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(contracted; show full)e it difficult to retrace a route while rain may prevent taking the easiest line only determined as such under dry conditions. In a storm the mountaineer who uses a [[compass]] for guidance has a great advantage over a merely empirical observer. In large snow-fields it is, of course, easier to go wrong than on rocks, but intelligence and experience are the best guides in safely navigating objective hazards.

Summer [[thunderstorm]]s may produce intense [[lightning]].<ref name="MedicalProblems"
>{{cite journal|author1=Cymerman, A|author2=Rock, PB|title=Medical Problems in High Mountain Environments. A Handbook for Medical Officers|publisher=US Army Research Inst. of Environmental Medicine Thermal and Mountain Medicine Division Technical Report|volume=USARIEM-TN94-2|url=http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/7976|accessdate=2009-03-05}}</ref> If a climber happens to be standing on or near the summit, they risk being struck. There are many cases where people have been struck by lightning while climbing mountains. In most mountainous regions, local storms develop by late morning and early afternoon. Many climbers will get an "alpine start", that is, before or by first light, so as to be on the way down when storms are intensifying in activity and lightning and other weather hazards are a distinct threat to safety. High [[wind]]s can speed the onset of [[hypothermia]], as well as damage equipment such as tents used for shelter.<ref name="MedicalProblems">{{cite journal|author1=Cymerman, A|author2=Rock, PB|title=Medical Problems in High Mountain Environments. A Handbook for Medical Officers|publisher=US Army Research Inst. of Environmental Medicine Thermal and Mountain Medicine Division Technical Report|volume=USARIEM-TN94-2|url=http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/7976|accessdate=2009-03-05}}</ref><ref name=Hamilton>{{cite journal |author=Hamilton, AJ |title=Biomedical Aspects of Military Operations at High Altitude |publisher=US Army Research Inst. of Environmental Medicine Thermal and Mountain Medicine Division Technical Report |volume=USARIEM-M-30/88 |url=http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/7975 |accessdate=2009-03-05}}</ref> Under certain conditions, storms can also create waterfalls which can slow or stop climbing progress. A notable example is the [[Foehn wind|Föhn wind]] acting upon the Eiger.

===Altitude===
Rapid ascent can lead to [[altitude sickness]].<ref name="MedicalProblems">{{cite journal|author1=Cymerman, A|author2=Rock, PB|title=Medical Problems in High Mountain Environments. A Handbook for Medical Officers|publisher=US Army Research Inst. of Environmental Medicine Thermal and Mountain Medicine Division Technical Report|volume=USARIEM-TN94-2|url=http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/7976|accessdate=2009-03-05}}</ref><ref name=BordenHACE>{{cite book |author1=Roach, Robert |author2=Stepanek, Jan |author3=Hackett, Peter.  |last-author-amp=yes |title=Acute Mountain Sickness and High-Altitude Cerebral Edema. In: Medical Aspects of Harsh Environments |volume=2 |chapter=24 |location=Borden Institute, Washington, DC |year=2002 |chapter-url=http://www.bordeninstitute.army.mil/published_volumes/harshEnv2/harshEnv2.html |accessdate=2009-01-05 }}</ref> The best treatment is to descend immediately. The climber's motto at high altitude is "climb high, sleep low", referring to the regimen of climbing higher to acclimatise but returning to lower elevation to sleep. In the South American Andes, the chewing of [[coca|coca leaves]] has been traditionally used to treat altitude sickness symptoms.

Common symptoms of altitude sickness include severe headache, sleep problems, nausea, lack of appetite, lethargy and body ache. Mountain sickness may progress to HACE ([[High altitude cerebral edema|High Altitude Cerebral Edema]]) and HAPE ([[High altitude pulmonary edema|High Altitude Pulmonary Edema]]), both of which can be fatal within 24 hours.<ref name="MedicalProblems">{{cite journal|author1=Cymerman, A|author2=Rock, PB|title=Medical Problems in High Mountain Environments. A Handbook for Medical Officers|publisher=US Army Research Inst. of Environmental Medicine Thermal and Mountain Medicine Division Technical Report|volume=USARIEM-TN94-2|url=http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/7976|accessdate=2009-03-05}}</ref><ref name="BordenHACE">{{cite book|author1=Roach, Robert|author2=Stepanek, Jan|author3=Hackett, Peter.|last-author-amp=yes|title=Acute Mountain Sickness and High-Altitude Cerebral Edema. In: Medical Aspects of Harsh Environments|volume=2|chapter=24|location=Borden Institute, Washington, DC|year=2002|chapter-url=http://www.bordeninstitute.army.mil/published_volumes/harshEnv2/harshEnv2.html|accessdate=2009-01-05}}</ref><ref name=BordenHAPE>{{cite book |author1=Roach, James M.  |author2=Schoene, Robert B.  |lastauthoramp=yes |title=High-Altitude Pulmonary Edema. In: Medical Aspects of Harsh Environments |volume=2 |chapter=25 |location=Borden Institute, Washington, DC |year=2002 |chapter-url=http://www.bordeninstitute.army.mil/published_volumes/harshEnv2/harshEnv2.html |accessdate=2009-01-05 }}</ref>

In high mountains, atmospheric pressure is lower and this means that less oxygen is available to breathe.<ref name="MedicalProblems">{{cite journal|author1=Cymerman, A|author2=Rock, PB|title=Medical Problems in High Mountain Environments. A Handbook for Medical Officers|publisher=US Army Research Inst. of Environmental Medicine Thermal and Mountain Medicine Division Technical Report|volume=USARIEM-TN94-2|url=http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/7976|accessdate=2009-03-05}}</ref> This is the underlying cause of altitude sickness. Everyone needs to acclimatise, even exceptional mountaineers that have been to high altitude before.<ref name=Acclimatization>{{cite journal |author1=Muza, SR |author2=Fulco, CS |author3=Cymerman, A |title=Altitude Acclimatization Guide. |journal=US Army Research Inst. Of Environmental Medicine Thermal and Mountain Medicine Division Technical Report |issue=USARIEM–TN–04–05 |year=2004 |url=http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/7616 |accessdate=2009-03-05 }}</ref> Generally speaking, mountaineers start using [[bottled oxygen]] when they climb above 7,000 m. Exceptional mountaineers have climbed [[Eight-thousander|8000-metre peaks]] (including [[Mount Everest|Everest]]) without oxygen, almost always with a carefully planned program of acclimatisation.

===Solar radiation===
[[Solar radiation]] increases significantly as the [[Atmosphere of Earth|atmosphere]] gets thinner with increasing altitude thereby absorbing less [[ultraviolet radiation]].<ref name="MedicalProblems">{{cite journal|author1=Cymerman, A|author2=Rock, PB|title=Medical Problems in High Mountain Environments. A Handbook for Medical Officers|publisher=US Army Research Inst. of Environmental Medicine Thermal and Mountain Medicine Division Technical Report|volume=USARIEM-TN94-2|url=http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/7976|accessdate=2009-03-05}}</ref><ref name="Hamilton">{{cite journal|author=Hamilton, AJ|title=Biomedical Aspects of Military Operations at High Altitude|publisher=US Army Research Inst. of Environmental Medicine Thermal and Mountain Medicine Division Technical Report|volume=USARIEM-M-30/88|url=http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/7975|accessdate=2009-03-05}}</ref> Snow cover reflecting the radiation can amplify the effects by up to 75% increasing the risks and damage from [[sunburn]] and [[snow blindness]].<ref name="Hamilton">{{cite journal|author=Hamilton, AJ|title=Biomedical Aspects of Military Operations at High Altitude|publisher=US Army Research Inst. of Environmental Medicine Thermal and Mountain Medicine Division Technical Report|volume=USARIEM-M-30/88|url=http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/7975|accessdate=2009-03-05}}</ref/> If a climber happens to be standing on or near the summit, they risk being struck. There are many cases where people have been struck by lightning while climbing mountains. In most mountainous regions, local storms develop by late morning and early afternoon. Many climbers will get an "alpine start", that is, before or by first light, so as to be on the way down when storms are intensifying in activity and lightning and other weather hazards are a distinct threat to safety. High [[wind]]s can speed the onset of [[hypothermia]], as well as damage equipment such as tents used for shelter.<ref name="MedicalProblems"/><ref name=Hamilton>{{cite journal |author=Hamilton, AJ |title=Biomedical Aspects of Military Operations at High Altitude |publisher=US Army Research Inst. of Environmental Medicine Thermal and Mountain Medicine Division Technical Report |volume=USARIEM-M-30/88 |url=http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/7975 |accessdate=2009-03-05}}</ref> Under certain conditions, storms can also create waterfalls which can slow or stop climbing progress. A notable example is the [[Foehn wind|Föhn wind]] acting upon the Eiger.

===Altitude===
Rapid ascent can lead to [[altitude sickness]].<ref name="MedicalProblems"/><ref name=BordenHACE>{{cite book |author1=Roach, Robert |author2=Stepanek, Jan |author3=Hackett, Peter.  |last-author-amp=yes |title=Acute Mountain Sickness and High-Altitude Cerebral Edema. In: Medical Aspects of Harsh Environments |volume=2 |chapter=24 |location=Borden Institute, Washington, DC |year=2002 |chapter-url=http://www.bordeninstitute.army.mil/published_volumes/harshEnv2/harshEnv2.html |accessdate=2009-01-05 }}</ref> The best treatment is to descend immediately. The climber's motto at high altitude is "climb high, sleep low", referring to the regimen of climbing higher to acclimatise but returning to lower elevation to sleep. In the South American Andes, the chewing of [[coca|coca leaves]] has been traditionally used to treat altitude sickness symptoms.

Common symptoms of altitude sickness include severe headache, sleep problems, nausea, lack of appetite, lethargy and body ache. Mountain sickness may progress to HACE ([[High altitude cerebral edema|High Altitude Cerebral Edema]]) and HAPE ([[High altitude pulmonary edema|High Altitude Pulmonary Edema]]), both of which can be fatal within 24 hours.<ref name="MedicalProblems"/><ref name="BordenHACE"/><ref name=BordenHAPE>{{cite book |author1=Roach, James M.  |author2=Schoene, Robert B.  |lastauthoramp=yes |title=High-Altitude Pulmonary Edema. In: Medical Aspects of Harsh Environments |volume=2 |chapter=25 |location=Borden Institute, Washington, DC |year=2002 |chapter-url=http://www.bordeninstitute.army.mil/published_volumes/harshEnv2/harshEnv2.html |accessdate=2009-01-05 }}</ref>

In high mountains, atmospheric pressure is lower and this means that less oxygen is available to breathe.<ref name="MedicalProblems"/> This is the underlying cause of altitude sickness. Everyone needs to acclimatise, even exceptional mountaineers that have been to high altitude before.<ref name=Acclimatization>{{cite journal |author1=Muza, SR |author2=Fulco, CS |author3=Cymerman, A |title=Altitude Acclimatization Guide. |journal=US Army Research Inst. Of Environmental Medicine Thermal and Mountain Medicine Division Technical Report |issue=USARIEM–TN–04–05 |year=2004 |url=http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/7616 |accessdate=2009-03-05 }}</ref> Generally speaking, mountaineers start using [[bottled oxygen]] when they climb above 7,000 m. Exceptional mountaineers have climbed [[Eight-thousander|8000-metre peaks]] (including [[Mount Everest|Everest]]) without oxygen, almost always with a carefully planned program of acclimatisation.

===Solar radiation===
[[Solar radiation]] increases significantly as the [[Atmosphere of Earth|atmosphere]] gets thinner with increasing altitude thereby absorbing less [[ultraviolet radiation]].<ref name="MedicalProblems"/><ref name="Hamilton"/> Snow cover reflecting the radiation can amplify the effects by up to 75% increasing the risks and damage from [[sunburn]] and [[snow blindness]].<ref name="Hamilton"/>

In 2005, researcher and mountaineer John Semple established that above-average ozone concentrations on the [[Tibetan Plateau]] may pose an additional risk to climbers.<ref name=UofT/>

===Volcanic activity===
(contracted; show full)essibility must be understood as the combination of: transport links factors, in situ services factors. While the factors that influence mountaineering destination accessibility (transport links and in situ services) are not much different from any other excursion, real accessibility factors are. Real accessibility may be dependent (in a positive or negative way) upon social factors, economic factors, weather factors, psychophysical factors, and carrying capacity factors.<ref name="dx.doi.org"
>Apollo, M. (2017) [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2213078016300809 The true accessibility of mountaineering: The case of the High Himalaya], Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism, 17: 29–43. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jort.2016.12.001</ref/>

==See also==
{{Div col}}

* [[Index of climbing topics]]
* [[Glossary of climbing terms]]
* [[List of climbers and mountaineers]]
(contracted; show full)
* [http://www.mcofs.org.uk/home.asp Mountaineering Council of Scotland]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140103211411/http://www.museevirtuel-virtualmuseum.ca/sgc-cms/expositions-exhibitions/nuages-clouds/en/index.html/ Climbing the clouds ] Virtual exhibit of British Columbia mountaineering
* [http://historyscoper.com/mountainclimberscope.html The Historyscoper - mountain climbers]
* [http://gurkhaadventures.com/tours/ The tours expedition company]
⏎
* [http://www.mountkenyaclimbing.com/mountainclimbing/climbingmountkenya.html/ Mount Kenya Climbing Routes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170223045248/http://gurkhaadventures.com/tours/ |date=2017-02-23 }}
* [http://www.mountkenyaclimbing.com/mountainclimbing/climbingmountkenya.html/ Mount Kenya Climbing Routes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190410133238/https://www.mountkenyaclimbing.com/mountainclimbing/climbingmountkenya.html |date=2019-04-10 }}

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