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{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2015}}
{{Infobox settlement
|name = Northern England
|other_name = North of England, The North, North Country
|native_name = 
|nickname =
|settlement_type = Region
|image_skyline =
(contracted; show full)s sometimes defined jokingly as the area north of the [[Watford Gap]] between [[Northampton]] and [[Leicester]]{{efn|Not to be confused with the town of [[Watford]] on the northern edge of London, which is used to define the North only in London-centric jokes.{{sfn|Maconie|2007|page=31}}}} – a definition which would include much of [[the Midlands]].<ref name="BIsles"/><ref>{{cite book|title=Reading the Everyday|first=Joe|last=Moran|page=107|publisher=Taylor and Francis|year=2005|ISBN 
978-0-415-31709-62}}</ref> Various towns have been described as or promoted themselves as the "gateway to the North", including [[Crewe]],{{sfn|Maconie|2007|page=35}} [[Stoke-on-Trent]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stokesentinel.co.uk/big-issue-alastair-campbell-asks-stoke-trent/story-28207957-detail/story.html |title=Big Issue: Alastair Campbell asks is Stoke-on-Trent in the Midlands or the North? |newspaper=Stoke Sentinel |date=20 November 2015 |accessdate=15 March 2017 |first=Phil |last=Corrigan |d(contracted; show full)n-sheffield-1-8040932 |archivedate= 8 September 2016 |df= }}</ref> For some in the northernmost reaches of England, the North starts somewhere in [[North Yorkshire]] around the [[River Tees]] – the Yorkshire poet [[Simon Armitage]] suggests [[Thirsk]], [[Northallerton]] or [[Richmond, North Yorkshire|Richmond]] – and does not include cities like Manchester and [[Leeds]], nor the majority of Yorkshire.<ref>{{cite book|title=All Points North|year=2009|author=Simon Armitage|publisher=Penguin|ISBN 
978-0-14-192397-0}}</ref>{{sfn|Wales|2006|page=12}}

Northern England is not a homogenous unit,{{sfn|Russell|2004|pages=18–19}} and some have entirely rejected the idea that the North exists as a coherent entity, claiming that considerable cultural differences across the area overwhelm any similarities.<ref name="Devo">{{cite news|url=http://www.citymetric.com/politics/there-no-such-thing-north-why-devolution-must-be-regions-cities-1897 |title="There is no such thing as the North"(contracted; show full)n Hull]] and [[Newcastle upon Tyne]],{{efn|Named "Hull" and "Newcastle" respectively throughout the rest of this article.}} <ref name="EccHistoryp1"/> and the riverside conurbations of [[Teesside]], [[Tyneside]] and [[Wearside]] became the largest towns in the North East.<ref name="Identity">{{cite book|title=Issues of Regional Identity: In Honour of John Marshall|pages=108–109|first=Norman |last=McCord|chapter=North East England|editor=Edward Royle|ISBN 
978-0-7190-5028-62|publisher=Manchester University Press}}</ref> Northern England is now heavily [[urbanisation|urbanised]]: analysis by [[The Northern Way]] in 2006 found that 90% of the population of the North lived in one of its city regions: Liverpool, [[Central Lancashire]], Manchester, Sheffield, Leeds, [[Humberside|Hull and Humber Ports]], [[Tees Valley]] and Tyne and Wear.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thenorthernway.co.uk/page.asp?id=51 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070209013854/http://www.t(contracted; show full)-grained rock used to make [[millstone]]s, is widespread in the Pennines,<ref name="Geography"/> and the variety of other rock types is reflected in the architecture of the region, such as the bright red [[sandstone]] seen in buildings in [[Chester]], the cream-buff [[Yorkstone]] and the distinctive purple [[Doddington, Northumberland|Doddington]] sandstone.<ref>{{cite book|title=Materials for Architects and Builders|first=Arthur|last=Lyons|page=326|year=2014|publisher=Routledge|ISBN 
978-1-317-66736-0}}</ref> These sandstones also mean that apart from the east coast, most of Northern England has [[water hardness|very soft water]], and this has influenced not just industry, but even the blends of tea enjoyed in the region.<ref name="firstIR">{{cite book|title=The First Industrial Revolution|first=P. M.|last=Deane|pages=93–95|ISBN 978-0-521-29609-90|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1979}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=An Introduction to Global Environmental Issues|first=Kevin T.|last=Pickering|first2=Lewis A.|last2=Owen| page=167|year=1997|publisher=Psychology Press|ISBN 978-0-415-14098-60}}; {{cite web|url=http://www.waterwise.org.uk/pages/water-hardness.html |title=Water Hardness |website=Waterwise |year=2006 |accessdate=14 March 2017 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170315085206/http://www.waterwise.org.uk/pages/water-hardness.html |archivedate=15 March 2017 |df= }}; {{cite web|url=https://www.yorkshiretea.co.uk/brew-news/everything-you-ever-wanted-to-know-about-hard-water |title=Everything You Ever Wanted To Know About Hard Water&nbsp;... |date=9 February 2012 |a(contracted; show full)
|source 1 = Met Office<ref name="MOTab"/>
|date=November 2012
}}

==Language and dialect==
===English===
[[File:Foot-strut split.svg|thumb|right|The vowel sound in ''sun'' across England. All of Northern England, as well as part of the Midlands, is included inside the [[Near-close near-back rounded vowel|/ʊ/]] [[isogloss]].<ref>{{cite book|title=An Atlas of English Dialects|first1=Clive|last1=Upton|first2=John David Allison|last2=Widdowson|year=2006|ISBN 
978-0-19-869274-94|publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref>|alt=A map of England, with isoglosses showing how different regions pronounce "sun"]]
{{main article|Northern England English}}
The English spoken today in the North has been shaped by the area's history, and some dialects retain features inherited from [[Old Norse]] and the [[Insular Celtic languages|local Celtic languages]].{{sfn|Wales|2006|pages=43–45, 55–59}} Dialects spoken in the North include [[Cumbrian dialect|Cumbrian]], [[Geordie]] (Newcastle), [[Manchester dialect|Mancunian]] (Manchester), [[Pitmatic]] (Northumberland), [[Scouse]] (Liverpool) and [[Yorkshire dialect|Tyke]] (Yorkshire). Linguists have attempted to define a Northern dialect area, corresponding to the area north of a line that begins at the Humber estuary and runs up the [[River Wharfe]] and across to the [[River Lune]] in north Lancashire.<ref>{{cite book|title=Accents of English|volume=2|pages=349–350|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1982|ISBN 9780-0-521-28540-7|first=John C.|last=Wells}}</ref> This area corresponds roughly to the ''[[sprachraum]]'' of the [[Old English]] [[Northumbrian dialect]]. However, the linguistic elements that defined this area in the past, such as the use of ''doon'' instead of ''down'' and substitution of an ''ang'' sound in words that end -''ong'' (''lang'' instead of ''long''), are now preva(contracted; show full)age-minister-star-carr/ |title=Heritage Minister gives protection to Star Carr |date=19 December 2011 |accessdate=5 March 2017 |website=University of York |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170306034517/https://www.york.ac.uk/news-and-events/news/2011/research/heritage-minister-star-carr/ |archivedate= 6 March 2017 |df= }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=An Archaeological History of Britain: Continuity and Change from Prehistory to the Present|first=Jonathan Mark|last=Eaton|ISBN 
978-1-4738-5103-30|publisher=Pen and Sword}}</ref> The Star Carr site includes Britain's oldest known house, from around 9000 BC, and the earliest evidence of carpentry in the form of a carved tree trunk from 11000 BC.<ref name="Carr1"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.archaeology.co.uk/articles/return-to-star-carr-discovering-the-true-size-of-a-mesolithic-settlement.htm |title=Return to Star Carr: Discovering the true size of a Mesolithic settlement |date=6 August 2013 |accessdate=5 March 201(contracted; show full)tps://web.archive.org/web/20071219060226/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/1234529.stm |archivedate=19 December 2007 |df= }}</ref> In the more mountainous regions of the Peak District, [[hillfort]]s were the main Bronze Age settlement and the locals were most likely [[Pastoralism|pastoralists]] raising livestock.<ref>{{cite book|title=Bronze Age Landscapes: Tradition and Transformation|first=Willy|last=Kitchen|pages=116–118|chapter=Tenure and Territoriality in the British Bronze Age|year=2002|ISBN 
978-1-78570-538-50}}</ref>

===Iron Age and the Romans===
[[File:Hadrian's wall at Greenhead Lough.jpg|thumb|left|Hadrian's Wall, one of the most famous Roman remains in Northern England, is now a [[World Heritage Site]].|alt=A stone wall winding over a hilly landscape]]
Roman histories name the tribe that occupied the majority of Northern England as the [[Brigantes]], likely meaning "Highlanders". Whether the Brigantes were a unified group or a looser federation of tribes around the Pennines is debated, but the name appears to have been adopted by the inhabitants of the region, which was known by the Romans as [[Brigantia (ancient region)|Brigantia]].{{sfn|Harding|2004|page=23–27}} Other tribes mentioned in ancient histories, which may have been part of the Brigantes or separate nations, are the [[Carvetii]] of modern-day Cumbria and the [[Parisi (Yorkshire)|Parisi]] of east Yorkshire.<ref>{{cite book|title=A Companion to Roman Britain|first=Michael|last=Todd|chapter=Cities and Urban Life|page=163|ISBN 978-0-470-99885-74}}</ref>

The Brigantes allied with the [[Roman Empire]] during the [[Roman conquest of Britain]]: [[Tacitus]] records that they handed the resistance leader [[Caratacus]] over to the Empire in 51.<ref>[[Tacitus]], ''[[Annals (Tacitus)|Annals]]'' [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Tac.+Ann.+12.36 12:36]</ref> Power struggles within the Brigantes made the Romans wary, and they were conquered in a war beginning in the 70s under the governorship of [[Quintus Petillius Cerialis]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Roman Britain|first=David|last=Shotter|year=2012|publisher=Routledge}}</ref> The Romans created the province of "[[Britannia Inferior]]" (Lower Britain) in the North, and it was ruled from the city of [[Eboracum]] (modern [[York]]).<ref>{{cite book|title=The Cambridge Ancient History|volume=XII|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1970|page=706}}</ref> Eboracum and [[Deva Victrix]] (modern Chester) were the main [[Roman legion|legionary]] bases in the region, with other smaller forts including [[Mamucium]] (Manchester) and [[Cataractonium]] ([[Catterick, North Yorkshire|Catterick]]).<ref>{{cite book|title=The Cambridge Ancient History: Volume 12, The Crisis of Empire, AD 193–337|pages=253–254|first=John|last=Wilkes|chapter=Frontiers and Provinces|year=2005|publisher=Cambridge University Press|ISBN 978-0-521-30199-82}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Philip Perry's Sketch of the Ancient British History: A Critical Edition|first=Philip|last=Perry|page=8|year=2009|ISBN 978-1-4438-0470-37|chapter=Introduction}}</ref> Britannia Inferior extended as far north as [[Hadrian's Wall]], which was the northernmost [[borders of the Roman Empire|border of the Roman Empire]].{{efn|The [[Antonine Wall]], across what is now the [[Central Belt]] of Scotland, was even further north, but Roman control over this area was limited.<ref name="Wall">{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of European Peoples, Volume 2|first1=Carl|last1=Waldman|first2=Catherine|last2=Mason|ISBN 978-1-4381-2918-1|year=2006|publisher=Infobase}}</ref>}} Although the Romans invaded modern-day Northumberland and part of Scotland beyond it, they never succeeded in conquering the reaches of Britain beyond the [[River Tyne]].<ref name="Wall"/>

===Anglo-Saxons and Vikings===
(contracted; show full)mbria |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090827225854/http://www.goldenageofnorthumbria.com/history.html |archivedate=27 August 2009 |df= }} Retrieved on 23 February 2009.</ref> An area east and west of the Pennines was divided into two [[Celts|Celtic]] kingdoms, [[Rheged]] (Cumbria and Lancashire) and [[Elmet]] (West Riding of Yorkshire).<ref>{{Cite book|title=Wales and the Britons, 350-1064|first=T. M.|last=Charles-Edwards|pages=10–11|publisher=Oxford University Press|ISBN 
978-0-19-821731-52|year=2013}}</ref> The north-west of England retains vestiges of a Celtic culture, and had its own Celtic language, [[Cumbric Language|Cumbric]], spoken predominately in Cumbria until around the 12th century.<ref>{{cite book|title=Imagining Medieval English: Language Structures and Theories, 500–1500|first=Tim William|last=Machan|page=140|year=2016|publisher=Cambridge University Press|ISBN 978-1-107-05859-70}}</ref>

Parts of the north and east of England were subject to Danish control (the [[Danelaw]]) during the [[Viking era]], but the northern part of the old Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Northumbria remained under Anglo-Saxon control.{{efn|In this context 'Dane', from [[Old English language|Old English]] word ''Dene'', refers to [[Scandinavia]]ns of any kind. Most of the invaders were from modern Denmark (East [[Old Norse|Norse]] speakers), but some were Norwegians (West Norse speakers).<ref>{{cite book|last=Lass|first=Roger|title=Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion|p=187|volume=12|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1994}}</ref>}} Under the Vikings, monasteries were largely wiped out, and the discovery of [[grave goods]] in Northern churchyards suggests that [[Norse funeral]] rites replaced Christian ones for a time.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Vikings|first=Else|last=Roesdahl|year=1998|publisher=Penguin|ISBN 978-0-14-194153-70}}</ref> Viking control of certain areas, particularly around Yorkshire, is recalled in the [[etymology]] of many [[Toponymy of England|place names]]: the ''[[thorp|thorpe]]'' in town names such as [[Cleethorpes]] and [[Scunthorpe]], the ''[[Kirk (placename element)|kirk]]'' in [[Kirklees]] and [[Ormskirk]] and the ''[[wikt:-by|by]]'' of [[Whitby]] and [[Grimsby]] all have Norse roots.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.yorkshiredialectsociety.org.uk/viking-place-names/ |title=Viking Place Names |website=Yorkshire Dialect Society |accessdate=9 March 2017 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170210145207/http://www.yorkshiredialectsociety.org.uk/viking-place-names/ |archivedate=10 February 2017 |df= }}</ref>

===Norman Conquest and the Middle Ages===
[[File:Castlekeep.jpg|thumb|left|[[Durham Castle]], half of the Durham World Heritage Site, was a symbol of Norman power in the North.|alt=A round castle keep atop a hill]]
The 1066 defeat of the Norwegian king [[Harald Hardrada]] by the Anglo-Saxon [[Harold Godwinson]] at the [[Battle of Stamford Bridge]] near York marked the beginning of the end of Viking rule in England, and the almost immediate defeat of Godwinson at the hands of the Norman [[William the Conqueror]] at the [[Battle of Hastings]] was in turn the overthrow of the Anglo-Saxon order.<ref>{{cite book|title=Medieval Scandinavia: An Encyclopedia|page=267|first=Phillip|last=Pulsiano|year=1993|publisher=Taylor & Francis|ISBN 978-0-8240-4787-70}}</ref> The Northumbrian and Danish aristocracy resisted the [[Norman Conquest]], and in order to put an end to the rebellion, William ordered the [[Harrying of the North]]. In the winter of 1069–1070, towns, villages and farms were [[Scorched earth|systematically destroyed]] across much of Yorkshire as well as northern Lancashire and County Durham.<ref name="Harrying">{{cite web|url=http://www.historytoday.com/james-aitcheson/harrying-north |title=The Harrying of the North |first=James |last=Aitcheson |date=12 October 2016 |accessdate=9 March 2017 |website=History Today |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312034206/http://www.historytoday.com/james-aitcheson/harrying-north |archivedate=12 March 2017 |df= }}</ref><ref name="Rural">{{cite book|title=Rural settlement in Britain|first=Brian K.|last=Roberts|publisher=Dawson|year=1977|ISBN 978-0-7129-0701-79}}</ref> The region was gripped by famine and much of Northern England was deserted. Chroniclers at the time reported a hundred thousand deaths – modern estimates place the total somewhere in the tens of thousands, out of a population of two million.<ref name="Harrying"/> When the [[Domesday Book]] was compiled in 1086, much of Northern England was still recorded as wasteland,<ref name="Rural"/> although this may have been in part because the chroniclers, more intereste(contracted; show full)e-date=25 February 2012 |deadurl=yes |df= }}</ref> A significant [[Flemish people|Flemish]] immigration followed the conquest, which likely populated much of the desolated regions of Cumbria, and which was persistent enough that the town of [[Beverley]] in East Yorkshire still had an [[ethnic enclave]] called Flemingate in the thirteenth century.<ref>{{cite book|title=Flanders and the Anglo-Norman World, 1066–1216|pages=183–184|first=Eljas|last=Oksanen|publisher=Cambridge University Press|ISBN 
978-1-139-57650-X5}}</ref>

During [[the Anarchy]], Scotland invaded Northern England and took much of the land north of [[Durham, England|Durham]]. In [[Treaty of Durham (1139)|the 1139 peace treaty]] that followed, Prince [[Henry of Scotland]] was made [[Earl of Northumberland]] and kept the counties of Cumberland, Westmorland and Northumbria. These reverted to English control in 1157, establishing for the most part the modern England–Scotland border.<ref>{{cite book|title=Kingship and Unity|first=G W S|last=Barrow|ISBN 978-1-4744-0183-X8|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|year=2015}}</ref> The region also saw violence during the [[Wars of the Roses]], including the decisive [[Battle of Wakefield]], although the modern-day conception of the war as a conflict between Lancashire and Yorkshire is anachronistic – [[House of Lancaster|Lancastrians]] recruited from across Northern England, including Yorkshire, while the [[House of York|Yorkists]] drew most of their power from Southern England, Wales and Ireland.<ref>{{cite news|url=(contracted; show full)ne in Ireland]] of the 1840s drove migrants across the [[Irish Sea]], and many settled in the industrial cities of the North, especially Manchester and Liverpool – at the [[United Kingdom Census 1851|1851 census]], 13% of the population of Manchester and [[Salford, Greater Manchester|Salford]] were Irish-born, and in Liverpool the figure was 22%.<ref>{{cite book|title=Building Jerusalem: The Rise and Fall of the Victorian City|first=Tristram|last=Hunt|publisher=Hachette|authorlink=Tristram Hunt|ISBN 
978-0-297-86594-30|year=2010}}</ref> In response there was a wave of [[anti-Catholicism in the United Kingdom|anti-Catholic]] riots and Protestant [[Orange Order]]s proliferated across Northern England; chiefly in Lancashire, but also elsewhere in the North. By 1881 there were 374 Orange organisations in Lancashire, 71 in the North East, and 42 in Yorkshire.<ref>{{cite book|title=Political Parties in Britain 1783–1867|first=Eric J.|last=Evans|publisher=Routledge|ISBN 978-1-135-83561-63|year=2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Faith, Fraternity and Fighting: The Orange Order and Irish Migrants in Northern England|first=Donald M.|last=MacRaild|publisher=Liverpool University Press|ISBN 978-0-85323-939-80|year=2005}}</ref> From further afield, Northern England saw immigration from European countries such as Germany, Italy, Poland, Russia and Scandinavia, and from East Asia and Africa. Some immigrants were well-to-do industrialists seeking to do business in the booming industrial cities, some were escaping poverty, some were servants or slaves, some were sailors who chose to settle in the port towns, some were Jews fleeing [[pogrom]]s on the continent, and some were migrants originally stranded at Live(contracted; show full)Irish Sea to the Allegheny Mountains |date=12 June 2016 |accessdate=13 March 2017 |first=Clare |last=Hopley |website=British Heritage |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151124035831/http://www.britishheritage.com/north-british-migration-from-the-irish-sea-to-the-allegheny-mountains/ |archivedate=24 November 2015 |df= }}</ref><ref name="Oz">{{cite book|title=The Australian People|chapter=Immigration from Northern England|year=2001|page=300|first=James|last=Jupp|ISBN 
978-0-521-80789-10|publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref>

===Deindustrialisation and modern history===
[[File:The River Tyne & Baltic Flour Mills (7880784038).jpg|thumb|left|The [[Baltic Centre for Contemporary Art]], formerly an industrial building, is a symbol of the regeneration of [[Gateshead]].|upright=1.2|alt=A warehouse signed "Baltic Flour Mills" surrounded by modern buildings.]]
(contracted; show full)unemployment]] caused several episodes of social unrest in the region, including the [[1926 United Kingdom general strike|1926 general strike]] and the [[Jarrow March]]. The Great Depression highlighted the weakness of Northern England's specialised economy: as world trade declined, demand for ships, steel, coal and textiles all fell.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Economics of the Great Depression|first=Mark|last=Wheeler|publisher=W.E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research|year=1998|page=31|ISBN 
978-0-88099-192-56}}</ref> For the most part, Northern factories were still using nineteenth century technology, and were not able to keep up with advances in industries such as motors, chemicals and electricals, while the expansion of the [[National Grid (Great Britain)|electric grid]] removed the North's advantages in terms of power generation and meant it was now more economic to build new factories in the Midlands or South.<ref>{{cite book|title=Regional Development in the 1990s: The British Isles in Transition|chapter=The Macroeconomic Context|first1=Ron|last1=Martin|first2=Peter|last2=Townroe|page=270|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|ISBN 978-1-136-03688-10}}</ref>

The industrial concentration in Northern England also made it a major target for [[Luftwaffe]] attacks during the [[Second World War]]. [[The Blitz]] of 1940–1941 saw major raids on [[Barrow Blitz|Barrow-in-Furness]], [[Hull Blitz|Hull]], [[Leeds Blitz|Leeds]], [[Manchester Blitz|Manchester]], [[Liverpool Blitz|Merseyside]], [[Newcastle Blitz|Newcastle]] and [[Sheffield Blitz|Sheffield]] with thousands killed and significant damage to the cities. Liverpool, a vital port for supplies from Nor(contracted; show full) saw several [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|IRA]] attacks during [[the Troubles]], including the [[M62 coach bombing]], the [[Warrington bomb attacks]] and the [[1992 Manchester bombing|1992]] and [[1996 Manchester bombing]]s. The latter was the largest bomb detonation in Great Britain since the end of the Second World War, and damaged or destroyed much of central Manchester.<ref>{{citation |title=Detonation: Rebirth of a City |last=King |first=Ray |year=2006 |publisher=Clear Publications |ISBN 
978-0-9552621-0-04|page=139}}</ref> However, the attack also allowed Manchester's aging infrastructure to be rebuilt and modernised, sparking the regeneration of the city and making it a leading example of post-industrial redevelopment followed by other cities in the region and beyond.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/business/business-news/bomb-to-boom---manchester-a-shining-689039 |title=Bomb to boom - Manchester, a shining example to other cities |date=31 May 2012 |accessdate=13 (contracted; show full)allam]] is one of the wealthiest constituencies in the country, and is the richest outside London and the South East, while [[Sheffield Brightside and Hillsborough (UK Parliament constituency)|Sheffield Brightside and Hillsborough]], just on the other side of the city, is one of the most deprived.<ref name="Rise">{{cite book|title=The Rise of the English Regions?|chapter=Yorkshire and the Humber|page=149|first1=Tony|last1=Gore|first2=Catherine|last2=Jones|year=2006|publisher=Routledge|ISBN 
978-1-134-30608-34}}</ref> Housing in Northern England is [[Affordability of housing in the United Kingdom|more affordable than the UK average]]: the median house price in most Northern cities was below £200,000 in 2015 with typical increases of below 10% over the previous five years. However, some areas have seen house prices fall considerably, putting inhabitants at risk of [[negative equity]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/housing/articles/townsandcitiesanalysisenglanda(contracted; show full)
The expansion of the railway network in the second half of the nineteenth century meant most in the North lived within reach of the coast, and seaside towns saw a major tourism boom. By around 1870 Blackpool on the Lancashire coast had become overwhelmingly the most popular destination – not just for Northern families, but many from the Midlands and Scotland as well.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Blackpool Landlady: A Social History|first=John|last=Walton|page=40|year=1978|ISBN 
978-0-7190-0723-21}}</ref> Other resorts popular with Northerners included [[Morecambe]] in northern Lancashire, [[Whitley Bay]] near Newcastle, Whitby in North Yorkshire, and [[New Brighton, Merseyside|New Brighton]] on the Wirral, as well as [[Rhyl]] over the border in [[North Wales]].<ref>{{cite-book|title=Lancashire's Seaside Piers: Also Featuring the Piers of the River Mersey|page=9–13|first=Martin|last=Easdown|ISBN 978-1-84563-093-95|publisher=Casemate}}</ref><ref name="Forging">{{cite book|title=The Forging of the Modern State: Early Industrial Britain, 1783–1870|page=395|ISBN 978-1-317-87371-86|first=Eric|last=Evans|publisher=Routledge|year=2014}}</ref>

The same social forces that had built these resorts in the nineteenth century proved to be their undoing in the twentieth. Transport links continued to improve and it became possible to travel overseas quickly and affordably. The Belgian coast at [[Ostend]] became popular with Northern working-class tourists in the first half of the twentieth century, and the introduction of [[package holiday]]s in the 1970s was the death of most Northern seaside resorts.<ref>{{cite web|title=Review of ''Working-Class Organisations and Popular Tourism, 1840–1970'' |url=http://www.history.ac.uk/reviews/review/458 |website=Reviews in History |accessdate=7 March 2017 |first=John K. |last=Walton |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170210155040/http://www.history.ac.uk/reviews/review/458 |archivedate=10 February 2017 |df= }}</ref> Blackpool has maintained a focus on tourism, and remains one of the most visited towns in England, but visitor numbers are far below their peak and the town's economy has suffered – both employment rates and average earnings remain below the regional average.<ref>{{cite book|title=Coastal Towns: Session 2005–06|publisher=The Stationery Office|author=Housing, Planning, Local Government and the Regions Committee|page=Ev 140–141|ISBN 978-0-215-02841-49}}</ref>

The wild landscapes of the North are a major draw for tourists,{{sfn|Ehland|2007|pp=239–240}} and many urban areas are looking for regeneration through [[industrial tourism|industrial]], [[heritage tourism|heritage]] and [[cultural tourism]]: of the 24 [[National Museums of the United Kingdom|national museums and galleries]] in England outside London, 14 are located in the North.{{sfn|Ehland|2007|pp=65–68}} As of 2015, Northern England receives around a quarter of all [[domestic tourism]] wi(contracted; show full).com/newspapers/2013/08/london-newspaper-bias-half-national-news-about-south-east |archivedate=21 January 2016 |df= }}</ref> ''[[The Yorkshire Post]]'' promotes itself as "Yorkshire's national paper" and covers some national and international stories, but is primarily focused on news from Yorkshire and the North East.<ref>{{cite book|title=News in the Regions: Plymouth Sound to Moray Firth|first=Alastair|last=Hetherington|chapter=Yorkshire Post|year=1989|ISBN 
978-1-349-19952-45}}</ref> An attempt in 2016 to create a dedicated North-focused national newspaper, ''24'', failed after six weeks.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-cumbria-36913204 |title=North's 'national daily' newspaper 24 closes after six weeks |date=28 July 2016 |accessdate=8 March 2017 |website=BBC News |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170309064428/http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-cumbria-36913204 |archivedate= 9 March 2017 |(contracted; show full)n Englishness, and sympathetic magic|year=2016|first=Karl|last=Spacken|doi=10.1080/14797585.2015.1134056|journal=Journal for Cultural Research|volume=20|issue=1}}</ref> Traits stereotypically associated with Northern England are [[Honesty|straight-talking]], [[Grit (personality trait)|grit]] and warmheartedness, as compared to the supposedly [[wikt:effete|effete]] Southerners.{{sfn|Ehland|2007|page=111}}<ref>{{cite book|title=England|first1=Alan|last1=Allport|first2=George|last2=Wingfield|ISBN 
978-1-4381-0500-20|page=27|year=2007|publisher=Infobase}}</ref> Northern England – especially Lancashire, but also Yorkshire and the North East – has a tradition of [[matriarchy|matriarchal]] families, where the [[Housewife|woman of the house]] runs the home and controls the family's finances. This too has its roots in industrialisation, when mills offered well-paid work for women: during depressions when demand for coal and steel were low, women were often the main breadwinners. Northern women are still stereotyped as strong-willed and independent, or affectionately as [[Battle-axe (woman)|battle-axe]]s.{{sfn|Russell|2004|page=39}}<ref>{{cite book|title=Ageing and Change in Pit Villages of North East England|first=Andrew|last=Dawson|pages=90–91|year=2011|ISBN 978-1-921775-30-07|publisher=UoM Custom Book Centre}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/sep/02/battleaxe-alan-bennett-matriarch-extinction |title=Whatever happened to the Great British Battleaxe? |date=2 September 2015 |accessdate=9 March 2017 |first=Lucy |last=Mangan |newspaper=The Guardian |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160822191635/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/sep/02/battleaxe-alan-bennett-matriarch-extinction |archivedate=22 Augus(contracted; show full)en would wear a heavy jacket and trousers held up by [[suspenders|braces]], an overcoat, and a hat, typically a [[flat cap]], while women would wear a [[dress]], or a [[skirt]] and [[blouse]], with an [[apron]] on top as protection from dirt; in colder months they would often wear a [[shawl]] or [[headscarf]].<ref name="Cap1"/><ref>{{cite book|title=A life apart: the English working class, 1890–1914|page=84|year=1977|first=Standish|last=Meacham|publisher=Harvard University Press|ISBN 
978-0-674-53075-61}}</ref><ref name="Clogs">{{cite book|title=Clothing the Poor in Nineteenth-Century England|first=Vivienne|last=Richmond|pages=33–34|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2013|ISBN 978-1-107-47140-05}}</ref> If not wearing leather lace-up shoes, some men and women would have worn [[Clog (British)|English clogs]], which were hardwearing and had replaceable soles and tips.<ref name="Clogs"/> Factory workers tapping their feet in time with the click of machinery developed a type of folk clog dance referred to as ''[[Clog dancing|clogging]]'', which was intricately developed in the North.<ref>{{cite book|title=Theatre, Performance and Analogue Technology|page=123|first=Kara|last=Reilly|year=2013|publisher=Springer|ISBN 978-1-137-31967-48}}</ref>

In the second half of the 20th century these traditional clothes fell out of fashion. Other styles such as "[[Casual (subculture)|casual]]" (continental European [[designer clothing]] brought back by touring football fans) and [[Sportswear (fashion)|sportswear]] became more popular, and the influence of Northern bands and football teams helped spread them across the country.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dazeddigital.com/fashion/article/33880/1/how-the-north-of-england-impact(contracted; show full)

The North is known for its often crumbly cheeses, of which [[Cheshire cheese]] is the earliest example. Unlike Southern cheeses like [[Cheddar cheese|Cheddar]], Northern cheeses typically use uncooked milk and a pre-salted curd pressed under enormous weights, resulting in a moist, sharp-tasting cheese.<ref>{{cite book|title=Cheese and Culture: A History of Cheese and its Place in Western Civilization|first=Paul|last=Kindstedt|pages=167–170|year=2012|publisher=Chelsea Green|ISBN 
978-1-60358-412-98}}</ref> Wensleydale, another crumbly cheese, is unusual in that it is often served as a side to sweet cakes,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cheeseboard.co.uk/wensleydale |title=Wensleydale |website=British Cheese Board |accessdate=7 March 2017 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160402181945/http://cheeseboard.co.uk/wensleydale |archivedate= 2 April 2016 |df= }}</ref> which are themselves well represented in Northern England. [[Parkin (cake)|Parkin]], an [[oatmeal]] cake (contracted; show full)

While a variety of beers are popular across Northern England, the region is especially associated with [[brown ale]]s such as [[Newcastle Brown Ale]], [[Double Maxim Beer Company|Double Maxim]] and [[Samuel Smith's]] Nut Brown Ale.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Wine, Beer, and Spirits Handbook: A Guide to Styles and Service|page=327|author=The International Culinary Schools at The Art Institutes, Joseph LaVilla|year=2009|ISBN 978
0-0-470-13884-7|publisher=John Wiley and Sons}}</ref> Beer in the North is usually served with a thick [[Beer head|head]] which accentuates the nutty, malty flavours preferred in Northern beers.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/north-south-beer-divide-is-all-in-the-head-1563621.html|title=North-South beer divide is all in the head|date=15 December 1992|first=Michael|last=Jackson|newspaper=The Independent|accessdate=7 March 2017}}</ref> On the non-alcoholic side, the North – in particular, Lancashire – was the hub of the [[temperance bar]] movement which popularised [[soft drink]]s such as [[dandelion and burdock]], [[Tizer]] and [[Vimto]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Northside – Andrew Martin remembers dandelion and burdock|url=http://www.newstatesman.com/node/158082|first=Andrew|last=Martin|newspaper=New Statesman|date=21 July 2003|accessdate=7 March 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Lost Britain: An A-Z of Forgotten Landmarks and Lost Traditions|first=David|last=Long|ISBN 978-1-78243-441-02|year=2015|publisher=Michael O'Mara}}</ref>

In recent decades, immigration to Northern England has shaped its cuisine. The Teesside [[parmo]] is one example, derived from [[chicken parmigiana|escalope parmesan]] brought to the area by an [[Italian-American]] immigrant and adapted to the region's taste.<ref>{{cite web|author= |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/insideout/content/articles/2007/11/01/northeast_parmo_s12_w8_feature.shtml |title=Teesside's fast food sensation |website=[[BBC]] |(contracted; show full)

Meanwhile, the industrialising and urbanising cities of the North gave rise to many masterpieces of [[social realism]]. Elizabeth Gaskell was the first in a lineage of female realist writers from the North that later included [[Winifred Holtby]], [[Catherine Cookson]], [[Beryl Bainbridge]] and [[Jeanette Winterson]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The Woman's Historical Novel: British Women Writers, 1900–2000|first=D. |last=Wallace|page=20|year=2004|publisher=Springer|ISBN 
978-0-230-50594-50}}</ref> Many of the [[angry young men]] of post-war literature were Northern and working class life in the face of deindustrialisation is depicted in novels such as ''[[Room at the Top (novel)|Room at the Top]]'' (1959), ''[[Billy Liar]]'' (1959), ''[[This Sporting Life (novel)|This Sporting Life]]'' (1960) and ''[[A Kestrel for a Knave]]'' (1968).<ref name="NSBooks"/><ref>{{cite book|contribution=Introduction|contributor-first=Blake|contributor-last=Morrison|title=Billy Liar|year=2010|orig-year=1959|first=Keith|last=Waterhouse|publisher=Penguin|ISBN 978-0-14-195803-03}}</ref>

===Music===
[[File:Scarborough Fair.ogg|thumb|right|[[Scarborough Fair (ballad)|Scarborough Fair]], a traditional Northern folk song]]
[[File:Harrogate Band in Leeds.jpg|thumb|right|The Harrogate Band playing in Leeds|alt=A marching band with a variety of horns and drums.|upright=1.2]]
(contracted; show full)

Northern England also has a thriving [[popular music]] scene. Influential movements include [[Merseybeat]] from the Liverpool area, which produced [[The Beatles]], [[Northern soul]], which brought [[Motown]] to England, and [[Madchester]], the precursor to the [[rave]] scene.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Cambridge Companion to Modern British Culture|first=John|last=Tomaney|chapter='Madchester': 'Northernness' and mass culture|pages=85–86|ISBN 
978-1-139-82795-29|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=MOD: From Bebop to Britpop, Britain's Biggest Youth Movement|first=Richard|last=Weight|page=186|year=2013|publisher=Random House|ISBN 978-1-4481-8249-27}}</ref> Across the Pennines, Sheffield is the birthplace of influential [[electronic pop]] bands from [[Cabaret Voltaire (band)|Cabaret Voltaire]] to [[Pulp (band)|Pulp]], the [[New Yorkshire]] [[indie rock]] movement of the 2000s gave the country the [[Kaiser Chiefs]] and the [[Arctic Monkeys]], and [[Teesside]] has a rock scene stretching from [[Chris Rea]] to [[Maximo Park]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britishcouncil.org.il/en/Rewind_Sheffield_story |title=Made In Sheffield: The Birth of(contracted; show full)orth End F.C.|Preston North End]] won an FA Cup match against London-based [[Upton Park F.C.|Upton Park]].<ref name="Round">{{cite book |last=Goldblatt |first=David |title=The Ball is Round: A Global History of Football |publisher=Penguin|location=London |year=2007 |ISBN 978-0-14-101582-8| pages=43–47}}</ref><ref name="FACup">{{cite book | title= The F.A. Cup – The Complete Story|last= Lloyd |first= Guy |last2=Holt|first2= Nick  |year= 2005|publisher= Aurum Press|ISBN 
978-1-84513-054-51|pages=22–24}}</ref> Upton Park protested that Preston had broken FA rules by paying their players. In response, Preston withdrew from the competition and fellow Lancashire clubs [[Burnley F.C.|Burnley]] and [[Great Lever F.C.|Great Lever]] followed suit. The protest gathered momentum to the point where more than 30 clubs, predominantly from the North, announced that they would set up a rival British Football Association if the FA did not permit professionalism.<ref name="Round"/> A schism was avoided in July 1885 when [[Professionalism in association football|professionalism was formally legalised in English football]].<ref name="FACup"/><ref name="FIFAHistory">{{cite news|url=http://www.fifa.com/classicfootball/history/the-game/global-growth.html |title=History of Football – The Global Growth |accessdate=20 April 2014 |publisher=FIFA Official Website |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140821083313/http://www.fifa.com/classicfootball/history/the-game/global-growth.html |archivedate=21 August 2014 |df= }}</ref> The [[English Football League|Football League]] was founded in 1888, and marked its independence from the London-based [[Football Association]] by establishing headquarters in Preston – the League retained a Northern identity even after it accepted a number of Southern teams into its ranks.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Leaguers: The Making of Professional Football in England, 1900–1939|first=Matthew|last=Taylor|pages=283–284|year=2005|ISBN 978-0-85323-639-9|publisher=Liverpool University Press}}</ref> Intense [[List of sports rivalries in the United Kingdom|local derbies]] between neighbouring teams mean that there is less of a North–South rivalry than in some other sports.<ref name="SportAndWorkingClasses"/>

(contracted; show full)of Lancaster]] and the [[White Rose of York]]) between Lancashire and Yorkshire is one of the hardest fought rivalries in the sport – the pride of both sides, and their determination not to lose, resulted in the teams developing a slow, stubborn and defensive style that proved unpopular elsewhere in the country.<ref name="S&E">{{cite book|title=Sport and the English, 1918–1939|pages=150–151|year=2006|first1=Mike|last1=Huggins|first2=Jack|last2=Williams|publisher=Taylor and Francis|ISBN 
978-0-415-33185-42}}</ref> The London-based [[Marylebone Cricket Club]], which controlled the game at the time, selected few Northern players for [[Test cricket|Test matches]], and this was perceived as a snub to their playing style – the anger united Lancashire and Yorkshire against the South and helped cast a shared Northern identity that transcended the Roses rivalry.<ref name="S&E"/><ref name="Danced">{{cite-book|title=We Danced All Night: A Social History of Britain Between the Wars|page=423–424|first=Martin|last=Pugh|year=2013|ISBN 9781-1-4481-6274-1|publisher=Random House}}</ref> This divide was illustrated in the [[1924 County Championship]], when Yorkshire beat London-based [[Middlesex County Cricket Club|Middlesex]] to claim the title. [[Surrey County Cricket Club|Surrey]] accused Yorkshire of scuffing the pitch and intimidating the [[bowling (cricket)|bowlers]], while the match with Middlesex was so vicious that the team threatened to never play in Yorkshire again.<ref name="S&E"/><ref name="Danced"/> The(contracted; show full) did not see the same regional schisms on the topic that rugby and football did – there were debates over [[amateur status in first-class cricket]], but these tensions were given release in the [[Gentlemen v Players]] fixture.<ref>{{cite book|title=Amateurism in British Sport: It Matters Not Who Won Or Lost?|first=Jack|last=Williams|chapter='The Really Good Professional Captain Has Never Been Seen!': Perceptions of the Amateur/Professional Divide in County Cricket, 1900–39|pages=87–91|ISBN 
978-1-136-80291-61|publisher=Routledge|ISBN 9781-1-136-80290-4}}</ref> Nevertheless, the annual [[North v South]] games were among the most popular and competitive in the sport, running annually from 1849 until 1900 and intermittently thereafter.<ref>{{cite book|title=And God Created Cricket|first=Simon|last=Hughes|pages=64–65|authorlink=Simon Hughes (cricketer)|ISBN 9781-1-4464-2247-2|year=2010|publisher=Random House}}</ref>

==Politics==
{{see also|Politics of England}}
[[File:2015 UK general election constituency map.svg|thumb|right|Labour held the majority of Northern constituencies at the [[United Kingdom general election, 2015|2015 general election]].{{Legend|#dc241f|Labour}}{{Legend|#0087dc|Conservative}}{{Legend|#fdbb30|Liberal Democrat}}|alt=A map of the United Kingdom, with all constituencies given equal area. Labour hold the majority of Northern seats. The Conservatives(contracted; show full)s ports influenced the birth of [[Manchester Liberalism]], a ''[[laissez-faire]]'' [[free trade]] philosophy. Expounded by [[C. P. Scott]] and the ''Manchester Guardian'', the movement's greatest success was the repeal of the [[Corn Laws]], protests against which had led to the 1819 [[Peterloo Massacre]] in Manchester.<ref name="Lib">{{cite book|title=The Transformation of Urban Liberalism|pages=15–16|first=James R. |last=Moore|year=2006|ISBN 978
0-0-7546-5000-3|publisher=Ashgate Publishing}}</ref>

[[File:Durham Miners Gala 2007 - geograph.org.uk - 494378.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Durham Miners' Gala]] is one of the largest trade union events in Europe.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-tyne-36750069 |date=9 July 2016 |title=Labour leader calls for unity at Durham Miners' Gala |publisher=BBC News |accessdate=21 March 2017 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160719013344/http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-tyne-36750069 |archivedate=19 July 2016 |df= }}</ref>|alt=A parade with large traditional trade union banners.|upright=0.9]]
The first [[Trades Union Congress]] was held in Manchester in 1868,<ref>{{cite-book|title=Short History of the Trades Union Congress|page=7|year=1968|first1=John|last1=Lovell|first2=Benjamin Charles|last2=Roberts|ISBN 9781-1-349-00435-5|publisher=Springer}}</ref> and as of 2015 [[trade union]] membership in Northern England remains higher than in Southern England, although it is lower than in the other [[Home Nations]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/525938/Trade_Union_Membership_2015_-_Statistical_Bulletin.pdf |title=TRADE UNION MEMBERSHIP 2015 |publisher=Office for National Statistics |date=May 2016 |page=17 |format=PDF |accessdate=3 March 2017 |deadurl=no |archi(contracted; show full)r in the North.{{efn|The Lib Dems lost most of their seats, in Northern England and elsewhere, at the [[United Kingdom general election, 2015|2015 general election]]. Of the 8 seats they held, 4 were in Northern England.<ref>{{cite news|title=Election 2015 results|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/election/2015/results|publisher=BBC|accessdate=8 May 2015}}</ref>}} <ref>{{cite book|title=British Politics, 1910–1935: The Crisis of the Party System|first=David|last=Powell|page=37|year=2004|ISBN 
978-0-415-35106-5|publisher=Psychology Press}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Seats, Votes, and the Spatial Organisation of Elections|first1=Graham|last1=Gudgin|first2=Peter J.|last2=Taylor|page=xxix|year=2012|publisher=ECPR|ISBN 978-1-907301-35-63}}</ref>

At the [[United Kingdom European Union membership referendum, 2016|2016 EU membership referendum]], all three Northern England regions voted to leave, as did all English regions outside London. The largest Northern Remain vote was 60.4% in Manchester; the largest Leave vote was 69.9% in North East Lincolnshire.<ref name="Brexit">{{cite web|title=EU referendum results |url=http://www.electoralcommission.org.uk/find-information-by-subject/elections-and-referendums/upcoming-elec(contracted; show full)rk |last=Tran |newspaper=The Guardian |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170316205959/https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2009/jun/08/labour-conservatives-condemn-bnp-europe |archivedate=16 March 2017 |df= }}</ref> After 2013, BNP support in the region collapsed as most voters swung to UKIP.<ref>{{cite book|title=Revolt on the Right: Explaining Support for the Radical Right in Britain|first1=Robert|last1=Ford|first2=Matthew J|last2=Goodwin|year=2014|publisher=Routledge|ISBN 
978-1-317-93854-25}}</ref>

Campaigns for regional autonomy for the North have seen little electoral support. Plans by Labour under [[Tony Blair]] to create [[devolution|devolved]] [[regional assembly (England)|regional assemblies]] for the three Northern regions were abandoned after the government lost the [[North East England devolution referendum, 2004|2004 North East England devolution referendum]] against a No vote of 78%.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/3992435.stm |title=Prescott(contracted; show full)o |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100811032451/http://www.bbc.co.uk/tyne/features/gospels/gospels_tense_past.shtml |archivedate=11 August 2010 |df= }} Retrieved on 23 February 2009.</ref> [[Saint Cuthbert]], a monk of Lindisfarne, was venerated from Nottinghamshire to Cumberland, and is today sometimes named the [[patron saint]] of Northern England.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Secular Clergy in England, 1066–1216|first=Hugh M.|last=Thomas|page=337|publisher=Oxford University Press|ISBN 
978-0-19-870256-6|year=2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=History of England  |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w2EPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA124&lpg=PA124&dq=%22patron+saint+of+the+north%22 |last=Palgrave, Francis|first=|year=1831|publisher=Harvard University}}</ref> [[Paulinus of York|Paulinus]], as part of the [[Gregorian mission]], became the first [[Bishop of York]]. The [[Synod of Whitby]] saw Northumbria break from Celtic Christianity and return to the Roman Catholic church, as [[Computus|calculations of Easter]] and [[tonsure]] rules were brought into line with those of Rome.<ref name="MayrHartingThe">{{cite book|authorlink=Henry Mayr-Harting|last=Mayr-Harting|first=Henry|title=The Coming of Christianity to Anglo-Saxon England|edition=3rd|publisher=B. T. Batsford|year=1991|ISBN 978-0-271-03851-93}}</ref>

[[File:Catholics in England 1715-20.svg|thumb|left|upright=1|Percentage of registered Catholics in the population in 1715–1720.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://archive.org/details/MN5014ucmf_0|title=The English Recusants: A Study of the Post-Reformation Catholic Survival and the Operation of the Recusancy Laws|last=Magee|first=Brian|publisher=Burns, Oates & Washbourne|year=1938|ISBN |location=London|pages=|ol=14028100M|quote=|via=Internet Archive}}</ref>{{legend|#eff3ff|Less than 3%}}{{legend|#bdd7e7|3–4%}}{{legend|#6baed6|5–8%}}{{legend|#3182bd|10–20%}}{{legend|#08519c|More than 20%}}|alt=A map of England, showing all Northern counties at least 10% Catholic and Lancashire more than 20% Catholic.]]

After the English Reformation Northern England became a centre of Catholicism, and [[Irish migration to Great Britain|Irish immigration]] increased its numbers further, especially in cities like Liverpool and Manchester.<ref name="Oz"/> In the 18th and 19th centuries, the area underwent a [[Christian revival|religious revival]] that ultimately produced [[Primitive Methodism]],<ref>{{cite book|title=T&T Clark Companion to Methodism|page=475|first=Charles|last= Yrigoyen Jr|year=2014|ISBN 9780-0-567-66246-0|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing}}</ref> and at its peak in the 19th century, [[Methodism]] was the dominant faith in much of Northern England.<ref>{{cite book|title=Atlas of Industrializing Britain, 1780–1914|first1=John|last1=Langton|first2=R.J.|last2=Morris|ISBN 9781-1-135-83645-0|year=2002|publisher=Routledge}}</ref>

As of 2016, the list of places of worship registered for marriage for Northern England includes at least 1,960 that are Methodist or [[Independent Methodist Connexion|Independent Methodist]], 1,200 Roman Catholic, 370 [[United Reformed Church|United Reformed]], 310 [[Baptist]] or [[Particular Baptist]], 250 [[Jehovah's Witness]] and 240 [[Salvation Army]], as well as many hundreds of churches from smaller denominations.{{efn|Anglican churches are not requi(contracted; show full)

[[Spiritualism]] flourished in Northern England in the nineteenth century, in part as a backlash to the fundamentalist Primitive Methodist movement and in part driven by the influence of [[Owenism|Owenist]] socialism.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Other World: Spiritualism and Psychical Research in England, 1850–1914|first=Janet|last=Oppenheim|pages=91–92|year=1988|ISBN 
978-0-521-34767-X9|publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref> There remain 220 Spiritualist churches registered in the North, of which 40 identify as [[Spiritualism (beliefs)#Christian Spiritualism|Christian Spiritualist]].<ref name="MarriageRegister"/>

(contracted; show full)s/datablog/interactive/2013/feb/01/cycle-drive-work-map-census-2011 |archivedate=13 January 2016 |df= }}</ref> Many of the [[municipal bus company|municipal bus companies]] were located in Northern England, and the region saw intense competition and [[bus war]]s following [[Bus deregulation in Great Britain|deregulation]] in the 1980s and 1990s.<ref>{{cite book|title=Competition Ownership of Bus and Coach Services|first=David A.|last=Hensher|page=279|year=1991|publisher=Taylor and Francis|ISBN 
978-2-88124-796-25}}</ref> Increasing car ownership in the same era caused bus use to decline, although it remains higher than in most areas of the South.<ref>{{cite book|title=People and Places: A 2001 Census Atlas of the UK|first=Daniel|last=Dorling|first2=Bethan|last2=Thomas|page=163|year=2004|publisher=Policy Press|ISBN 978-1-86134-555-04}}</ref>

===Rail===
[[File:Preston - FTPE 350403 and Northern 142058.JPG|thumb|left|upright=1.1|Trains from Northern and TransPennine Express at [[Preston railway station|Preston]]|alt=Two trains – one modern, and one from the eighties – in a Victorian railway station.]]
The North of England pioneered [[rail transport]]. Milestones include the 1758 [[Middleton Railway]] in Leeds, the first railway authorised by [[Act of Parliament]] and the oldest continually operating in the world, the 1825 [[Stockton and Darlington Railway]], the first public railway to use [[steam locomotives]], and the 1830 [[Liverpool and Manchester Railway]], the first modern main line.<ref>{{cite book|title=Privatized Infrastructure: The Role of Government|pages=19–20|first=Adrian J.|last=Smith|year=1999|publisher=Thomas Telford|ISBN 978-0-7277-2712-51}}</ref> Today the region retains many of its original railway lines, including the [[East Coast Main Line|East Coast]] and [[West Coast Main Line|West Coast]] main lines and the [[Cross Country Route]]. Passenger numbers on Northern routes have increased over 50% since 2004 and Northern England handles over half of total UK [[rail freight]], but infrastructure is poorly funded compared to Southern railways: railways in London received £5426 per resident in 2015 while those in the North East received (contracted; show full)tm|title=Birkenhead marks historic tramway |date=1 September 2010|accessdate=7 March 2017|website=BBC News}}</ref> Trams turned out to be especially well suited for Northern cities, with their growing working-class [[suburb]]s, and by the turn of the century, most Northern towns had an extensive interconnected electric tram network.<ref name="ModernBritain">{{cite book|title=Modern Britain Third Edition: A Social History 1750–2011|pages=20–21|first=Edward|last=Royle|year=2016|ISBN 978
1-1-84966-570-4|publisher=A&C Black}}</ref> At the network's height, it was possible to travel entirely by tram from Liverpool [[Pier Head]] to the village of Summit, outside [[Rochdale]], a distance of {{convert|52|miles|km}}, and a gap of only {{convert|7|miles|km}} separated the North-Western network from the West Yorkshire network.<ref name="RochdaleTrams">{{cite magazine|year=1954|title=In the Shadow of the Pennines|page=154|magazine=Transport World|first=D.|last=Randall}}</ref> (contracted; show full) 2016 |publisher=Civil Aviation Authority |accessdate=6 March 2017 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170219085857/https://www.caa.co.uk/uploadedFiles/CAA/Content/Standard_Content/Data_and_analysis/Datasets/Airport_stats/Airport_data_2016_12/Table_01_Size_of_UK_Airports.pdf |archivedate=19 February 2017 |df= }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Future of Air Transport|author=Department for Transport|publisher=The Stationery Office|chapter=8. The North of England|year=2003|ISBN 
978-0-10-160462-98 |url=https://books.google.com/books/about/The_Future_of_Air_Transport.html?id=cMeBe5FksaEC |deadurl=no |accessdate=8 March 2017}}</ref> In total, there are seven international airports in the North; these are (in descending order of passenger traffic) Manchester, [[Newcastle Airport|Newcastle]], [[Liverpool John Lennon Airport|Liverpool John Lennon]], [[Leeds Bradford Airport|Leeds Bradford]], [[Doncaster Sheffield Airport|Doncaster Sheffield]], [[Humberside Airport|Humberside]] and [[Durham Tees Val(contracted; show full)

===Water===
The first modern canal in England was [[Sankey Canal|Sankey Brook]], opened in 1757 to connect Liverpool's ports to the [[St Helens, Merseyside|St Helens]] coalfields.<ref name="TransportIR">{{cite book|pages=189–190|title=Transport in the Industrial Revolution|first=Derek Howard |last=Aldcroft|publisher=Manchester University Press|year=1983|ISBN 
978-0-7190-0839-59}}</ref> By 1777, the [[Trent and Mersey Canal|Grand Trunk Canal]] had opened, linking the rivers Mersey and Trent and making it possible for boats to travel directly from Liverpool on the west coast to Hull on the east coast.<ref name="TransportIR"/> Manchester, {{convert|40|miles|km}} inland, was connected to the [[Irish Sea]] by the [[Manchester Ship Canal]] in 1894, although the canal never saw the success that was hoped for.<ref>{{citation |last1=Willan |first1=Thomas Stuart |editor1-last=Chaloner |editor1-first=W. H. |editor2-last=Ratcliffe | editor2-first=Barrie M. |title=Trade and Transport: Essays in Economic History in Honour of T. S. Willan |publisher=Manchester University Press |year=1977 |ISBN 978-0-8476-6013-31|pages=179–190}}</ref> The North retains many navigable canals, including the [[Cheshire Ring|Cheshire]], [[North Pennine Ring|North Pennine]] and [[South Pennine Ring|South Pennine]] [[canal ring]]s, although they are now used mostly for pleasure rather than transport – the [[Aire and Calder Navigation]], which carries over 2 million tons of oil, sand and gravel per year, is a rare exception.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://canalrivertrust.org.uk/enjoy-the-waterways/canal-and-river-network/aire-and-(contracted; show full){{notelist|60em}}

===References===
{{Reflist|35em}}

===Bibliography===
{{refbegin|60em}}
*{{Cite book|title=The Literary North|first=K.|last=Cockin|year=2012|publisher=Springer|ISBN 
978-1-137-02687-13|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|title=Church and Society in the Medieval North of England|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rR_rCgAAQBAJ|first=R. B.|last=Dobson|publisher=A&C Black|year=1996|ISBN 978-1-85285-120-10|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book |title=Thinking Northern: Textures of Identity in the North of England  |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7MKDBu1L_5MC |last=Ehland |first=Christoph|year=2007|publisher=Editions Rodopi BV|ISBN 978-90-420-2281-72 |ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|title=The Iron Age in Northern Britain: Celts and Romans, Natives and Invaders|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m3OCAgAAQBAJ|first=D.W.|last=Harding|publisher=Routledge|year=2004|ISBN 978-1-134-41786-5|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book |title=Researching Northern English|last=Hickey|first=Raymond|year=2015|publisher=John Benjamins|ISBN 978-90-272-6767-72 |ref=harv|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pNf4CgAAQBAJ}}
*{{cite book |last=Holder|first=Judith|year=2005|title=It's Not Grim Up North|publisher=BBC Books|ISBN 978-0-563-52281-X2 |ref=harv|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yGJ32aAxSdoC}}
*{{cite book |title=The North-south Divide: The Origins of Northern Consciousness in England|last=Jewell|first=Helen|year=1994|publisher=Manchester University Press|ISBN 978-0-7190-3804-94 |ref=harv|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LvbBAAAAIAAJ}}
*{{cite book |authorlink=Stuart Maconie|last=Maconie|first=Stuart|year=2007|title=Pies and Prejudice: In Search of the North|publisher=Ebury Press|ISBN 978-0-09-191022-8 |ref=harv|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AFL7O5nj0bUC}}
*{{cite book|title=The British Palaeolithic: Human Societies at the Edge of the Pleistocene World|first1=Paul|last1=Pettit|first2=Mark|last2=White|publisher=Routledge|year=2012|location=Abingdon, UK|ISBN 978-0-415-67455-3 |ref=harv|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U7VYXridvUgC}}
*{{cite book |title=Looking North: Northern England and the National Imagination  |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fGI3Bgy54OcC |last=Russell |first=Dave|year=2004|publisher=Manchester University Press|ISBN 978-0-7190-5178-94 |ref=harv}}
*{{cite book |title=Northern English: A Social and Cultural History|last=Wales|first=Katie|year=2006|publisher=Cambridge University Press|ISBN 978-0-511-48707-1|ref=harv|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IaOuTaQ5zq4C}}<!--Google Books gives the ISBN as 1139457055 -->
*{{cite book|url=http://www.transportforthenorth.com/wp-content/uploads/northern-trans-pennine-strategic-study-stage-3-report.pdf|title=Northern Trans-Pennine Routes Strategic Study|publisher=Department for Transport|year=2016|format=PDF|ref=harv|author=Highways England}}
*{{cite book |url=http://www.ippr.org/files/images/media/files/publication/2012/12/northern-prosperity_NEFC-final_Nov2012_9949.pdf?noredirect=1|title=Northern Prosperity is National Prosperity|author=IPPR North|year=2012|publisher=Institute for Public Policy Research |ref=harv}}
*{{cite book |url=http://www.ippr.org/files/publications/pdf/northern-powerhouse-in-action-feb2017.pdf?noredirect=1|title=The Northern Powerhouse in Action|author=IPPR North|year=2016|publisher=Institute for Public Policy Research |ref=harv}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
*{{cite book|last=Turner|first=Graham|year=1967|title=The North Country|publisher=Eyre & Spottiswoode}}
*{{cite book|last=Wainwright|first=Martin|year=2009|title=True North|publisher=Guardian Books|ISBN 978-0-85265-113-1}}
{{refend}}

{{England topics}}

[[Category:Northern England| ]]
[[Category:Regions of England]]
[[Category:Geography of England]]
[[Category:Northumbria]]
[[Category:Cultural regions]]