracing IP addresses== {{Policy shortcut|WP:WHOIS|WP:TRACEIP}} The owners of [[IP address]]es can be found using: * [http://whois.arin.net/ui ARIN] (North America) * [http://www.ripe.net/fcgi-bin/whois RIPE NCC] (Europe, the Middle East and Central Asia) * [http://www.apnic.net/apnic-info/whois_search APNIC] (Asia Pacific) * [http://lacnic.net/cgi-bin/lacnic/whois LACNIC] (Latin American and Caribbean) * [http://www.afrinic.net AfriNIC] (Africa) * [http://www.ipligence.com/geolocation/?lang=en&search# IPLigence] * {{sic|[http://www.ip-adress.com IP-adress.com]}} * [http://www.find-ip-address.org Find-IP-address.org] If an address is not in one registry, it will probably be in another. ===Identifying associated IP addresses=== <!-- Useful though possibly overly advanced options, trying to strike a balance between "useful" and "off into the weeds". --> If you're trying to determine whether a {{em|set}} of IP addresses involved in vandalism are related, a command-line WHOIS query will generally list this information, or can be shown using the [http://www.routeviews.org Routeviews] [[Domain Name System|DNS]] [[name server]] asn.routeviews.org reverse [[IP address|IP]] look-up to find the [[Classless Inter-Domain Routing|CIDR]] and [[Autonomous system (Internet)|ASN]] for a set of IP addresses. This can be done using [[IP address#Diagnostic tools|IP lookup tools]]. A [[Whois#Query example|WHOIS query]] will typically return NetRange, CIDR, NetName, NetHandle, and OriginAS, all of which identify specific network spaces. Data and labeling vary considerably by WHOIS registrar. The Routeviews data is far more uniformly structured and returns ASN and CIDR as a reverse-lookup TXT query result. It is more useful and faster than WHOIS when checking multiple IP addresses and can be scripted or automated. CIDR identifies a set of related addresses ("network space") and ASN identifies an [[Autonomous system (Internet)|Autonomous System]]—that is, a single administrative entity with control over multiple (and often very many) addresses. Some (though not all) abuse from multiple sources does come from such unified spaces—possibly corresponding to a set of hosts within a single facility. Abuse originating in a short period of time from different IP addresses within the same CIDR or ASN may indicate a dedicated non-distributed attack, as opposed to a [[Denial-of-service attack#Distributed attack|distributed denial of service attack]]. ===Proxies, VPNs and Tor exit nodes=== It's possible that a user's source location is being masked by routing traffic through a [[Proxy server]], [[VPN]] or the [[Tor (anonymity network)|Tor anonymity network]]. Such addresses typically serve many, not just one, person, and though they can be valid present challenges when used for abuse. A proxy VPN is not necessarily detectable, but commercial services may be indicated by the hostname when resolving an IP address. Users of the [[Tor (anonymity network)|Tor anonymity network]] will show the IP address of a Tor "exit node". Lists of known Tor exit nodes are available from the Tor Project's [https://check.torproject.org/cgi-bin/TorBulkExitList.py Tor Bulk Exit List exporting tool]. ==Types of vandalism== {{policy shortcut|WP:VANDTYPES}} Vandalism on Wikipedia usually falls into one or more of these categories: ===Abuse of tags=== Bad-faith placing of non-content tags such as {{tl|afd}}, {{tl|db}}, {{tl|sprotected}}, or other tags on pages that do not meet such criteria. This includes baseless removal of {{tl|policy}} and related tags. ===Account creation, malicious=== Creating accounts with usernames that contain deliberately offensive or disruptive terms is considered vandalism, whether the account is used or not. For Wikipedia's policy on what is considered inappropriate for a username, see [[Wikipedia:Username policy]]. See also [[Wikipedia:Sock puppetry]]. ===Avoidant vandalism=== Removing {{tl|afd}}, {{tl|copyvio}} and other related tags in order to conceal deletion candidates or avert deletion of such content. However, this is often mistakenly done by new users who are unfamiliar with AfD procedures and such users should be given the benefit of the doubt and pointed to the proper page to discuss the issue. ===Blanking, illegitimate=== {{for|legitimate cases of blanking articles|Wikipedia:Redirect#Redirects that replace previous articles}} {{anchor|Blanking}}[[WP:PRESERVE|Removing encyclopedic content]] without any reason, or replacing such content with nonsense. Content removal is {{em|not}} considered to be vandalism when the reason for the removal of the content is readily apparent by examination of the content itself, or where a non-frivolous explanation for the removal of apparently legitimate content is provided, linked to, or referenced in an edit summary. Blanking that could be legitimate includes blanking all or part of a [[WP:LIVING|biography of a living person]]. Wikipedia is especially concerned about providing accurate and unbiased information on the living; blanking may be an effort to remove inaccurate or biased material. Due to the possibility of unexplained good-faith content removal, {{tl|uw-test1}} or {{tl|uw-delete1}}, as appropriate, should be used as initial warnings for content removals without more descriptive edit summaries. ===Copyrighted material, repeated uploading of=== Uploading or using material on Wikipedia in ways which violate [[Wikipedia:Copyright problems|Wikipedia's copyright policies]] after having been warned is vandalism. Because users may be unaware that the information is copyrighted, or of Wikipedia policies on how such material may and may not be used, such action becomes vandalism {{em|only}} if it continues after the copyrighted nature of the material and relevant policy restricting its use have been communicated to the user. ===Edit summary vandalism=== Making offensive edit summaries in an attempt to leave a mark that cannot be easily expunged from the record (edit summaries cannot simply be "reverted" and require [[Wikipedia:Revision deletion|administrative action]] if they have to be removed from a page's history). Often combined with malicious account creation. ===Format vandalism=== Changing the formatting of a page unreasonably and maliciously. But many times, editors might just make an unintended mistake or are testing how the wikicode works. Sometimes it might be a bug in the Wikipedia software. Some changes to the format are not vandalism, but rather either good faith edits of editors who don't know the guidelines or simply a different opinion on how the format should look, in which case it is just a disputed edit. ===[[WP:GAME|Gaming the system]]=== Deliberate attempts to circumvent enforcement of Wikipedia policies, guidelines, and procedures by causing bad faith edits to go unnoticed. Includes marking bad faith edits as minor to get less scrutiny, making a minor edit following a bad faith edit so it won't appear on all watchlists, recreating previously deleted bad faith creations under a new title, use of the {{tl|construction}} tag to prevent deletion of a page that would otherwise be a clear candidate for deletion, or use of [[WP:SOCK|sock puppets]]. ===Hidden vandalism=== Any form of vandalism that makes use of embedded text, which is not visible to the final rendering of the article but visible during editing. This includes link vandalism, or placing malicious, offensive, or otherwise disruptive or irrelevant messages or spam in hidden comments for editors to see. ===[[WP:Hoaxes|Hoaxing vandalism]]=== <span id="VDHOAXES"></span>Deliberately adding falsities to articles, particularly to [[WP:BLP|biographies of living people]], with hoax information is considered vandalism. ===Image vandalism=== Uploading shock images, inappropriately placing explicit images on pages, or simply using any image in a way that is disruptive. Please note though that [[Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not#Wikipedia is not censored|Wikipedia is not censored for the protection of minors]] and that explicit images may be uploaded and/or placed on pages for legitimate reasons (that is, if they have encyclopedic value). ===Link vandalism=== Adding or changing internal or external links on a page to disruptive, irrelevant, or inappropriate targets while disguising them with mislabeling. ===Page creation, illegitimate=== Creating new pages with the sole intent of malicious behavior. It also includes [[WP:ATTACK|personal attack pages]] (articles written to disparage the subject), [[WP:HOAX|hoaxes]] and other intentionally inaccurate pages. There are many other types of pages that merit deletion, even [[WP:SPEEDY|speedy deletion]], but which are not vandalism. [[WP:NEWBIE|New users]] sometimes create test pages containing [[WP:NONSENSE|nonsense]] or even autobiographies, and doing so is not vandalism; such pages can also be moved to become their sandbox or userpage. Pages on non-notable topics are not vandalism. [[WP:SPAM|Blatant advertising pages]], and [[WP:POVPUSH|blatant POV pushes]], are not vandalism, but frequently happen and often lead to editors being blocked. It's important that people creating inappropriate pages be given appropriate communication; even if they aren't willing to edit within our rules, they are more likely to go away quietly if they understand why their page has been deleted. ===Page lengthening=== Adding very large (measured by the number of [[byte]]s) amounts of bad-faith content to a page so as to make the page's load time abnormally long or even make the page impossible to load on some computers without the browser or machine crashing. Adding large amounts of good-faith content is not vandalism, though prior to doing so, one should consider if splitting a long page may be appropriate (see [[Wikipedia:Article size]]). ===Page-move vandalism=== {{Policy shortcut|WP:MOVEVANDAL}} Changing the names of pages to disruptive, irrelevant, or otherwise inappropriate names. Only [[WP:Autoconfirmed|autoconfirmed]] or [[WP:CONFIRM|confirmed]] users can move pages. ===Silly vandalism=== Adding profanity, graffiti, or [[WP:Patent nonsense|patent nonsense]] to pages; creating nonsensical and obviously unencyclopedic pages, etc. It is one of the most common forms of vandalism. However, the addition of random characters to pages is often characteristic of an editing test and, though impermissible, may not be malicious. ==={{anchor|Sneaky vandalism}}Subtle vandalism=== {{Policy shortcut|WP:SNEAKY}} Vandalism that is harder to spot, or that otherwise circumvents detection, including adding plausible misinformation to articles (such as minor alteration of facts or additions of plausible-sounding hoaxes), hiding vandalism (such as by making two bad edits and reverting only one), simultaneously using multiple accounts or IP addresses to vandalize, abuse of maintenance and deletion templates, or reverting legitimate edits with the intent of hindering the improvement of pages. Impersonating other users by signing an edit with a different username or IP address also constitutes sneaky vandalism, but take care not to confuse this with appropriately correcting an unsigned edit made by another user. Some vandals even follow their vandalism with an edit that states "Rv vandalism" in the [[Help:Edit summary|edit summary]] in order to give the appearance the vandalism was reverted. ===[[Wikipedia:External links#AVOID|Spam external linking]]=== Adding or continuing to add spam external links is vandalism if the activity continues after a warning. A spam external link is one added to a page mainly for the purpose of promoting a website, product or a user's interests rather than to improve the page editorially. ===[[Stockbroker|Stockbroking vandalism]]=== Adding information to pages about quoted companies concerning forthcoming mergers, announcements, and the like. The vandal's intent is to provide credibility to their attempt to promote shares. ===Talk page vandalism=== {{anchor|Tpv}} Illegitimately deleting or editing other users' comments. However, it is acceptable to blank comments constituting vandalism, [[Wikipedia:Canvassing|internal spam]], or [[Wikipedia:Harassment|harassment]] or a [[Wikipedia:No personal attacks#Removal of text|personal attack]]. It is also acceptable to identify an unsigned comment. Users are also [[WP:OWNTALK|permitted]] to remove comments from their own user talk pages. A policy of prohibiting users from removing warnings from their own talk pages was [[Wikipedia:Perennial proposals#Talk pages and discussions|considered and rejected]] on the grounds that it would create more issues than it would solve. ===Template vandalism=== Modifying the wiki language or text of a [[WP:TM|template]] in a harmful or disruptive manner. This is especially serious, because it will negatively impact the appearance of multiple pages. Some templates appear on hundreds or thousands of pages, so they are [[Wikipedia:High-risk templates|permanently protected from editing]] to prevent vandalism. ===User and user talk page vandalism=== Unwelcome, illegitimate edits to another person's user page may be considered vandalism. User pages are regarded as within the control of their respective users and generally should not be edited without permission of the user to whom they belong. See [[WP:UP#OWN]]. Related to this is [[Wikipedia:No personal attacks]]. ===[[m:Vandalbot|Vandalbots]]=== A [[Internet bot|script or "robot"]] that attempts to vandalize or add spam to a mass of pages. ==<span id="NOT"></span>What is {{em|not}} vandalism== {{policy shortcut|WP:VANDNOT|WP:NOTVAND|WP:NOTV|WP:NOTVANDALISM}} Although at times the following situations may be referred to as vandalism, they are not usually considered vandalism as such. However, each case should be treated independently, taking into consideration whether or not the actions violate Wikipedia policies and guidelines. If an editor treats situations which are not clearly vandalism as such, {{strong|it may harm the encyclopedia by alienating or driving away potential editors}}. ===[[Wikipedia:Be bold|Boldly editing]]=== Bold edits, though they may precede consensus or be inconsistent with prior consensus, are not vandalism unless other aspects of the edits identify them as vandalism. The Wikipedia community encourages users to be bold, and acknowledges [[WP:BRD|the role of bold edits in reaching consensus]]. ===[[Wikipedia:Copyright problems|Copyright policy violations]]=== Uploading or using material on Wikipedia in violation of Wikipedia's copyright policies is prohibited, but is not vandalism unless the user does so maliciously or fails to heed warnings. It is at least as serious an issue as vandalism and persistent offenders will ultimately get blocked, but it is well worth spending time communicating clearly with those who add copyvio as they are far more likely to reform than vandals or spammers. ==={{anchor|disruptive editing}}[[Wikipedia:Disruptive editing|Disruptive editing]] or stubbornness=== Some users cannot come to agreement with others who are willing to talk to them about an editing issue, and repeatedly make changes against consensus. [[WP:Edit warring|Edit warring]] is not vandalism and should not be dealt with as such. [[Wikipedia:Dispute resolution|Dispute resolution]] may help. See also: [[Wikipedia:Tendentious editing|Tendentious editing]] ===[[Help:Edit summary|Edit summary]] omission=== The [[Help:Edit summary|edit summary]] is important in that it helps other editors understand the purpose of your edit. Though its use is not required, it is strongly recommended, even for minor edits, and is considered proper [[WP:etiquette|Wikipedia etiquette]]. Even a brief edit summary is better than none. However, not leaving edit summaries is not considered vandalism. ===Editing tests by experimenting users=== Users sometimes edit pages as an experiment. Such edits, while prohibited, are treated differently from vandalism. These users should be warned using the uw-test series of [[WP:WARN|user warning templates]], or by a talk page message including, if appropriate, a welcome and referral to the [[Wikipedia:About the Sandbox|Wikipedia sandbox]], where they can continue to make test edits without being unintentionally disruptive. Registered users can also create their own sandboxes as a [[WP:USER#How do I create a user subpage?|user subpage]]. If a user has made a test edit and then reverted it, consider placing the message {{tl|uw-selfrevert}}, on their talk page. Pages created as test edits outside of userspace may be deleted under [[WP:G2|speedy deletion criterion G2]]. Editing tests are considered vandalism only when a user continues to make test edits despite receiving numerous warnings. ===[[Wikipedia:No personal attacks|Harassment or personal attacks]]=== Personal attacks and harassment are not allowed. While some harassment is also vandalism, such as user page vandalism, or inserting a personal attack into an article, harassment in itself is not vandalism and should be handled differently. ===Incorrect [[wikipedia:How to edit a page|wiki markup]] and [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style|style]]=== Inexperienced users are often unfamiliar with Wikipedia's formatting and grammatical standards, such as how to create internal and/or external links or which words should be bolded or italicized, etc. Rather than label such users as vandals, just explain to them what the standard style would be for the issue at hand, perhaps pointing them towards the documentation at [[Wikipedia:How to edit a page|How to edit a page]], and the like. ===[[Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not|Lack of understanding of the purpose of Wikipedia]]=== Some users are not familiar with [[WP:PURPOSE|Wikipedia's purpose]] or policies and may start editing it as if it were a different medium—such as a forum or blog—in a way that it [[Special:Diff/284393758|appears as unproductive editing]] or borderline vandalism to experienced users. Although such edits can usually be reverted, it should not be treated as vandalism. ===[[Wikipedia:Verifiability|Misinformation, accidental]]=== A user who, in good faith, adds content to an article that is factually inaccurate but in the belief that it is accurate is trying to contribute to and improve Wikipedia, not vandalize it. If you believe inaccurate information has been added to an article in good faith, remove it once you are certain it is inaccurate, or discuss its factuality with the user who has added it. ===[[Wikipedia:NPOV dispute|NPOV contraventions]]=== The neutral point of view policy is difficult for many of us to understand. Even Wikipedia veterans occasionally introduce material which is not ideal from an [[WP:NPOV|NPOV]] perspective. Indeed, we are all affected to a greater extent than we estimate by our beliefs. Though the material added may be inappropriate, it is not vandalism in itself. ===[[Wikipedia:Patent nonsense|Nonsense, accidental]]=== While intentionally adding nonsense to a page is a form of vandalism, sometimes honest editors may not have expressed themselves correctly (e.g. there may be an error in the [[syntax]], particularly for Wikipedians who use English as a [[second language]]). Also, connection errors or [[Help:Edit conflict|edit conflicts]] can unintentionally produce the appearance of nonsense or malicious edits. In either case, [[Wikipedia:Assume good faith|assume good faith]]. ===[[Wikipedia:Policies and guidelines#Changes to guideline and policy pages|Policy and guideline pages, good-faith changes to]]=== Editors are encouraged to [[Wikipedia:Be bold|be bold]]. However, making edits to [[Wikipedia:Policies and guidelines|Wikipedia policies and guidelines]] pages, such as this one, does require some knowledge of the [[Wikipedia:Consensus|consensus]] on the issues. If people misjudge consensus, it would not be considered vandalism; rather, it would be an opportunity to discuss the matter with them, and help them understand the consensus. ===Reversion or removal of unencyclopedic material, or of edits covered under the [[WP:BLP|biographies of living persons policy]]=== Even [[WP:TRUTH|factually correct]] material may not belong on Wikipedia, and removing such content when it is not in line with [[WP:5P|Wikipedia's standards]] is not vandalism. Contentious material about living persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced—whether the material is negative, positive, neutral, or just questionable—should be removed immediately and without waiting for discussion. Otherwise, check to make sure that the content you are thinking about restoring is in line with Wikipedia standards before [[WP:AIV|reporting its removal]] as vandalism. ===Deletion nominations=== Good-faith nominations of articles (or templates, non-article pages, etc) are not vandalism. ==See also== {{Wikipedia glossary}} * [[Vandalism on Wikipedia]] * [[Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2009-06-22/Vandalism]] ===Tools=== {{see also|Wikipedia:Cleaning up vandalism/Tools}} * [[Wikipedia:Huggle|Huggle]] – Cross-platform application for dealing with vandalism (requires [[WP:ROLLBACK|rollback]] permission). * [[Wikipedia:Twinkle|Twinkle]] – JavaScript gadget allowing reversion of vandalism from page [[Help:Diff|diffs]]. * [[Wikipedia:Igloo|Igloo]] – JavaScript-based browser window for reverting vandalism. (requires [[WP:ROLLBACK|rollback]] permission). * [[Wikipedia:STiki|STiki]] – Cross-platform and Java-based anti-vandalism application. Connects to a remote, non-Wikimedia server. (requires [[WP:ROLLBACK|rollback]] permission). * [[User:DannyS712/Undo|mobileUndo]] is a [[WP:US|userscript]] which allows you to revert vandalism on mobile. ===Guidelines=== * [[Wikipedia:Administrator intervention against vandalism|Administrator intervention against vandalism]] – intended to get administrator attention for obvious and persistent vandals and spammers * [[Wikipedia:Cleaning up vandalism|Cleaning up vandalism]] – introduction to cleaning up vandalism * [[Wikipedia:Criteria for speedy deletion|Criteria for speedy deletion]] – English Wikipedia policy * [[Wikipedia:Do not create hoaxes|Do not create hoaxes]] – content guideline * [[Wikipedia:Most vandalized pages|Most vandalized pages]] – articles that have undergone repeated vandalism * [[Wikipedia:Recent changes patrol|Recent changes patrol]] – Wikipedia communal patrol * [[Wikipedia:Requests for page protection|Requests for page protection]] – for protection against long-term attacks * [[Wikipedia:Template messages/User talk namespace|Template messages/User talk namespace]] – grid of templates for user talk page warnings and notices * [[Wikipedia:Vandalism-only account|Vandalism-only accounts]] – advice for dealing with vandalism from registered accounts * [[Wikipedia:WikiProject user warnings|WikiProject user warnings]] – internal project for creating a complete, standardised set of user warning templates * [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Vandalism studies|WikiProject Vandalism studies]] – internal project for conducting research related to unconstructive edits on Wikipedia (currently semi-active) ===Essays=== * [[Wikipedia:Avoid the word "vandal"|Avoid the word "vandal"]] – essay on the differences between vandals and those who make adverse edits * [[Wikipedia:Deny recognition|Deny recognition]] – essay on not feeding the trolls * [[Wikipedia:Do not insult the vandals|Do not insult the vandals]] – essay on vandals and civility * [[Wikipedia:Don't be trigger happy|Don't be trigger happy]] – essay on care, courtesy, and professionalism when performing recent changes and new pages patrols * [[Wikipedia:Don't call a spade a spade|Don't call a spade a spade]] – essay on civility and difficult editors * [[Wikipedia:Don't template the regulars|Don't template the regulars]] – essay on how to use warning templates carefully * [[Wikipedia:Identifying test edits|Identifying test edits]] – essay on the difference between editing tests and vandalism * [[Wikipedia:IPs are human too|IP address editors are human too]] – essay on assuming IP address editors are able and willing to make positive contributions * [[Wikipedia:Make protection requests sparingly|Make protection requests sparingly]] – essay recommending not overusing page protection * [[Wikipedia:Not every IP is a vandal|Not every IP is a vandal]] – essay on the common assumption that IP address editors are vandals * [[Wikipedia:On assuming good faith|On assuming good faith]] – essay on the relationship between the Vandalism policy and the [[Wikipedia:Assume good faith|Assume good faith]] behavioral guideline * [[Wikipedia:The motivation of a vandal|The motivation of a vandal]] – essay on "Why would anyone wish to vandalize a source of information that benefits people?" * [[Wikipedia:Vandals versus Trolls|Vandals versus Trolls]] – essay on the distinction between vandals and trolls * [[User:Ritchie333/Plain and simple guide to vandalism]] – one [[WP:ADMIN|administrator]]'s view ===[[Wikipedia:Meta|Meta]]=== * [[m:Anti-vandalism ideas]] * [[m:Vandalbot]] * [[m:What is a troll?]] * [[m:Small Wiki Monitoring Team]] – cross-wiki anti-vandalism ==Further reading== * [https://tools.wmflabs.org/wmcharts/wmchart0008.php Statistics about reverts by bots, Huggle, Twinkle] in wmcharts * {{Cite web |first=Jordan |last=Minor |url=https://www.geek.com/news/how-i-used-lies-about-a-cartoon-to-prove-history-is-meaningless-on-the-internet-1656188/ |title=How I used lies about a cartoon to prove history is meaningless on the internet |publisher=[[Geek.com]] |date=26 May 2016}} How a troll used user-generated content to spread misinformation to TV.com, the IMDb, and Wikipedia. {{Wikipedia policies and guidelines}} [[Category:Wikipedia vandalism| ]] [[Category:Wikipedia conduct policies]] [[Category:Wikipedia how-to|{{PAGENAME}}]] [[Category:Wikipedia user conduct]] =Esa es la pagina del EOLGI= ==Blanks== <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-blank.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-Future blank.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-blank wide.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-Future blank wide.svg]] ==0-99== <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-0.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-1.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-2.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-3.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-4.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-5.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-6.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-7.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-8.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-9.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-10.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-11.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-12.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-13.svg]] 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[[Image:I-695.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-696.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-705.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-710.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-715.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-720.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-725.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-730.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-735.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-740.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-745.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-755.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-759.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-764.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-765.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-770.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-775.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-776.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-780.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-781.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-785.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-787.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-790.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-794.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-795.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-805.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-810.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-815.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-820.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-825.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-830.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-835.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-840.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-845.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-855.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-864.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-865.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-870.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-875.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-876.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-878.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-880.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-885.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-887.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-890.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-894.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-895.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-905.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-910.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-915.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-920.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-925.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-930.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-935.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-940.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-945.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-955.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-964.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-965.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-970.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-975.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-976.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-980.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-985.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-987.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-990.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-994.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-995.svg]] ==Shields with state names== ===Alabama=== <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-10 (AL).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-20 (AL).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-22 (AL).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-59 (AL).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-59B (AL).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-65 (AL).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-85 (AL).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-165 (AL).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-210 (AL).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-359 (AL).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-459 (AL).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-565 (AL).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-759 (AL).svg]] ===Alaska=== <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-A1.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-A2.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-A3.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-A4.svg]] ===Arizona=== <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-8 (AZ).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-10 (AZ).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-15 (AZ).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-17 (AZ).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-19 (AZ).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-40 (AZ).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-410 (AZ).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-510 (AZ).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-610 (AZ).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-710 (AZ).svg]] ===Arkansas=== <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-30 (AR).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-40 (AR).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-55 (AR).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-69 (AR).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-130 (AR).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-430 (AR).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-440 (AR).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-530 (AR).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-540 (AR).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-555 (AR).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-630 (AR).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-730 (AR).svg]] ===California=== Please see [[California Interstate shields]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-5 (CA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-5E (CA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-5W (CA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-8 (CA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-10 (CA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-15 (CA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-15E (CA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-40 (CA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-80 (CA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-105 (CA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-110 (CA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-180 (CA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-205 (CA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-210 (CA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-215 (CA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-238 (CA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-280 (CA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-305 (CA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-380 (CA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-405 (CA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-480 (CA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-505 (CA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-580 (CA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-605 (CA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-680 (CA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-710 (CA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-780 (CA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-805 (CA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-880 (CA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-905 (CA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-980 (CA).svg]] ===Colorado=== <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-25 (CO).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-70 (CO).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-76 (CO).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-225 (CO).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-270 (CO).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-470 (CO).svg]] ===Connecticut=== <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-84 (CT).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-91 (CT).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-95 (CT).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-384 (CT).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-291 (CT).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-491 (CT).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-691 (CT).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-395 (CT).svg]] ===Florida=== <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-4 (FL).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-95 (FL).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-175 (FL).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-275 (FL).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-295 (FL).svg]] ===Georgia=== <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-3 (GA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-16 (GA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-20 (GA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-59 (GA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-75 (GA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-85 (GA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-95 (GA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-185 (GA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-285 (GA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-420 (GA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-475 (GA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-485 (GA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-516 (GA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-520 (GA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-575 (GA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-675 (GA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-985 (GA).svg]] ===Hawaii=== <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-H1.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-H2.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-H3.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-H201.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-H202.svg]] ===Illinois=== <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-57 (IL).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-88 (IL).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-90 (IL).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-39 (IL).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-94 (IL).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-290 (IL).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-294 (IL).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-355 (IL).svg]] Image:Interstate55 IL.gif <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-80 (IL).svg]] Image:US-41 (IL).svg]] ===Indiana=== <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-64 (IN).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-65 (IN).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-67 (IN).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-69 (IN).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-70 (IN).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-94 (IN).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-90 (IN).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-80 (IN).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-74 (IN).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-265 (IN).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-465 (IN).svg]] ===Iowa=== <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-29 (IA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-35 (IA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-74 (IA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-80 (IA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-129 (IA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-235 (IA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-280 (IA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-380 (IA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-680 (IA).svg]] ===Kansas=== <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-35 (KS).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-70 (KS).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-135 (KS).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-235 (KS).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-335 (KS).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-435 (KS).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-470 (KS).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-635 (KS).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-670 (KS).svg]] ===Kentucky=== <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-64 (KY).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-71 (KY).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-264 (KY).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-265 (KY).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-275 (KY).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-471 (KY).svg]] ===Louisiana=== Image:Interstate10 LA.gif <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-12 (LA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-49 (LA).svg]] ===Maine=== <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-95 (ME).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-195 (ME).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-295 (ME).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-395 (ME).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-495 (ME).svg]] ===Maryland=== <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-68 (MD).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-70 (MD).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-81 (MD).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-83 (MD).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-95 (MD).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-97 (MD).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-170 (MD).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-195 (MD).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-197 (MD).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-270 (MD).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-295 (MD).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-297 (MD).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-370 (MD).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-395 (MD).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-495 (MD).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-595 (MD).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-695 (MD).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-795 (MD).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-895 (MD).svg]] ===Michigan=== <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-96 (MI).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-275 (MI).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-375 (MI).svg]] ===Minnesota=== <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-35 (MN).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-35E (MN).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-35W (MN).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-90 (MN).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-94 (MN).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-335 (MN).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-394 (MN).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-494 (MN).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-535 (MN).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-694 (MN).svg]] ===Missouri=== <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-29 (MO).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-35 (MO).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-44 (MO).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-55 (MO).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-57 (MO).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-64 (MO).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-70 (MO).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-72 (MO).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-144 (MO).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-155 (MO).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-170 (MO).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-229 (MO).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-244 (MO).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-255 (MO).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-270 (MO).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-364 (MO).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-370 (MO).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-435 (MO).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-470 (MO).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-570 (MO).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-635 (MO).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-670 (MO).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-870 (MO).svg]] ===Montana=== <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-115 (MT).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-315 (MT).svg]] ===Nevada=== <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-15 (NV).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-80 (NV).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-215 (NV).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-515 (NV).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-580 (NV).svg]] ===New Jersey=== <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-76 (NJ).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-78 (NJ).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-80 (NJ).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-95 (NJ).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-195 (NJ).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-278 (NJ).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-280 (NJ).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-287 (NJ).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-295 (NJ).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-676 (NJ).svg]] ===New Mexico=== <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-10 (NM).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-25 (NM).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-40 (NM).svg]] ===New York=== <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-87 (NY).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-88 (NY).svg]] ===North Carolina=== <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-26 (NC).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-40 (NC).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-74 (NC).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-73 (NC).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-77 (NC).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-85 (NC).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-95 (NC).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-140 (NC).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-240 (NC).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-440 (NC).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-540 (NC).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-840 (NC).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-274 (NC).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-277 (NC).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-285 (NC).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-485 (NC).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-785 (NC).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-295 (NC).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-795 (NC).svg]] ===North Dakota=== <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-29 (ND).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-94 (ND).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-194 (ND).svg]] ===Oklahoma=== <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-35 (OK).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-40 (OK).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-44 (OK).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-235 (OK).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-240 (OK).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-244 (OK).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-444 (OK).svg]] ===Ohio=== <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-75 (OH).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-80 (OH).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-480 (OH).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-675 (OH).svg]] ===Oregon=== <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-5 (OR).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-82 (OR).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-84 (OR).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-105 (OR).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-205 (OR).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-305 (OR).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-405 (OR).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-505 (OR).svg]] ===Puerto Rico=== <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-PR1.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-PR2.svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-PR3.svg]] ===Pennsylvania=== <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-70 (PA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-76 (PA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-78 (PA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-79 (PA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-80 (PA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-81 (PA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-83 (PA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-84 (PA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-86 (PA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-90 (PA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-95 (PA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-99 (PA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-176 (PA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-180 (PA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-276 (PA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-279 (PA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-283 (PA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-376 (PA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-380 (PA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-476 (PA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-579 (PA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-676 (PA).svg]] ===South Carolina=== <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-20 (SC).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-26 (SC).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-73 (SC).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-74 (SC).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-77 (SC).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-85 (SC).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-95 (SC).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-126 (SC).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-174 (SC).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-185 (SC).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-326 (SC).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-385 (SC).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-520 (SC).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-526 (SC).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-585 (SC).svg]] ===South Dakota=== <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-29 (SD).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-90 (SD).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-190 (SD).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-229 (SD).svg]] ===Tennessee=== <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-40 (TN).svg]] Image:Interstate 75 TN.png ===Texas=== <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-10 (TX).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-20 (TX).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-27 (TX).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-30 (TX).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-35 (TX).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-35E (TX).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-35W (TX).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-37 (TX).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-40 (TX).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-45 (TX).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-110 (TX).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-345 (TX).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-410 (TX).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-610 (TX).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-635 (TX).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-820 (TX).svg]] ===Utah=== <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-15 (UT).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-70 (UT).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-80 (UT).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-84 (UT).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-215 (UT).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-415 (UT).svg]] ===Virginia=== <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-81 (VA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-95 (VA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-381 (VA).svg]] ===Washington=== <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-5 (WA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-82 (WA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-90 (WA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-182 (WA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-205 (WA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-405 (WA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-605 (WA).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-705 (WA).svg]] ===West Virginia=== <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-64 (WV).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-68 (WV).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-70 (WV).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-77 (WV).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-79 (WV).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-81 (WV).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-268 (WV).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-470 (WV).svg]] ===Wyoming=== <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-25 (WY).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-80 (WY).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-90 (WY).svg]] <b>Eolgi</b> [[Image:I-180 (WY).svg]] ==Business Routes== [[[[Image:Business Loop 5.svg]] [[[[Image:Business Loop 8.svg]] [[Image:Business Loop 10.svg]] [[Image:Business Spur 10.svg]] [[Image:Business Loop 15.svg]] [[Image:Business Loop 17.svg]] [[Image:Business Loop 19.svg]] [[Image:Business Spur 19.svg]] [[Image:Business Loop 20.svg]] [[Image:Business Spur 20.svg]] [[Image:Business Loop 24.svg]] [[Image:Business Loop 25.svg]] [[Image:Business Spur 29.svg]] [[Image:Business Loop 35.svg]] [[Image:Business Spur 35.svg]] [[Image:Business Loop 40.svg]] [[Image:Business Spur 40.svg]] [[Image:Business Loop 44.svg]] [[Image:Business Spur 44.svg]] [[Image:Business Loop 55.svg]] [[Image:Business Loop 57.svg]] [[Image:Business Loop 69.svg]] [[Image:Business Loop 70.svg]] [[Image:Business Loop 72.svg]] [[Image:Business Loop 75.svg]] [[Image:Business Spur 75.svg]] [[Image:Business Loop 80.svg]] [[Image:Business Loop 82.svg]] [[Image:Business Loop 84.svg]] [[Image:Business Loop 85.svg]] [[Image:Business Spur 85.svg]] [[Image:Business Loop 90.svg]] [[Image:Business Spur 90.svg]] [[Image:Business Loop 94.svg]] [[Image:Business Loop 95.svg]] [[Image:Business Loop 96.svg]] [[Image:Business Spur 96.svg]] [[Image:Business Spur 126.svg]] [[Image:Business Loop 196.svg]] [[Image:Business Spur 196.svg]] [[Image:Business Loop 205.svg]] [[Image:Business Loop 205 (CA).svg]] |Business Route Loop uses FHWA D [[Image:Business Loop 376.svg]] [[Image:Business Spur 385.svg]] [[Image:Business Loop 485.svg]] [[Image:Business Spur 526.svg]] [[Image:Business Spur 585.svg]] {{Please leave this line alone (sandbox heading)}}<!-- * Welcome to the sandbox! * * Please leave this part alone * * The page is cleared regularly * * Feel free to try your editing skills below * ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■-->⏎ <div style="padding-bottom:.5em"><!--intrinsic margin: .5em--> {{float|top=.8em|left=70%|width=10em|{{Clickable button 2|Get Help!| url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Teahouse|class=mw-ui-progressive}}}} {{Columns | col1 = 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