Revision 251792 of "History of China" on testwiki

{{multiple issues|
{{cleanup-reorganize|date=November 2015}}
{{lead rewrite|date=November 2015}}
{{plot|date=November 2015}}
{{very long|date=November 2015}}
}}
{{pp-semi-vandalism|small=yes}}{{pp-move-indef}}
[[File:Territories of Dynasties in China.gif|thumb|300px|Approximate territories occupied by different dynasties as well as modern political states throughout the history of China]]
{{Contains Chinese text}}
{{History of China|BC=1}}
[[China|Chinese]] civilization originated in various regional centers along both the [[Yellow River]] and the [[Yangtze River]] valleys in the [[Neolithic]] era, but the Yellow River is said to be the Cradle of Chinese Civilization. With thousands of years of continuous history, China is one of the world's oldest [[civilization]]s.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/country_profiles/1287798.stm |title=China country profile |publisher=BBC News |date=2010-10-18 |accessdate=2010-11-07}}</ref> The written '''history of China''' can be found as early as the [[Shang Dynasty]] (c. 1700–1046 BC),<ref name="state1">{{cite web|url=http://exchanges.state.gov/culprop/cn04sum.html|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20071215094418/http://exchanges.state.gov/culprop/cn04sum.html|archivedate=2007-12-15|title=Cultural History and Archaeology of China|publisher=Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs, U.S. State Department|accessdate=2008-01-12}}{{Dead link|url=http://exchanges.state.gov/culprop/cn04sum.html|date=December 2008}}</ref> although ancient historical texts such as the ''[[Records of the Grand Historian]]'' (ca. 100 BC) and ''[[Bamboo Annals]]'' assert the existence of a [[Xia Dynasty]] before the Shang.<ref name="state1"/><ref name="The Ancient Dynasties">{{cite web|url=http://www-chaos.umd.edu/history/ancient1.html|title=The Ancient Dynasties|publisher=University of Maryland|accessdate=2008-01-12}}</ref> [[Oracle bone]]s with ancient [[Chinese writing]] have been dated to the late Shang Dynasty around 1200 BC.<ref>{{cite book
  | title = [[The Cambridge History of Ancient China]]
  | editor1-first = Michael | editor1-last = Loewe
  | editor2-first = Edward L. | editor2-last = Shaughnessy
  | location = Cambridge | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 1999
  | isbn = 978-0-521-47030-8
  | first = William | last = Boltz
  | chapter = Language and Writing | pages = 74–123
  }}</ref> Much of Chinese [[Culture of China|culture]], [[Chinese literature|literature]] and [[Chinese philosophy|philosophy]] further developed during the [[Zhou Dynasty]] (1045–256 BC).

The Zhou Dynasty began to bow to external and internal pressures in the 8th century BC, and the kingdom eventually broke apart into smaller states, beginning in the [[Spring and Autumn Period]] and reaching full expression in the [[Warring States period]]. This is one of multiple periods of [[failed state]]hood in Chinese history (the most recent of which was the [[Chinese Civil War]]).

In between eras of multiple kingdoms and warlordism, Chinese dynasties (or, more recently, republics) have ruled all of China (minus [[Xinjiang]] and [[Tibet]]) (and, in some eras, including the present, they have controlled Xinjiang and/or Tibet as well). This practice began with the [[Qin Dynasty]]: in 221 BC, [[Qin Shi Huang]] united the various warring kingdoms and created the first Chinese empire. Successive [[dynasties in Chinese history]] developed [[Bureaucracy|bureaucratic]] systems that enabled the [[Emperor of China]] to directly control vast territories.

The conventional view of Chinese history is that of alternating periods of political unity and disunity, with China occasionally being dominated by [[Inner Asia]]n peoples, most of whom were in turn assimilated into the [[Han Chinese]] population. Cultural and political influences from many parts of [[Asia]], carried by successive waves of [[immigration]], expansion, and [[cultural assimilation]], are part of the modern culture of China.

==Prehistory==
===Paleolithic===
{{See also|List of Paleolithic sites in China}}
What is now [[China]] was inhabited by ''[[Homo erectus]]'' more than a million years ago.<ref name="MagnetostratigraphicDating">{{cite journal|author=Rixiang Zhu, Zhisheng An, Richard Pott, Kenneth A. Hoffman|title=Magnetostratigraphic dating of early humans of in China|journal=Earth Science Reviews|volume=61|month=June|year=2003|pages=191–361|url=http://www.paleomag.net/members/rixiangzhu/Earth-Sci%20Review.pdf|format=PDF|issue=3–4}}</ref> Recent study shows that the stone tools found at [[Xiaochangliang]] site are [[Magnetostratigraphy|magnetostratigraphically]] dated to 1.36 million years ago.<ref name="Xiaochangliang">{{cite web|url=http://www.mnh.si.edu/anthro/humanorigins/whatshot/2001/wh2001-3.htm|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070813201519/http://www.mnh.si.edu/anthro/humanorigins/whatshot/2001/wh2001-3.htm|archivedate=2007-08-13|title=Earliest Presence of Humans in Northeast Asia|publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution]]|accessdate=2007-08-04}}</ref> The archaeological site of [[Xihoudu]] in [[Shanxi]] Province is the earliest recorded use of fire by ''Homo erectus'', which is dated 1.27 million years ago.<ref name="MagnetostratigraphicDating" />
The excavations at [[Yuanmou Man|Yuanmou]] and later [[Lantian Man|Lantian]] show early habitation. Perhaps the most famous specimen of ''Homo erectus'' found in China is the so-called [[Peking Man]] discovered in 1923-27.

===Neolithic===
{{See also|List of Neolithic cultures of China}}
The Neolithic age in China can be traced back to between 12,000 and 10,000 BC.<ref name="neolithic period in china">{{cite web|title=Neolithic Period in China|url=http://www.metmufggcseum.org/toah/hd/cneo/hd_cneo.htm|work=Timeline of Art History|publisher=[[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]|month=October | year=2004|accessdate=2008-02-10}}</ref> Early evidence for proto-Chinese [[millet]] agriculture is [[Radiocarbon dating|radiocarbon-dated]] to about 7000 BC.<ref>{{cite web|title=Rice and Early Agriculture in China|url=http://www.mc.maricopa.edu/dept/d10/asb/anthro2003/legacy/banpo/banpo.html|work=Legacy of Human Civilizations|publisher=Mesa Community College|accessdate=2008-02-10}}</ref> The [[Peiligang culture]] of [[Xinzheng]] county, [[Henan]] was excavated in 1977.<ref>{{cite web|title=Peiligang Site|url=http://www.chinaculture.org/gb/en_artqa/2003-09/24/content_39079.htm|publisher=[[Ministry of Culture of the People's Republic of China]]|year=2003|accessdate=2008-02-10}}</ref> With agriculture came increased population, the ability to store and redistribute crops, and the potential to support specialist craftsmen and administrators.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Pringle|first=Heather|title=The Slow Birth of Agriculture|url=http://cas.bellarmine.edu/tietjen/images/neolithic_agriculture.htm|work=[[Science (journal)|Science]]|year=1998|volume=282|page=1446}}</ref> In late [[Neolithic]] times, the [[Yellow River]] valley began to establish itself as a cultural center, where the first villages were founded; the most archaeologically significant of those was found at [[Banpo]], [[Xi'an]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Wertz|first=Richard R.|title=Neolithic and Bronze Age Cultures|url=http://www.ibiblio.org/chinesehistory/contents/02cul/c03s04.html|work=Exploring Chinese History|publisher=[[ibiblio]]|year=2007|accessdate=2008-02-10}}</ref> The Yellow River was so named because of [[loess]] forming its banks gave a yellowish tint to the water.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Huang He|url=http://www.bartleby.com/65/hu/HuangHe.html|encyclopedia=[[The Columbia Encyclopedia]]|edition=6th|year=2007}}{{dead link|date=January 2011}}</ref>

The early history of China is made obscure by the lack of written documents from this period, coupled with the existence of accounts written during later time periods that attempted to describe events that had occurred several centuries previously. In a sense, the problem stems from centuries of introspection on the part of the Chinese people, which has blurred the distinction between fact and fiction in regards to this early history.

By 7000 BC, the Chinese were farming [[millet]], giving rise to the [[Jiahu]] culture. At [[Damaidi]] in [[Ningxia]], 3,172 [[Neolithic signs in China|cliff carvings]] dating to 6000-5000 BC have been discovered "featuring 8,453 individual characters such as the sun, moon, stars, gods and scenes of hunting or grazing." These pictographs are reputed to be similar to the earliest characters confirmed to be written Chinese.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6669569.stm | work=BBC News | title=Chinese writing '8,000 years old' | date=2007-05-18 | accessdate=2010-05-04}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2007-05/18/content_6121225.htm|title=Carvings may rewrite history of Chinese characters|publisher=[[Xinhua]] online|date=2007-05-18|accessdate=2007-05-19}}</ref> Later [[Yangshao culture]] was superseded by the [[Longshan culture]] around 2500 BC.

==Ancient era==
{{See also|Xia Shang Zhou Chronology Project}}

===Xia Dynasty (c. 2100 - c. 1600 BC)===
{{Main|Xia Dynasty}}
''Major site(s): possibly [[Erlitou]]''

The Xia Dynasty of China (from c. 2100 to c. 1600 BC) is the first dynasty to be described in ancient historical records such as [[Sima Qian]]'s ''[[Records of the Grand Historian]]'' and ''[[Bamboo Annals]]''.<ref name="state1"/><ref name="The Ancient Dynasties"/>

Although there is disagreement as to whether the dynasty actually existed, there is some archaeological evidence pointing to its possible existence. Sima Qian, writing in the late 2nd century BC, dated the founding of the [[Xia Dynasty]] to around 2200 BC, but this date has not been corroborated. Most archaeologists now connect the Xia to excavations at [[Erlitou culture|Erlitou]] in central [[Henan]] province,<ref>[http://www.nga.gov/exhibitions/chbro_bron.shtm Bronze Age China] at [http://www.nga.gov/ National Gallery of Art]</ref> where a bronze smelter from around 2000 BC was unearthed. Early markings from this period found on pottery and shells are thought to be ancestral to modern Chinese characters.<ref>[http://web.archive.org/web/20050213035644/http://www.gog.com.cn/gz/art0402/ca615230.htm Scripts found on Erlitou pottery] (written in [[Simplified Chinese]])</ref> With few clear records matching the Shang [[oracle bones]] or the [[Zhou Dynasty (1122 BC - 256 BC)|Zhou]] bronze vessel writings, the Xia era remains poorly understood.

According to mythology, the dynasty ended around 1600 BC as a consequence of the [[Battle of Mingtiao]].

===Shang Dynasty (c. 1700-1046 BC)===
[[Image:China 1.jpg|right|thumb|Remnants of advanced, [[social stratification|stratified]] societies dating back to the Shang found primarily in the Yellow River Valley]]
{{Main|Shang Dynasty}}
''Capital: [[Yinxu]], near [[Anyang]] ([[Yin Dynasty]] period)''

Archaeological findings providing evidence for the existence of the Shang Dynasty, c. 1600–1046 BC, are divided into two sets. The first set, from the earlier Shang period comes from sources at [[Erligang culture|Erligang]], [[Zhengzhou]] and Shangcheng. The second set, from the later Shang or Yin (殷) period at [[Anyang]], in modern-day [[Henan]], which has been confirmed as the last of the Shang's nine capitals (c. 1300–1046 BC). The findings at Anyang include the earliest written record of Chinese past so far discovered, inscriptions of divination records on the bones or shells of animals – the so-called "[[oracle bones]]", dating from around 1200 BC.

The Shang Dynasty featured 31 kings, from [[Tang of Shang]] to [[King Zhou of Shang]]. In this period, the Chinese worshipped many different gods - weather gods and sky gods - and also a supreme god, named [[Shangdi]], who ruled over the other gods. Those who lived during the Shang Dynasty also believed that their ancestors - their parents and grandparents - became like gods when they died, and that their ancestors wanted to be worshipped too, like gods. Each family worshipped its own ancestors.

The ''Records of the Grand Historian'' states that the Shang Dynasty moved its capital six times. The final (and most important) move to [[Yinxu|Yin]] in 1350 BC led to the dynasty's golden age. The term Yin Dynasty has been synonymous with the Shang dynasty in history, although it has lately been used to specifically refer to the latter half of the Shang Dynasty.

Chinese historians living in later periods were accustomed to the notion of one dynasty succeeding another, but the actual political situation in early China is known to have been much more complicated. Hence, as some scholars of China suggest, the Xia and the Shang can possibly refer to political entities that existed concurrently, just as the early Zhou is known to have existed at the same time as the Shang.

Although written records found at Anyang confirm the existence of the Shang dynasty, Western scholars are often hesitant to associate settlements that are contemporaneous with the Anyang settlement with the Shang dynasty. For example, archaeological findings at [[Sanxingdui]] suggest a technologically advanced civilization culturally unlike Anyang. The evidence is inconclusive in proving how far the Shang realm extended from Anyang. The leading hypothesis is that Anyang, ruled by the same Shang in the official history, coexisted and traded with numerous other culturally diverse settlements in the area that is now referred to as China proper.

===Zhou Dynasty (1046-256 BC)===
[[Image:You with zigzag thunder pattern.jpg|thumb|[[Chinese bronzes|Bronze]] ritual vessel ([[You (vessel)|You]]), Western Zhou Dynasty]]
{{Main|Zhou Dynasty|Iron Age China}}
''Capitals: [[Xi'an]] and [[Luoyang]]''

The Zhou Dynasty was the longest-lasting dynasty in Chinese history, from 1066 BC to approximately 256 BC. By the end of the 2nd millennium BC, the [[Zhou Dynasty]] began to emerge in the [[Yellow River]] valley, overrunning the territory of the Shang. The Zhou appeared to have begun their rule under a [[Feudalism|semi-feudal]] system. The Zhou lived west of the [[Shang]], and the Zhou leader had been appointed "Western Protector" by the Shang. The ruler of the Zhou, [[King Wu of Zhou|King Wu]], with the assistance of his brother, the [[Duke of Zhou]], as regent, managed to defeat the Shang at the [[Battle of Muye]].

The king of Zhou at this time invoked the concept of the [[Mandate of Heaven]] to legitimize his rule, a concept that would be influential for almost every succeeding dynasty. Like Shangdi, Heaven (''tian'') ruled over all the other gods, and it decided who would rule China. It was believed that a ruler had lost the Mandate of Heaven when natural disasters occurred in great number, and when, more realistically, the sovereign had apparently lost his concern for the people. In response, the royal house would be overthrown, and a new house would rule, having been granted the Mandate of Heaven.

The Zhou initially moved their capital west to an area near modern [[Xi'an]], on the [[Wei River]], a tributary of the Yellow River, but they would preside over a series of expansions into the [[Yangtze River]] valley. This would be the first of many population migrations from north to south in Chinese history.

===Spring and Autumn Period (722-476 BC)===
[[Image:Pu with openwork interlaced dragons design.jpg|thumb|Chinese pu vessel with interlaced [[Chinese dragon|dragon]] design, [[Spring and Autumn Period]]]]
{{Main|Spring and Autumn Period}}

''Capitals: of the [[State of Yan]], [[Beijing]]; of the [[State of Qin]], [[Xi'an]]''

In the 8th century BC, power became decentralized during the [[Spring and Autumn Period]], named after the influential [[Spring and Autumn Annals]]. In this period, local military leaders used by the Zhou began to assert their power and vie for [[hegemony]]. The situation was aggravated by the invasion of other peoples from the northwest, such as the [[Qin (state)|Qin]], forcing the Zhou to move their capital east to [[Luoyang]]. This marks the second major phase of the Zhou dynasty: the Eastern Zhou. In each of the hundreds of states that eventually arose, local strongmen held most of the political power and continued their subservience to the Zhou kings in name only. For instance, local leaders started using royal titles for themselves. The [[Hundred Schools of Thought]] of Chinese philosophy blossomed during this period, and such influential intellectual movements as [[Confucianism]], [[Taoism]], [[Legalism (philosophy)|Legalism]] and [[Mohism]] were founded, partly in response to the changing political world.
The Spring and Autumn Period is marked by a falling apart of the central Zhou power. China now consists of hundreds of states, some of them only as large as a village with a fort.

===Warring States Period (476-221 BC)===
{{Main|Warring States Period}}

''[[Historical capitals of China|Several capitals]], due to there being multiple states''

After further political consolidation, seven prominent states remained by the end of 5th century BC, and the years in which these few states battled each other are known as the [[Warring States Period]]. Though there remained a nominal [[Zhou Dynasty|Zhou]] king until 256 BC, he was largely a figurehead and held little real power.
As neighboring territories of these warring states, including areas of modern [[Sichuan]] and [[Liaoning]], were annexed, they were governed under the new local administrative system of [[Commandery (China)|commandery]] and [[prefecture]] (郡縣/郡县). This system had been in use since the Spring and Autumn Period, and parts can still be seen in the modern system of [[Administrative divisions of the People's Republic of China|Sheng & Xian]] (province and county, 省縣/省县). The final expansion in this period began during the reign of [[Ying Zheng]], the king of Qin. His unification of the other six powers, and further annexations in the modern regions of [[Zhejiang]], [[Fujian]], [[Guangdong]] and [[Guangxi]] in 214 BC, enabled him to proclaim himself the [[Qin Shi Huang|First Emperor]] (Qin Shi Huang).

==Imperial era==
===Qin Dynasty (221-206 BC)===
[[File:QinshihuangBW.jpg|thumb|[[Qin Shi Huang]]]]
{{Main|Qin Dynasty}}
''Capital: [[Xianyang]]''

Historians often refer to the period from Qin Dynasty to the end of [[Qing Dynasty]] as Imperial China. Though the unified reign of the [[Qin Shi Huang Di|First Qin Emperor]] lasted only 12 years, he managed to subdue great parts of what constitutes the core of the [[Han Chinese]] homeland and to unite them under a tightly centralized [[Legalism (Chinese philosophy)|Legalist]] government seated at [[Xianyang]] (close to modern [[Xi'an]]). The doctrine of Legalism that guided the Qin emphasized strict adherence to a legal code and the absolute power of the emperor. This philosophy, while effective for expanding the empire in a military fashion, proved unworkable for governing it in peacetime. The Qin Emperor {{Definition|date=March 2012}} presided over the brutal silencing of political opposition, including the event known as the [[burning of books and burying of scholars]]. This would be the impetus behind the later Han synthesis incorporating the more moderate schools of political governance.

[[Image:Terracotta Army-China2.jpg|thumb|The [[Terracotta Army]] of [[Qin Shi Huang]].]]
The Qin Dynasty is well known for beginning the [[Great Wall of China]], which was later augmented and enhanced during the [[Ming Dynasty]]. The other major contributions of the Qin include the concept of a centralized government, the unification of the legal code, development of the written language, measurement, and currency of China after the tribulations of the Spring and Autumn and Warring States Periods. Even something as basic as the length of axles for carts
had to be made uniform to ensure a viable trading system throughout the empire.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uobuy.com/upload/2005/9/19/200591911278032621125.jpg|title=Book "QINSHIHUANG"|accessdate=2007-07-06}}</ref>

===Han Dynasty (202 BC–AD 220)===
{{Main|Han Dynasty}}
{{Further|History of the Han Dynasty}}
''Capitals: [[Chang'an]], [[Luoyang]], [[Liyang]], [[Xuchang]]''

====Western Han====
[[Image:ChangXingongdeng.jpg|thumb|A [[Han Dynasty]] [[oil lamp]] with a sliding shutter, in the shape of a kneeling female servant, 2nd century BC]]
The [[Han Dynasty]] (202 BC – AD 220) emerged in 206 BC, with its founder [[Emperor Gaozu of Han|Liu Bang]] proclaimed emperor in 202 BC. It was the first dynasty to embrace the philosophy of [[Confucianism]], which became the ideological underpinning of all regimes until the end of imperial China. Under the Han Dynasty, China made great advances in many areas of the arts and sciences. [[Emperor Wu of Han China|Emperor Wu]] consolidated and extended the Chinese empire by [[Sino–Xiongnu War|pushing back the Xiongnu]] into the steppes of modern [[Inner Mongolia]], wresting from them the modern areas of [[Gansu]], [[Ningxia]] and [[Qinghai]]. This enabled the first opening of trading connections between China and the West, along the [[Silk Road]]. Han Dynasty general [[Ban Chao]] expanded his conquests across the [[Pamirs]] to the shores of the [[Caspian Sea]].<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/440601/Ban-Chao Ban Chao], Britannica Online Encyclopedia</ref> The first of several [[Romano-Chinese relations|Roman embassies to China]] is recorded in Chinese sources, coming from the sea route in AD 166, and a second one in AD 284.

====Xin Dynasty====
Nevertheless, land acquisitions by elite families gradually drained the tax base. In AD 9, the usurper [[Wang Mang]] claimed that the Mandate of Heaven called for the end of the Han dynasty and the rise of his own, and founded the short-lived [[Xin Dynasty|Xin ("New") Dynasty]]. Wang Mang started an extensive program of land and other economic reforms, including the outlawing of slavery and land nationalization and redistribution. These programs, however, were never supported by the landholding families, because they favored the peasants. The instability brought about chaos and uprisings and loss of territories. This was compounded by mass flooding resulting from silt buildup in the [[Yellow River]] which caused it to split into two channels and displace large numbers of farmers. Wang Mang was eventually killed in [[Weiyang Palace]] by an enraged peasant mob in AD 23.

====Eastern Han====
[[Emperor Guangwu of Han|Emperor Guangwu]] reinstated the Han Dynasty with the support of landholding and merchant families at [[Luoyang]], east of [[Xi'an]]. This new era would be termed the [[Eastern Han Dynasty]]. Han power declined again amidst land acquisitions, invasions, and feuding between [[consort clan]]s and [[Eunuch (court official)#China|eunuch]]s. The [[Yellow Turban Rebellion]] broke out in AD 184, ushering in an era of [[warlord]]s. In the ensuing turmoil, three states tried to gain predominance in the period of the [[Three Kingdoms]]. This time period has been greatly romanticized in works such as ''[[Romance of the Three Kingdoms]]''.

===Wei and Jin Period (AD 265–420)===
{{Main|Cao Wei|Jin Dynasty (265-420)}}
''Capitals: of [[Cao Wei]] and Western Jin, [[Luoyang]]; of [[Shu Han]], [[Chengdu]]; of [[Eastern Wu]] and Eastern Jin, [[Jiankang]]; of Western Jin, [[Chang'an]]''

After [[Cao Cao]] reunified the north in 208, his son proclaimed the [[Cao Wei|Wei]] dynasty in 220. Soon, Wei's rivals [[Shu Han|Shu]] and [[Eastern Wu|Wu]] proclaimed their independence, leading China into the [[Three Kingdoms]] Period. This period was characterized by a gradual decentralization of the state that had existed during the Qin and Han dynasties, and an increase in the power of great families. Although the Three Kingdoms were reunified by the [[Jin Dynasty (265-420)|Jin Dynasty]] in 280, this structure was essentially the same until the Wu Hu uprising.

===Wu Hu Period (AD 304–439)===
{{Main|Sixteen Kingdoms|Wu Hu uprising}}
''Several capitals, due to there being several states and warring''

Taking advantage of civil war in the Jin Dynasty, the contemporary non-Han Chinese ([[Wu Hu]]) ethnic groups controlled much of the country in the early 4th century and provoked large-scale Han Chinese migrations to south of the [[Yangtze River]]. In 303 the [[Di (Wu Hu)|Di]] people rebelled and later captured [[Chengdu]], establishing the state of [[Cheng Han]]. Under [[Liu Yuan (Han Zhao)|Liu Yuan]], the [[Xiongnu]] rebelled near today's [[Linfen County]] and established the state of [[Han Zhao]]. Liu Yuan's successor [[Liu Cong (Han Zhao)|Liu Cong]] captured and executed the last two Western Jin emperors. [[Sixteen Kingdoms|Sixteen kingdoms]] were a plethora of short-lived non-Chinese dynasties that came to rule the whole or parts of northern China in the 4th and 5th centuries. Many ethnic groups were involved, including ancestors of the [[Turkic people|Turks]], [[Mongols]], and [[Tibetans]]. Most of these [[nomadic]] peoples had, to some extent, been "[[Sinicization|sinicized]]" long before their ascent to power. In fact, some of them, notably the [[Qiang people|Qiang]] and the Xiongnu, had already been allowed to live in the frontier regions within the Great Wall since late Han times.

[[Image:Chinese Boddhisattva statue.jpg|thumb|upright|A [[limestone]] statue of the [[Bodhisattva]], from the [[Northern Qi|Northern Qi Dynasty]], AD 570, made in what is now modern [[Henan]] province.]]

===Southern and Northern Dynasties (AD 420–589)===
{{Main|Southern and Northern Dynasties}}
''Capitals: of the [[Northern Dynasties]]: [[Ye, China|Ye]], [[Chang'an]], of the [[Southern Dynasties]]: [[Jiankang]]''

Signaled by the collapse of [[Jin Dynasty (265-420)|East Jin Dynasty]] in 420, China entered the era of the [[Southern and Northern Dynasties]]. The Han people managed to survive the military attacks from the nomadic tribes of the north, such as the [[Xianbei]], and their civilization continued to thrive.

In southern China, fierce debates about whether [[Buddhism]] should be allowed to exist were held frequently by the royal court and nobles. Finally, near the end of the Southern and Northern Dynasties era, both Buddhist and [[Taoist]] followers compromised and became more tolerant of each other.

In 589, [[Sui Dynasty|Sui]] annexed the last Southern Dynasty, [[Chen Dynasty|Chen]], through military force, and put an end to the era of Southern and Northern Dynasties.

===Sui Dynasty (AD 589–618)===
{{Main|Sui Dynasty}}
''Official capital: [[Chang'an|Daxing]]; secondary capital: [[Luoyang|Dongdu]]''

The [[Sui Dynasty]], which managed to reunite the country in 589 after nearly four centuries of political fragmentation, played a role more important than its length of existence would suggest. The Sui brought China together again and set up many institutions that were to be adopted by their successors, the [[Tang Dynasty|Tang]]. Like the Qin, however, the Sui overused their resources and collapsed. Also similar to the Qin, traditional history has judged the Sui somewhat unfairly, as it has stressed the harshness of the Sui regime and the arrogance of its second emperor, giving little credit for the Dynasty's many positive achievements.

===Tang Dynasty (AD 618–907)===
[[Image:Tang horse.jpg|thumb|A Chinese [[Tang Dynasty]] tricolored [[Ceramic glaze|glaze]] porcelain horse (ca. AD 700)]]
{{Main|Tang Dynasty}}
''Capitals: [[Chang'an]] and [[Luoyang]]''

[[Tang Dynasty]] was founded by [[Emperor Gaozu of Tang China|Emperor Gaozu]] on June 18, 618. It was a [[Pax Sinica|golden age of Chinese civilization]] with significant developments in art, literature, particularly [[Tang poetry|poetry]], and technology. [[Buddhism]] became the predominant religion for common people. [[Chang'an]] (modern [[Xi'an]]), the national capital, was the [[List of largest cities throughout history|largest city in the world of its time]].

Since the second emperor [[Emperor Taizong of Tang|Taizong]], military campaigns were launched to dissolve threats from nomadic tribes, extend the border, and submit neighboring states into [[Imperial Chinese tributary system|tributary system]]. Military victories in the [[Inner Asia during the Tang Dynasty|Tarim Basin]] kept the [[Silk Road]] open, connecting [[Chang'an]] to Central Asia and areas far to the west. In the south, lucrative maritime trade routes began from port cities like [[Guangzhou]]. There was extensive trade with distant foreign countries, and many foreign merchants settled in China, boosting a vibrant cosmopolitan culture. The Tang culture and social systems were admired and adapted by neighboring countries like [[Nara Period|Japan]]. Internally, the [[Grand Canal (China)|Grand Canal]] linked the political heartland in Chang'an to the economic and agricultural centers in the eastern and southern parts of the empire.

Underlying the prosperity of the early Tang Dynasty was a strong centralized government with efficient policies. The government was organized as "[[Three Departments and Six Ministries]]" to separately draft, review and implement policies. These departments were run by royal family members as well as [[Scholar-bureaucrats|scholar officials]] who were selected from [[imperial examinations]]. These practices, which matured in the Tang Dynasty, were to be inherited by the later dynasties with some modifications. 

The land policy, the "[[Equal-field system]]" claimed all lands as imperially owned, and were granted evenly to people according to the size of the households. The associated military policy, the "[[Fubing system|Fubing System]]", conscripted all men in the nation for a fixed period of duties each year in exchange for their land rights. These policies stimulated rapid growth of productivity, while boosting the army without much burden on the state treasury. However, lands gradually fell into the hands of private land owners and [[standing armies]] were to replace conscription towards the middle period of the dynasty.

The dynasty continued to flourish under [[Empress Wu Zetian]], the only [[empress regnant]] in Chinese history, and reached the zenith during the reign of [[Emperor Xuanzong of Tang|Emperor Xuanzong]], who oversaw an empire that stretched from the Pacific to the [[Aral Sea]] with at least 50 million people.

At the zenith of prosperity of the empire, the [[An Lushan Rebellion]] was a watershed event that caused [[List_of_wars_and_anthropogenic_disasters_by_death_toll#Wars_and_armed_conflicts|massive loss of lives]] and drastic weakening of the central imperial government. Regional military governors, known as [[Jiedushi]], would gain increasingly autonomous status, which eventually led to an [[Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period|era of division in the 10th century]], while formerly submissive states would raid the empire. Nevertheless, after the [[An Lushan Rebellion|rebellion]], the Tang civil society would recover and thrive amidst a weakened imperial authority.

From about 860, the Tang Dynasty began to decline due to a series of rebellions within China itself and in the former subject [[Kingdom of Nanzhao]] to the south. One warlord, [[Huang Chao]], captured [[Guangzhou]] in 879, killing most of the 200,000 inhabitants, including most of the large colony of foreign merchant families there.<ref>[http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/judaism/kaifung.html Kaifung Jews]. University of Cumbria.</ref> In late 880, [[Luoyang]] surrendered to him, and on 5 January 881 he conquered [[Chang'an]]. The emperor [[Emperor Xizong of Tang|Xizong]] fled to [[Chengdu]], and Huang established a new temporary regime which was eventually destroyed by Tang forces. Another time of political chaos followed.

===Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms (AD 907–960)===
{{Main|Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period}}
''Several capitals''

The period of political disunity between the Tang and the Song, known as the [[Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period]], lasted little more than half a century, from 907 to 960. During this brief era, when China was in all respects a multi-state system, five regimes succeeded one another rapidly in control of the old Imperial heartland in northern China. During this same time, 10 more stable regimes occupied sections of southern and western China, so the period is also referred to as that of the Ten Kingdoms.

===Song, Liao, Jin, and Western Xia Dynasties (AD 960–1234)===
[[Image:Li Di, Homeward Oxherds in Wind and Rain.jpg|thumb|''Homeward Oxherds in Wind and Rain'', by Li Di, 12th century]]
{{Main|Song Dynasty|Liao Dynasty|Western Xia|Jin Dynasty, 1115-1234}}
{{Further|History of the Song Dynasty}}
''Capitals: of the Song Dynasty, [[Kaifeng]] and [[Hangzhou|Lin'an]]; of the [[Liao Dynasty]], [[Acheng District|Shangjing]], [[History_of_Beijing#Liao_and_Jin_Dynasties|Nanjing]], and [[Tokmok]]; of the [[Jin Dynasty (1115-1234)|Jin Dynasty]], [[Acheng District|Shangjing]], [[History_of_Beijing#Liao_and_Jin_Dynasties|Zhongdu]], and [[Kaifeng]]; of the Western Xia Dynasty, [[Yinchuan]]''

In 960, the [[Song Dynasty]] gained power over most of China and established its capital in [[Kaifeng]] (later known as [[Bianjing]]), starting a period of economic prosperity, while the [[Khitan people|Khitan]] [[Liao Dynasty]] ruled over [[Manchuria]], present-day [[Mongolia]], and parts of [[North China|Northern China]]. In 1115, the [[Jurchen people|Jurchen]] [[Jin Dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin Dynasty]] emerged to prominence, annihilating the Liao Dynasty in 10 years. Meanwhile, in what are now the northwestern Chinese provinces of [[Gansu]], [[Shaanxi]], and [[Ningxia]], there emerged a [[Western Xia|Western Xia Dynasty]] from 1032 to 1227, established by [[Tangut people|Tangut]] tribes.

The Jin Dynasty took power over northern China and Kaifeng from the Song Dynasty, which moved its capital to [[Hangzhou]] (杭州). The Southern Song Dynasty also suffered the humiliation of having to acknowledge the Jin Dynasty as formal overlords. In the ensuing years, China was divided between the Song Dynasty, the Jin Dynasty and the [[Tangut people|Tangut]] [[Western Xia]]. Southern Song experienced a period of great technological development which can be explained in part by the military pressure that it felt from the north. This included the use of [[gunpowder]] weapons, which played a large role in the Song Dynasty naval victories against the Jin in the [[Battle of Tangdao]] and [[Battle of Caishi]] on the Yangtze River in 1161. Furthermore, China's first permanent standing [[navy]] was assembled and provided an [[admiral]]'s office at [[Dinghai]] in 1132, under the reign of [[Emperor Renzong of Song]].

The Song Dynasty is considered by many to be classical China's high point in science and technology, with innovative [[Scholar-bureaucrats|scholar-officials]] such as [[Su Song]] (1020–1101) and [[Shen Kuo]] (1031–1095). There was court intrigue between the political rivals of the Reformers and Conservatives, led by the chancellors [[Wang Anshi]] and [[Sima Guang]], respectively. By the mid-to-late 13th century the Chinese had adopted the dogma of [[Neo-Confucian]] philosophy formulated by [[Zhu Xi]]. There were enormous literary works compiled during the Song Dynasty, such as the historical work of the ''[[Zizhi Tongjian]]''. Culture and the arts flourished, with grandiose artworks such as ''[[Along the River During the Qingming Festival]]'' and ''[[Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute]]'', while there were great Buddhist painters such as [[Lin Tinggui]].

===Yuan Dynasty (AD 1271–1368)===
{{Main|Yuan Dynasty}}
[[Image:Ch'ien Hsüan 002.jpg|thumb|''[[Yang Guifei]] Mounting a Horse'', by [[Qian Xuan]] (1235-1305 AD).]]
''Capitals: [[Xanadu]] and [[Khanbaliq]]''

The [[Jurchen people|Jurchen]]-founded [[Jin Dynasty, 1115–1234|Jin Dynasty]] was defeated by the [[Mongols]], who then proceeded to defeat the Southern Song in a long and bloody war, the first war in which firearms played an important role. During the era after the war, later called the ''[[Pax Mongolica]]'', adventurous Westerners such as [[Marco Polo]] travelled all the way to China and brought the first reports of its wonders to Europe. In the Yuan Dynasty, the Mongols were divided between those who wanted to remain based in the steppes and those who wished to adopt the customs of the Chinese.

[[Kublai Khan]], grandson of [[Genghis Khan]], wanting to adopt the customs of China, established the [[Yuan Dynasty]]. This was the first dynasty to rule the whole of China from [[Beijing]] as the capital. Beijing had been ceded to Liao in AD 938 with the [[Sixteen Prefectures|Sixteen Prefectures of Yan Yun]]. Before that, it had been the capital of the [[Jin Dynasty, 1115–1234|Jin]], who did not rule all of China.

Before the [[Timeline of Mongol conquests|Mongol invasion]], Chinese dynasties reportedly had approximately 120 million inhabitants; after the conquest was completed in 1279, the 1300 census reported roughly 60 million people.<ref>Ping-ti Ho, "An Estimate of the Total Population of Sung-Chin China", in ''Études Song'', Series 1, No 1, (1970) pp. 33-53.</ref> While it is tempting to attribute this major decline solely to Mongol ferocity, scholars today have mixed sentiments regarding this subject. Scholars such as Frederick W. Mote argue that the wide drop in numbers reflects an administrative failure to record rather than a de facto decrease whilst others such as Timothy Brook argue that the Mongols created a system of enserfment among a huge portion of the Chinese populace causing many to disappear from the census altogether. Other historians like William McNeill and David Morgan argue that the Bubonic Plague was the main factor behind the demographic decline during this period. The 14th century epidemics of [[Plague (disease)|plague]] ([[Black Death]]) is estimated to have killed 30% of the population of China.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://chip.med.nyu.edu/course/view.php?id=13&topic=1 |title = Course: Plague |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20071118121009/http://chip.med.nyu.edu/course/view.php?id=13&topic=1 |archivedate = 2007-11-18}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.experiencefestival.com/a/Black_Death_-_Consequences/id/617544|title = Black Death - Consequences}}</ref>

===Ming Dynasty (AD 1368–1644)===
{{Main|Ming Dynasty}}
{{Further|History of the Ming Dynasty}}
''Capitals: [[Nanjing]], [[Beijing]], [[Fuzhou]], and [[Zhaoqing]]''

[[Image:Court Ladies of the Former Shu by Tang Yin.jpg|thumb|upright|''Court Ladies of the Former Shu'', by Ming painter [[Tang Yin]] (1470-1523).]]
[[File:Hongwu1.jpg|left|thumb|upright|[[Hongwu Emperor]], founder of the [[Ming Dynasty]]]]
Throughout the Yuan Dynasty, which lasted less than a century, there was relatively strong sentiment among the populace against the Mongol rule. The frequent natural disasters since the 1340s finally led to peasant revolts. The Yuan Dynasty was eventually overthrown by the [[Ming Dynasty]] in 1368.

Urbanization increased as the population grew and as the division of labor grew more complex. Large urban centers, such as [[Nanjing]] and [[Beijing]], also contributed to the growth of private industry. In particular, small-scale industries grew up, often specializing in paper, silk, cotton, and porcelain goods. For the most part, however, relatively small urban centers with markets proliferated around the country. Town markets mainly traded food, with some necessary manufactures such as pins or oil.

Despite the [[xenophobia]] and intellectual introspection characteristic of the increasingly popular new school of [[neo-Confucianism]], China under the early Ming Dynasty was not isolated. Foreign trade and other contacts with the outside world, particularly [[Japan]], increased considerably. Chinese merchants explored all of the [[Indian Ocean]], reaching [[East Africa]] with the voyages of [[Zheng He]].

[[Zhu Yuanzhang]] or [[Hongwu Emperor of China|Hong-wu]], the founder of the dynasty, laid the foundations for a state interested less in commerce and more in extracting revenues from the agricultural sector. Perhaps because of the Emperor's background as a peasant, the Ming economic system emphasized agriculture, unlike that of the Song and the Mongolian Dynasties, which relied on traders and merchants for revenue. Neo-feudal landholdings of the Song and Mongol periods were expropriated by the Ming rulers. Land estates were confiscated by the government, fragmented, and rented out. Private slavery was forbidden. Consequently, after the death of [[Yongle Emperor of China|Emperor Yong-le]], independent peasant landholders predominated in Chinese agriculture. These laws might have paved the way to removing the worst of the poverty during the previous regimes.

[[File:Ming-Empire2.jpg|left|thumb|Ming China under the reign of the [[Yongle Emperor]]]]
The dynasty had a strong and complex central government that unified and controlled the empire. The emperor's role became more autocratic, although Zhu Yuanzhang necessarily continued to use what he called the "[[Grand Secretariat|Grand Secretaries]]" (内阁) to assist with the immense paperwork of the bureaucracy, including memorials (petitions and recommendations to the throne), imperial edicts in reply, reports of various kinds, and tax records. It was this same bureaucracy that later prevented the Ming government from being able to adapt to changes in society, and eventually led to its decline.

Emperor Yong-le strenuously tried to extend China's influence beyond its borders by demanding other rulers send ambassadors to China to present tribute. A large navy was built, including four-masted ships displacing 1,500&nbsp;tons. A standing army of 1 million troops (some estimate as many as 1.9 million {{Who|date=March 2009}}) was created. The Chinese armies [[Lê Lợi|conquered Vietnam]] for around 20 years, while the Chinese fleet sailed the China seas and the Indian Ocean, cruising as far as the east coast of Africa. The Chinese gained influence in eastern [[Moghulistan]]. Several maritime Asian nations sent envoys with tribute for the Chinese emperor. Domestically, the [[Grand Canal of China|Grand Canal]] was expanded and proved to be a stimulus to domestic trade. Over 100,000&nbsp;tons of iron per year were produced. Many books were printed using movable type. The imperial palace in Beijing's [[Forbidden City]] reached its current splendor. It was also during these centuries that the potential of south China came to be fully exploited. New crops were widely cultivated and industries such as those producing porcelain and textiles flourished.

In 1449 [[Esen Tayisi]] led an [[Oirats|Oirat]] Mongol invasion of northern China which culminated in the capture of the [[Zhengtong Emperor]] at [[Battle of Tumu Fortress|Tumu]]. In 1542 the Mongol leader [[Altan Khan]] began to harass China along the northern border. In 1550 he even reached the suburbs of Beijing. The empire also had to deal with [[Wokou|Japanese pirates]] attacking the southeastern coastline;<ref>"China > History > The Ming dynasty > Political history > The dynastic succession", ''Encyclopædia Britannica Online'', 2007</ref> General [[Qi Jiguang]] was instrumental in defeating these pirates. The deadliest earthquake of all times, the [[1556 Shaanxi earthquake|Shaanxi earthquake]] of 1556 that killed approximately 830,000 people, occurred during the [[Jiajing Emperor]]'s reign.

During the Ming dynasty the last construction on the [[Great Wall of China|Great Wall]] was undertaken to protect China from foreign invasions. While the Great Wall had been built in earlier times, most of what is seen today was either built or repaired by the Ming. The brick and granite work was enlarged, the watch towers were redesigned, and cannons were placed along its length.

===Qing Dynasty (AD 1644–1911)===
[[Image:The Reception.JPG|thumb|left|"The reception of the Diplomatique ([[George Macartney, 1st Earl Macartney|Macartney]]) and his suite, at the Court of Pekin". Drawn and engraved by [[James Gillray]], published in September 1792.]]
[[File:18 century Qing China.png|thumb|300px|Territory of [[Qing Dynasty|Qing China]] in 1765]]
{{Main|Qing Dynasty}}
''Capitals: [[Shenyang]] and [[Beijing]]''

The [[Qing Dynasty]] (1644–1911) was the last imperial dynasty in China. Founded by the [[Manchus]], it was the second non-[[Han Chinese]] dynasty. The Manchus were formerly known as ''[[Jurchen people|Jurchen]]'' residing in the northeastern part of the Ming territory outside the [[Great Wall]]. They emerged as the major threat to the late Ming Dynasty after [[Nurhaci]] united all Jurchen tribes and established an independent state. However, the [[Ming Dynasty]] would be overthrown by [[Li Zicheng]]'s peasants rebel, with Beijing captured in 1644 and the last Ming Emperor [[Chongzhen]] committed suicide. The Manchu then allied with the Ming Dynasty general [[Wu Sangui]] and seized [[Beijing]], which was made the capital of the Qing dynasty, and proceeded to subdue the [[Southern Ming Dynasty|remaining Ming's resistance in the south]]. The decades of Manchu conquest caused [[Death_toll#Wars_and_armed_conflicts|enormous loss of lives]] and the [[Economic_history_of_china#Qing_.28Manchu.29_Dynasty_.281644.E2.80.931912_CE.29|economic scale of China shrank drastically]]. Nevertheless, the Manchus adopted the Confucian norms of traditional Chinese government in their rule and was considered a Chinese dynasty.

The Manchus enforced a 'queue order' forcing the Han Chinese to adopt the Manchu [[Queue (hairstyle)|queue hairstyle]] and Manchu-style clothing. The traditional Han clothing, or ''[[Hanfu]]'', was also replaced by Manchu-style clothing ''[[Qipao]]'' ([[Eight Banners|bannermen]] dress and ''[[Tangzhuang]]''). [[Kangxi Emperor of China|Emperor Kangxi]] ordered the creation of [[Kangxi Dictionary|the most complete dictionary]] of [[Chinese character]]s ever put together at the time. The Qing dynasty set up the "[[Eight Banners]]" system that provided the basic framework for the Qing military organization. The bannermen were prohibited from participating in trade and manual labour unless they petitioned to be removed from banner status. They were considered a form of nobility and were given preferential treatment in terms of annual pensions, land and allotments of cloth.

[[Image:China imperialism cartoon.jpg|left|thumb|French [[political cartoon]] from the late 1890s. A pie representing China is being divided between UK, Germany, Russia, France and Japan.]]

Over the next half-century, the entire areas originally under the [[Ming Dynasty]], including [[Yunnan]] were consolidated. Also [[Xinjiang]], [[Tibet]] and [[Mongolia]] were formally incorporated into Chinese territory. Between 1673 and 1681, the Emperor Kangxi suppressed an uprising of three generals in Southern China who had been denied hereditary rule to large fiefdoms granted by the previous emperor and a Ming restorationist invasion from Taiwan, called the [[Revolt of the Three Feudatories]]. In 1683, the Qing staged an amphibious assault on southern Taiwan, bringing down the rebel [[Kingdom of Tungning|Grand Duchy of Tungning]], which was founded by the Ming loyalist [[Koxinga]] in 1662 after the fall of the Southern Ming, and had served as a base for continued Ming resistance in Southern China. By the end of [[Qianlong Emperor|Qianlong Emperor's]] long reign, the Qing Empire was at its zenith, ruled more than [[List_of_largest_empires#All_empires_at_their_greatest_extent|one-third of the world's population]], and was the largest economy in the world. By area of extent, it was [[List_of_largest_empires#All_empires_at_their_greatest_extent|one of the largest empires ever existed in history]]. 

In the 19th century, the empire was internally stagnated and externally threatened by [[imperialism]]. 
The defeat in the [[First Opium War]] (1840) by the [[British Empire]] led to the [[Treaty of Nanjing]] (1842), under which [[History of Colonial Hong Kong|Hong Kong]] was ceded and [[opium]] import was legitimized. Subsequent military defeats and [[unequal treaties]] with other imperial powers would continue even after the fall of the Qing Dynasty.

Internally, the [[Taiping Rebellion]] (1851–1864), a quasi-Christian religious movement led by the "Heavenly King" [[Hong Xiuquan]], would raid roughly a third of Chinese territory for over a decade until they were finally crushed in the [[Third Battle of Nanking]] in 1864. Arguably one of the largest warfares in the 19th century in terms of troops involvement, there were massive lost of lives, with [[List_of_wars_and_anthropogenic_disasters_by_death_toll#Wars_and_armed_conflicts|a death toll of about 20 millions]].<ref name="Userserols">Userserols. "[http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/wars19c.htm Userserols]." ''Statistics of Wars, Oppressions and Atrocities of the Nineteenth Century.'' Retrieved on 2007-04-11.</ref> A string of rebellions would follow, which included [[Punti-Hakka Clan Wars]], [[Nien Rebellion]], [[Dungan revolt (1862–1877)|Muslim Rebellion]], [[Panthay Rebellion]] and the [[Boxer Rebellion]].<ref>Damsan Harper, Steve Fallon, Katja Gaskell, Julie Grundvig, Carolyn Heller, Thomas Huhti, Bradley Maynew, Christopher Pitts. Lonely Planet China. 9. 2005. ISBN 1-74059-687-0</ref> All rebellions were eventually put down at enormous cost and casualties, the weakened central imperial authority would gradually give rise to regional [[warlordism]]. Eventually, China would descend into [[Warlord era (China)|civil war]] immediately after the [[Chinese Revolution (1911)|1911 revolution]] that overthrew the Qing's imperial rule.

[[Image:The Portrait of the Qing Dynasty Cixi Imperial Dowager Empress of China in the 1900s.PNG|thumb|upright|The [[Empress Dowager Cixi]]]]

In response to the calamities within the empire and threats from imperialism, the [[Self-Strengthening Movement]] was an institutional reform to modernize the empire with prime emphasis to strengthen the military. However, the reform was undermined by the corruption of officials, cynicism, and quarrels of the imperial family. As a result, the "[[Beiyang Navy]]" were soundly defeated in the [[Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895)]]. [[Guangxu Emperor]] and the reformists then launched a more comprehensive reform effort, the [[Hundred Day's Reform]] (1898), but it was shortly overturned by the conservatives under [[Empress Dowager Cixi]] in a military coup.

At the turn of the 20th century, a conservative anti-imperialist movement, the [[Boxer Rebellion]] violently revolted against foreign suppression over vast areas in Northern China. The Empress Dowager, probably seeking to ensure her continual grip on power, sided with the Boxers as they advanced on Beijing. In response, a [[China Relief Expedition|relief expedition]] of the [[Eight-Nation Alliance]] invaded China to rescue the besieged foreign missions. Consisting of British, Japanese, Russian, Italian, German, French, US and Austrian troops, the alliance defeated the Boxers and demanded further concessions from the Qing government.

==Modern era==
{{Main|History of People's Republic of China}}

===Republic of China===
{{Main|History of the Republic of China|Republic of China (1912-1949)}}
''Capitals: [[Nanjing]], [[Beijing]], [[Chongqing]], and several short-lived wartime capitals; [[Taipei]] after 1949''

Frustrated by the Qing court's resistance to reform and by China's weakness, young officials, military officers, and students began to advocate the overthrow of the Qing Dynasty and the creation of a republic. They were inspired by the revolutionary ideas of [[Sun Yat-sen]]. When Sun Yat-sen was asked by one of the leading revolutionary generals to what he ascribed the success, he said, "To Christianity more than to any other single cause. Along with its ideals of religious freedom, and along with these it inculcates everywhere a doctrine of universal love and peace. These ideals appeal to the Chinese; they largely caused the Revolution, and they largely determined its peaceful character."

[[File:Sunyatsen1.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Sun Yat-sen]], founder and first president of the Republic of China.]]
[[Slavery]] in China was abolished in 1910.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.uclan.ac.uk/facs/class/cfe/ceth/abolition/history.htm |title = Commemoration of the Abolition of Slavery Project |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20071114095017/http://www.uclan.ac.uk/facs/class/cfe/ceth/abolition/history.htm |archivedate = 2007-11-14}}</ref>

A revolutionary military uprising, the [[Wuchang Uprising]], began on October 10, 1911 in [[Wuhan]]. The [[Provisional Government of the Republic of China (1912)|provisional government]] of the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]] was formed in [[Nanjing]] on March 12, 1912 with [[Sun Yat-sen]] as [[President of the Republic of China|President]], but Sun was forced to turn power over to [[Yuan Shikai]], who commanded the [[New Army]] and was [[Prime Minister]] under the Qing government, as part of the agreement to let the [[Ai-xin-jue-luo Pu-yi|last Qing monarch]] abdicate (a decision Sun would later regret). Over the next few years, Yuan proceeded to abolish the national and provincial assemblies, and declared himself emperor in late 1915. Yuan's imperial ambitions were fiercely opposed by his subordinates; faced with the prospect of rebellion, he abdicated in March 1916, and died in June of that year. His death left a power vacuum in China; the republican government was all but shattered. This ushered in the [[warlord era]], during which much of the country was ruled by shifting coalitions of competing provincial military leaders.

In 1919, the [[May Fourth Movement]] began as a response to the terms imposed on China by the [[Treaty of Versailles]] ending [[World War I]], but quickly became a protest movement about the domestic situation in China. The discrediting of liberal Western philosophy amongst Chinese intellectuals was followed by the adoption of more radical lines of thought. This in turn planted the seeds for the irreconcilable conflict between the left and right in China that would dominate Chinese history for the rest of the century.

In the 1920s, [[Sun Yat-Sen]] established a revolutionary base in south China, and set out to unite the fragmented nation. With Soviet assistance, he entered into an alliance with the fledgling [[Communist Party of China]]. After Sun's death from cancer in 1925, one of his protégés, [[Chiang Kai-shek]], seized control of the [[Kuomintang|''Kuomintang'' (Nationalist Party or KMT)]] and succeeded in bringing most of south and central China under its rule in a military campaign known as the [[Northern Expedition (1926–1927)|Northern Expedition]]. Having defeated the warlords in south and central China by military force, Chiang was able to secure the nominal allegiance of the warlords in the North. In 1927, Chiang turned on the CPC and relentlessly chased the CPC armies and its leaders from their bases in southern and eastern China. In 1934, driven from their mountain bases such as the [[Chinese Soviet Republic]], the CPC forces embarked on the [[Long March]] across China's most desolate terrain to the northwest, where they established a guerrilla base at [[Yan'an]] in [[Shaanxi]] Province.

During the [[Long March]], the communists reorganized under a new leader, [[Mao Zedong]] (Mao Tse-tung). The bitter struggle between the KMT and the CPC continued, openly or clandestinely, through the 14-year long Japanese occupation (1931–1945) of various parts of the country. The two Chinese parties nominally formed a united front to oppose the Japanese in 1937, during the [[Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945)]], which became a part of [[World War II]]. Following the defeat of Japan in 1945, the war between the KMT and the CPC resumed, after failed attempts at reconciliation and a negotiated settlement. By 1949, the CPC had established control over most of the country. ''(see [[Chinese Civil War]])''

At the end of WWII in 1945 as part of the overall Japanese surrender, Japanese troops in Taiwan surrendered to Republic of China troops giving Chiang Kai-shek effective control of Taiwan.<ref>[http://www.taiwandocuments.org/ghq.htm Surrender Order of the Imperial General Headquarters of Japan], 2 September 1945, "(a) The senior Japanese commanders and all ground, sea, air, and auxiliary forces within China (excluding Manchuria), [[Formosa]], and [[French Indochina]] north of 16 degrees north latitude shall surrender to Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek."</ref> When Chiang was defeated by CPC forces in mainland China in 1949, he retreated to [[Taiwan]] with his government and his most disciplined troops, along with most of the KMT leadership and a large number of their supporters.

===1949 to present===
{{See also|History of the People's Republic of China|History of the Republic of China|Legal status of Taiwan|Political status of Taiwan}}
Major combat in the [[Chinese Civil War]] ended in 1949 with [[Koumintang]] (KMT) pulling out of the mainland, with the government relocating to [[Taipei]] and maintaining control only over a few island. The [[Communist Party of China]] was left in control of [[mainland China]]. On 1 October 1949, [[Mao Zedong]] proclaimed the People's Republic of China.<ref name="Ref_c">[http://www.isop.ucla.edu/eas/documents/mao490921.htm The Chinese people have stood up]. UCLA Center for East Asian Studies. Retrieved 16 April 2006.</ref> "Communist China" and "Red China" were two common names for the PRC.<ref name="Ref_d">Smith, Joseph; and Davis, Simon. [2005] (2005). The A to Z of the Cold War. Issue 28 of ''Historical dictionaries of war, revolution, and civil unrest''. Volume 8 of ''A to Z guides''. Scarecrow Press publisher. ISBN 0-8108-5384-1, ISBN 978-0-8108-5384-3.</ref>

[[File:China, Mao (2).jpg|thumb|left|Chairman [[Mao Zedong]] proclaiming the establishment of the People's Republic in 1949.]]
The economic and social plan known as the [[Great Leap Forward]] resulted in an estimated 45&nbsp;million deaths.<ref name="Akbar2010">{{Cite news|url =http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/books/news/maos-great-leap-forward-killed-45-million-in-four-years-2081630.html |title= Mao's Great Leap Forward 'killed 45 million in four years'|accessdate=October 30, 2010 |publisher=The Independent|location=London|first=Arifa|last=Akbar|date=17 September 2010}}</ref> In 1966, Mao and his allies launched the [[Cultural Revolution]], which would last until Mao's death a decade later. The Cultural Revolution, motivated by power struggles within the Party and a fear of the [[Soviet Union]], led to a major upheaval in Chinese society. In 1972, at the peak of the [[Sino-Soviet split]], Mao and [[Zhou Enlai]] met [[Richard Nixon]] in Beijing to establish relations with the United States. In the same year, the PRC was [[United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2758|admitted to the United Nations]] in place of the Republic of China for China's membership of the United Nations, and permanent membership of the Security Council.

After Mao's death in 1976 and the arrest of the [[Gang of Four]], blamed for the excesses of the Cultural Revolution, [[Deng Xiaoping]] quickly wrested power from Mao's anointed successor [[Hua Guofeng]]. Although he never became the head of the party or state himself, Deng was in fact the [[Paramount Leader]] of China at that time, his influence within the Party led the country to [[Chinese economic reform|significant economic reforms]]. The Communist Party subsequently loosened governmental control over citizens' personal lives and the [[People's commune|communes]] were disbanded with many peasants receiving multiple land leases, which greatly increased incentives and agricultural production. This turn of events marked China's transition from a planned economy to a mixed economy with an increasingly open market environment, a system termed by some<ref name="Ref_e">Hart-Landsberg, Martin; and Burkett, Paul. [http://www.monthlyreview.org/chinaandsocialism.htm "China and Socialism. Market Reforms and Class Struggle"]. Retrieved 30 October 2008.</ref> "[[market socialism]]", and officially by the Communist Party of China "[[Socialism with Chinese characteristics]]". The PRC adopted its current [[constitution of the People's Republic of China|constitution]] on 4 December 1982.

In 1989, the death of pro-reform official [[Hu Yaobang]] helped to spark the [[Tiananmen Square protests of 1989]], during which students and others campaigned for several months, speaking out against corruption and in favour of greater political reform, including democratic rights and freedom of speech. However, they were eventually put down on 4 June when [[People's Liberation Army|PLA]] troops and vehicles entered and forcibly cleared the square, resulting in numerous casualties. This event was widely reported and brought worldwide condemnation and sanctions against the government.<ref name="Ref_f">Youngs, R. ''The European Union and the Promotion of Democracy.'' Oxford University Press, 2002. ISBN 978-0-19-924979-4.</ref><ref name="Ref_g">Carroll, J. M. ''A Concise History of Hong Kong.'' Rowman & Littlefield, 2007. ISBN 978-0-7425-3422-3.</ref> The "[[Tank Man]]" incident in particular became famous.

CPC General Secretary, President [[Jiang Zemin]] and Premier [[Zhu Rongji]], both former mayors of Shanghai, led post-Tiananmen PRC in the 1990s. Under Jiang and Zhu's ten years of administration, the PRC's economic performance pulled an estimated 150&nbsp;million peasants out of poverty and sustained an average annual gross domestic product growth rate of 11.2%.<ref name="Ref_h">[http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/en/doc/2003-07/11/content_244499.htm ''Nation bucks trend of global poverty''] (11 July 2003). ''China Daily''</ref><ref name="Ref_i">[http://english.people.com.cn/english/200003/01/eng20000301X115.html ''China's Average Economic Growth in 90s Ranked 1st in World''] (1 March 2000). ''People's Daily''.</ref> The country formally joined the [[World Trade Organization]] in 2001.

Although the PRC needs economic growth to spur its development, the government has begun to worry that rapid economic growth has negatively impacted the country's resources and environment. Another concern is that certain sectors of society are not sufficiently benefiting from the PRC's economic development; one example of this is the wide gap between urban and rural areas. As a result, under current CPC General Secretary, President [[Hu Jintao]] and Premier [[Wen Jiabao]], the PRC has initiated policies to address these issues of equitable distribution of resources, but the outcome remains to be seen.<ref name="Ref_j">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/4913622.stm ''China worried over pace of growth'']. BBC. Retrieved 16 April 2006.</ref> More than 40&nbsp;million farmers have been displaced from their land,<ref name="Ref_k">[http://migration.ucdavis.edu/mn/more.php?id=3166_0_3_0 ''China: Migrants, Students, Taiwan'']. Migration News. January 2006.</ref> usually for economic development, contributing to the 87,000 demonstrations and riots across China in 2005.<ref name="Ref_l">[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/01/27/AR2006012701588.html ''In Face of Rural Unrest, China Rolls Out Reforms'']. The Washington Post. 28 January 2006.</ref> For much of the PRC's population, living standards have seen extremely large improvements, and freedom continues to expand, but political controls remain tight and rural areas poor.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/tankman/etc/transcript.html
| title=''Frontline'': ''The Tank Man'' transcript
| accessdate=12 July 2008 |date=11 April 2006 |work=Frontline |publisher=PBS }}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|China}}
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
*[[Chinese armour]]
*[[Chinese exploration]]
*[[Chinese historiography]]
*[[Chinese sovereign]]
*[[Economic history of China]]
*[[Ethnic groups in Chinese history]]
*[[Foreign relations of Imperial China]]
*[[Four occupations]]
*[[History of Hong Kong]]
*[[History of Islam in China]]
*[[History of Macau]]
*[[History of science and technology in China]]
*[[List of Chinese monarchs]]
*[[List of Neolithic cultures of China]]
*[[List of rebellions in China]]
*[[List of recipients of tribute from China]]
*[[List of tributaries of Imperial China]]
*[[Military history of China (pre-1911)]]
*[[Naval history of China]]
*[[Religion in China]]
*[[Timeline of Chinese history]]
{{div col end}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Bibliography==
{{refbegin}}

===Surveys===
* Eberharad, Wolfram. ''A History of China'' (2005), 380 pages' [http://books.google.com/books?id=5LgjunIn1CEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:history+intitle:china&num=30&as_brr=1&sig=k1CgHXYb6jQ6BgdwVpUWngov7So full text online free]
* Ebrey, Patricia Buckley, and Kwang-ching Liu. ''The Cambridge Illustrated History of China'' (1999) 352 pages
* Fairbank, John King and Goldman, Merle. ''China: A New History.'' 2nd ed. Harvard U. Press, (2006). 640 pp.
* Gernet, Jacques, J. R. Foster, and Charles Hartman. ''A History of Chinese Civilization'' (1996), called the best one-volume survey;
* Hsü, Immanuel Chung-yueh. ''The Rise of Modern China,'' 6th ed. (Oxford University Press, 1999), highly detailed coverage of 1644-1999, in 1136pp.
* Huang, Ray. ''China, a Macro History'' (1997) 335pp, an idiosyncratic approach, not for beginners; [http://www.questia.com/library/book/china-a-macro-history-by-ray-huang.jsp online edition from [[Questia]]]
* Keay, John. ''China: A History'' (2009), 642pp
* Latourette, Kenneth Scott. ''The Development of China'' (1917) 273 pages; [http://books.google.com/books?id=fSIPAAAAYAAJ&dq=inauthor:latourette&num=30&as_brr=1 full text online]
* Michael, Franz. ''China through the Ages: History of a Civilization.'' (1986). 278pp;  [http://www.questia.com/library/book/china-through-the-ages-history-of-a-civilization-by-franz-michael.jsp online edition  from [[Questia]]]
* Mote, Frederick W. ''Imperial China, 900–1800'' Harvard University Press, 1999, 1,136 pages, the authoritative treatment of the Song, Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties;
* Perkins, Dorothy. ''Encyclopedia of China: The Essential Reference to China, Its History and Culture.'' Facts on File, 1999. 662 pp.
* Roberts, J. A. G. ''A Concise History of China.'' Harvard U. Press, 1999. 341 pp.
* Schoppa, R. Keith. ''The Columbia Guide to Modern Chinese History.'' Columbia U. Press, 2000. 356 pp.  [http://www.questia.com/library/book/the-columbia-guide-to-modern-chinese-history-by-r-keith-schoppa.jsp online edition from [[Questia]]]
* Spence, Jonathan D. ''The Search for Modern China'' (1999), 876pp; well written survey from 1644 to 1990s [http://www.amazon.com/dp/0393307808 excerpt and text search]; [http://www.questia.com/read/98946348 complete edition online at [[Questia]]]
*  Ven, Hans van de, ed. ''Warfare in Chinese History.'' E. J. Brill, 2000. 456 pp. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=109282565 online edition]
* Wang, Ke-wen, ed. ''Modern China: An Encyclopedia of History, Culture, and Nationalism.'' Garland, 1998. 442 pp.
* Wright, David Curtis. ''History of China'' (2001) 257pp; [http://www.questia.com/library/book/the-history-of-china-by-david-curtis-wright-john-e-findling-frank-w-thackeray.jsp online edition]
* [http://books.google.com/books?as_q=&num=30&as_brr=1&btnG=Google+Search&as_epq=&as_oq=&as_eq=&as_libcat=0&as_brr=1&as_vt=history+china&as_auth=&as_pub=&as_sub=&as_drrb=c&as_miny=&as_maxy=&as_isbn= full text of older histories (pre 1923)]

===Prehistory===
* Chang, Kwang-chih. ''The Archaeology of Ancient China,'' Yale University Press, 1986.
*Discovery of residue from fermented beverage consumed up to 9,000 years ago in Jiahu, Henan Province, China. By Dr. Patrick E McGovern, University of Pennsylvania archaeochemist and colleagues from China, Great Britain and Germany.
*{{cite web|first=Rixiang|last=Zhu|coauthors= Zhisheng An, Richard Potts, Kenneth A. Hoffman|url=http://www.paleomag.net/members/rixiangzhu/Earth-Sci%20Review.pdf |title=Magnetostratigraphic dating of early humans in China|doi=10.1016/S0012-8252(02)00132-0 |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2011-01-23}}
*[http://arheologija.ff.uni-lj.si/documenta/pdf29/29chi.pdf The Discovery of Early Pottery in China] by Zhang Chi, Department of Archaeology, Peking University, China.

===Shang Dynasty===
* Durant, Stephen W. ''The Cloudy Mirror: Tension and Conflict in the Writings of Sima Qian'' (1995),

===Han Dynasty===
*[[Rafe de Crespigny|de Crespigny, Rafe]]. 1972. The Ch’iang Barbarians and the Empire of Han: A Study in Frontier Policy. ''Papers on Far Eastern History'' 16, Australian National University. Canberra.
*de Crespigny, Rafe. 1984. ''Northern Frontier. The Policies and Strategies of the Later Han Empire''. Rafe de Crespigny. 1984. Faculty of Asian Studies, Australian National University. Canberra.
*{{cite journal|url=http://www.anu.edu.au/asianstudies/decrespigny/south_china.html |title=South China under the Later Han Dynasty|first=Rafe|last= de Crespigny  |accessdate=2011-01-23|chapter=Chapter One from ''Generals of the South: the Foundation and early history of the Three Kingdoms state of Wu''|journal= Asian Studies Monographs, New Series No. 16|publisher= Faculty of Asian Studies, The Australian National University, Canberra|year= 1990}}
*{{cite journal|url=http://www.anu.edu.au/asianstudies/decrespigny/mil_org.html|journal=Asian Studies Monographs, New Series No. 21 |title=Later Han Military Administration: An Outline of the Military Administration of the Later Han Empire|first= Rafe|last= de Crespigny|publisher=Faculty of Asian Studies, The Australian National University  |year=1996|edition=Based on the Introduction to Emperor Huan and Emperor Ling being the Chronicle of Later Han for the years 189 to 220 CE as recorded in Chapters 59 to 69 of the Zizhi tongjian of Sima Guang |accessdate=2011-01-23}}
*Dubs, Homer H. 1938-55. ''The History of the Former Han Dynasty by Pan Ku. '' (3 vol)
* Hill, John E. ''Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, 1st to 2nd Centuries CE''. (2009) ISBN 978-1-4392-2134-1.
*Hulsewé, A. F. P. and Loewe, M. A. N., eds. ''China in Central Asia: The Early Stage 125 BCE – CE 23: an annotated translation of chapters 61 and 96 of the History of the Former Han Dynasty''. (1979)
*Twitchett, Denis and Loewe, Michael, eds. 1986. ''The Cambridge History of China. Volume I. The Ch’in and Han Empires, 221 BCE – CE 220''. Cambridge University Press.
*Yap, Joseph P. ``''Wars With the Xiongnu - A Translation From Zizhi tongjian''`` (''Zhan-guo, Qin, Han and Xin'' 403 BCE - 23 CE.) AuthorHouse (2009) ISBN 1-4900-0604-4

===Jin, the Sixteen Kingdoms, and the Northern and Southern Dynasties===
*{{cite journal|url=http://www.anu.edu.au/asianstudies/decrespigny/3KWJin.html |title=The Three Kingdoms and Western Jin: A History of China in the Third Century AD|first=Rafe|last= de Crespigny |journal=East Asian History |publisher= Faculty of Asian Studies, Australian National University, Canberra|year=1991|accessdate=2011-01-23|issue=  1 June 1991, pp.&nbsp;1–36, & no. 2 December 1991, pp.&nbsp;143–164}}
*Miller, Andrew. ''Accounts of Western Nations in the History of the Northern Chou Dynasty.'' (1959)

===Sui Dynasty===
*[[Arthur F. Wright|Wright, Arthur F.]] 1978. ''The Sui Dynasty: The Unification of China. CE 581-617''. Alfred A. Knopf, New York. ISBN 0-394-49187-4, ISBN 0-394-32332-7 (pbk).

===Tang Dynasty===
*Benn, Charles. 2002. ''China's Golden Age: Everyday Life in the Tang Dynasty''. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-517665-0.
*Schafer, Edward H. 1963. ''The Golden Peaches of Samarkand: A study of T’ang Exotics''. University of California Press. Berkeley and Los Angeles. 1st paperback edition. 1985. ISBN 0-520-05462-8.
*Schafer, Edward H. 1967. ''The Vermilion Bird: T’ang Images of the South''. University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles. Reprint 1985. ISBN 0-520-05462-8.
*Shaffer, Lynda Norene. 1996. ''Maritime Southeast Asia to 1500''. Armonk, New York, M.E. Sharpe, Inc. ISBN 1-56324-144-7.
*Wang, Zhenping. 1991. "T’ang Maritime Trade Administration." Wang Zhenping. ''Asia Major'', Third Series, Vol. IV, 1991, pp.&nbsp;7–38.

===Song Dynasty===
* Ebrey, Patricia. ''The Inner Quarters: Marriage and the Lives of Chinese Women in the Sung Period'' (1990)
* Hymes, Robert, and Conrad Schirokauer, eds. ''Ordering the World: Approaches to State and Society in Sung Dynasty China,'' U of California Press, 1993; [http://content.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft1000031p/?&query=&brand=ucpress complete text online free]
*Shiba, Yoshinobu. 1970. ''Commerce and Society in Sung China''. Originally published in Japanese as ''So-dai sho-gyo—shi kenkyu-''. Tokyo, Kazama shobo-, 1968. Yoshinobu Shiba. Translation by Mark Elvin, Centre for Chinese Studies, University of Michigan.

===Ming Dynasty===
* Brook, Timothy. ''The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China.'' (1998).
* Brook, Timothy. ''The Troubled Empire: China in the Yuan and Ming Dynasties'' (2010) 329 pages. Focus on the impact of a Little Ice Age on the empire, as the empire, beginning with a sharp drop in temperatures in the 13th century during which time the Mongol leader Kubla Khan moved south into China.
* Dardess, John W.  ''A Ming Society: T'ai-ho County, Kiangsi, Fourteenth to Seventeenth Centuries.'' (1983); uses advanced "new social history" [http://content.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft2s2004qh/?&query=&brand=ucpress complete text online free]
* Farmer, Edward.  ''Zhu Yuanzhang and Early Ming Legislation: The Reordering of Chinese Society Following the Era of Mongol Rule.''  E.J. Brill, 1995.
* Goodrich, L. Carrington, and Chaoying Fang.  ''Dictionary of Ming Biography.'' (1976).
* Huang, Ray. ''1587, A Year of No Significance: The Ming Dynasty in Decline.'' (1981).
* Mann, Susan. ''Precious Records: Women in China's Long Eighteenth Century'' (1997)
* Mote, Frederick W. and Twitchett, Denis, eds. ''The Cambridge History of China. Vol. 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1.''  (1988). 976 pp.
* Schneewind, Sarah. ''A Tale of Two Melons: Emperor and Subject in Ming China.'' (2006).
* Tsai, Shih-shan Henry. ''Perpetual Happiness: The Ming Emperor Yongle.''  (2001).
* Mote, Frederick W., and Denis Twitchett, eds. ''The Cambridge History of China. Vol. 7, part 1: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644'' (1988). 1008 pp. [http://books.google.com/books?id=tyhT9SZRLS8C excerpt and text search]
* Twitchett, Denis and Frederick W. Mote, eds. ''The Cambridge History of China. Vol. 8: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1.''
** Twitchett, Denis and Frederick W. Mote, eds. ''The Cambridge History of China. Vol. 8: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 2. '' (1998). 1203 pp.

===Qing Dynasty===
* Fairbank, John K. and Liu, Kwang-Ching, ed. ''The Cambridge History of China. Vol. 2: Late Ch'ing, 1800–1911, Part 2.'' Cambridge U. Press, 1980. 754 pp.
* Peterson, Willard J., ed. ''The Cambridge History of China. Vol. 9, Part 1: The Ch'ing Dynasty to 1800.'' Cambridge U. Press, 2002. 753 pp.
* Rawski, Evelyn S. ''The Last Emperors: A Social History of Qing Imperial Institutions'' (2001) [http://content.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft8d5nb4v4/?&query=&brand=ucpress complete text online free]
* Struve, Lynn A., ed.  ''The Qing Formation in World-Historical Time.''  (2004). 412 pp.
* Struve, Lynn A., ed.  ''Voices from the Ming-Qing Cataclysm: China in Tigers' Jaws'' (1998)
* Yizhuang, Ding. "Reflections on the 'New Qing History' School in the United States," ''Chinese Studies in History,'' Winter 2009/2010, Vol. 43 Issue 2, pp 92–96, It drops the theme of "sinification" in evaluating the dynasty and the non-Han Chinese regimes in general. It seeks  to analyze the success and failure of Manchu rule in China from the Manchu perspective and focus on how Manchu rulers sought to maintain the Manchu ethnic identity throughout Qing history.

===Republican era===
* Bergere,  Marie-Claire. ''Sun Yat-Sen'' (1998),  480pp, the standard biography
* Boorman, Howard L., ed. ''Biographical Dictionary of Republican China.'' (Vol. I-IV and Index. 1967-1979).  600 short scholarly biographies [http://books.google.com/books?id=r3AJFusMHJwC&dq=+Biographical+Dictionary+of+Republican+China&pg=PP1&ots=2vo5nw0qS0&sig=fxzwBb475KIbQBr8KGRDrkVSvl8&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=4&ct=result#PPA1,M1 excerpt and text search]
** Boorman, Howard L. "Sun Yat-sen" in Boorman, ed. ''Biographical Dictionary of Republican China'' (1970) 3: 170-89, [http://books.google.com/books?id=r3AJFusMHJwC&pg=PA172&lpg=PA172&dq=+YANG+CH'%C3%9C-Y%C3%9CN&source=web&ots=2vo5nB_pW4&sig=z9_ba59M35GI7n85WvjZR5zS3HU&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result#PPA170,M1  complete text online]
* Dreyer, Edward L.  ''China at War, 1901-1949.'' (1995). 422 pp.
* Eastman Lloyd. ''Seeds of Destruction: Nationalist China in War and Revolution, 1937- 1945.'' (1984)
* Eastman Lloyd et al. ''The Nationalist Era in China, 1927-1949'' (1991)
* Fairbank, John K., ed. ''The Cambridge History of China, Vol. 12, Republican China 1912-1949. Part 1.'' (1983). 1001 pp.
* Fairbank, John K. and Feuerwerker, Albert, eds.  ''The Cambridge History of China. Vol. 13: Republican China, 1912–1949, Part 2.'' (1986). 1092 pp.
* Gordon, David M. ''The China-Japan War, 1931–1945.'' ''The Journal of Military History'' v70#1 (2006) 137-182; major historiographical overview of all important books and interpretations; in [[Project Muse]]
* Hsiung, James C. and Steven I. Levine, eds. ''China's Bitter Victory: The War with Japan, 1937-1945'' (1992), essays by scholars; [http://www.questia.com/library/book/chinas-bitter-victory-the-war-with-japan-1937-1945-by-james-c-hsiung-steven-i-levine.jsp online from [[Questia]]];
* Hsi-sheng, Ch'i. ''Nationalist China at War: Military Defeats and Political Collapse, 1937–1945'' (1982)
* Hung, Chang-tai. ''War and Popular Culture: Resistance in Modern China, 1937-1945'' (1994) [http://content.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft829008m5/?&query=&brand=ucpress complete text online free]
* Rubinstein, Murray A., ed. ''Taiwan: A New History'' (2006), 560pp
* Shiroyama, Tomoko. ''China during the Great Depression: Market, State, and the World Economy, 1929-1937'' (2008)
* Shuyun, Sun. ''The Long March: The True History of Communist China's Founding Myth'' (2007)
* Taylor, Jay. ''The Generalissimo: Chiang Kai-shek and the Struggle for Modern China.'' (2009) ISBN 978-0-674-03338-2
* Westad, Odd Arne. ''Decisive Encounters: The Chinese Civil War, 1946-1950.'' (2003). 413 pp.  the standard history

===Communist era, 1949- present===
*  Barnouin, Barbara, and Yu Changgen. ''Zhou Enlai: A Political Life'' (2005)
* Baum, Richard D. "'Red and Expert': The Politico-Ideological Foundations of China's Great Leap Forward," ''Asian Survey,'' Vol. 4, No. 9 (Sep., 1964), pp.&nbsp;1048–1057 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0004-4687(196409)4%3A9%3C1048%3A%22AETPF%3E2.0.CO%3B2-%23 in JSTOR]
* Becker, Jasper.  ''Hungry Ghosts: China's Secret Famine'' (1996), on the "Great Leap Forward" of 1950s
* Chang, Jung and Jon Halliday. ''Mao: The Unknown Story,'' (2005), 814 pages, ISBN 0-679-42271-4
* Dittmer, Lowell. ''China's Continuous Revolution: The Post-Liberation Epoch, 1949-1981'' (1989) [http://content.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft3q2nb24q/?&query=&brand=ucpress online free]
* Dietrich, Craig. ''People's China: A Brief History,'' 3d ed. (1997), 398pp
* Kirby, William C., ed.  ''Realms of Freedom in Modern China.'' (2004). 416 pp.
* Kirby, William C.; Ross, Robert S.; and Gong, Li, eds.  ''Normalization of U.S.-China Relations: An International History.'' (2005). 376 pp.
*  Li, Xiaobing. ''A History of the Modern Chinese Army'' (2007)
*  MacFarquhar, Roderick and Fairbank, John K., eds.  ''The Cambridge History of China. Vol. 15: The People's Republic, Part 2: Revolutions within the Chinese Revolution, 1966-1982.'' Cambridge U. Press, 1992. 1108 pp.
* [[Maurice Meisner|Meisner, Maurice]]. ''Mao's China and After: A History of the People’s Republic,'' 3rd ed. (Free Press, 1999), dense book with theoretical and political science approach.
* Spence, Jonatham. ''Mao Zedong'' (1999)
* Shuyun, Sun. ''The Long March: The True History of Communist China's Founding Myth'' (2007)
* Wang, Jing. ''High Culture Fever: Politics, Aesthetics, and Ideology in Deng's China'' (1996)  [http://content.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft0489n683/?&query=&brand=ucpress complete text online free]
* Wenqian, Gao. ''Zhou Enlai: The Last Perfect Revolutionary'' (2007)

====Cultural Revolution, 1966-76====
* Clark, Paul. ''The Chinese Cultural Revolution: A History'' (2008), a favorable look at artistic production  [http://www.amazon.com/dp/0521875153 excerpt and text search]
* Esherick, Joseph W.; Pickowicz, Paul G.; and Walder, Andrew G., eds.  ''The Chinese Cultural Revolution as History.'' (2006). 382 pp.
* Jian,  Guo; Song, Yongyi; and Zhou, Yuan. ''Historical Dictionary of the Chinese Cultural Revolution.'' (2006). 433 pp.
*  MacFarquhar, Roderick and Fairbank, John K., eds.  ''The Cambridge History of China. Vol. 15: The People's Republic, Part 2: Revolutions within the Chinese Revolution, 1966-1982.'' Cambridge U. Press, 1992. 1108 pp.
* MacFarquhar, Roderick and Michael Schoenhals. ''Mao's Last Revolution.'' (2006).
* MacFarquhar, Roderick. ''The Origins of the Cultural Revolution. Vol. 3: The Coming of the Cataclysm, 1961-1966.'' (1998). 733 pp.
* Yan, Jiaqi and Gao, Gao. ''Turbulent Decade: A History of the Cultural Revolution.'' (1996). 736 pp.

===Economy and environment===
* Chow, Gregory C. ''China's Economic Transformation'' (2nd ed. 2007)
*Elvin, Mark.  ''Retreat of the Elephants: An Environmental History of China.'' (2004). 564 pp.
* Elvin, Mark and Liu, Ts'ui-jung, eds.  ''Sediments of Time: Environment and Society in Chinese History.'' (1998). 820 pp.
* Ji, Zhaojin.  ''A History of Modern Shanghai Banking: The Rise and Decline of China's Finance Capitalism.'' (2003. 325) pp.
*  Naughton, Barry. ''The Chinese Economy: Transitions and Growth'' (2007)
* Rawski, Thomas G.  and Lillian M. Li, eds. ''Chinese History in Economic Perspective,'' University of California Press,  1992 [http://content.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft6489p0n6/?&query=&brand=ucpress complete text online free]
* Sheehan, Jackie.  ''Chinese Workers: A New History.'' Routledge, 1998. 269 pp.
*  Stuart-Fox, Martin.  ''A Short History of China and Southeast Asia: Tribute, Trade and Influence.'' (2003). 278 pp.

===Women and gender===
* Ebrey, Patricia. ''The Inner Quarters: Marriage and the Lives of Chinese Women in the Sung Period'' (1990)
* Hershatter, Gail, and Wang Zheng. "Chinese History: A Useful Category of Gender Analysis," ''American Historical Review,'' Dec 2008, Vol. 113 Issue 5, pp 1404–1421
* Hershatter, Gail. ''Women in China's Long Twentieth Century'' (2007), [http://escholarship.org/uc/gaia_gaia_books full text online]
* Hershatter, Gail, Emily Honig, Susan Mann, and Lisa Rofel, eds. ''Guide to Women's Studies in China'' (1998)
* Ko, Dorothy. ''Teachers of Inner Chambers: Women and Culture in China, 1573-1722'' (1994)
* Mann, Susan. ''Precious Records: Women in China's Long Eighteenth Century'' (1997)
* Wang, Shuo. "The 'New Social History' in China: The Development of Women's History," ''History Teacher,'' May 2006, Vol. 39 Issue 3, pp 315–323
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
*[http://www.princeton.edu/~classbib/ CLASSICAL HISTORIOGRAPHY FOR CHINESE HISTORY]
*Abramson, Marc S. (2008). ''Ethnic Identity in Tang China''. University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia. ISBN 978-0-8122-4052-8.
*Ankerl, G. C. ''Coexisting Contemporary Civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western''. INU PRESS Geneva, 2000. ISBN 2-88155-004-5.
* [[Herrlee Glessner Creel|Creel, Herrlee Glessner]]. ''The Birth of China''. 1936.
*[[John K. Fairbank|Fairbank, John King]], ''China : a new history'', Cambridge, Mass. : Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1992. ISBN 0-674-11670-4
* [[Herbert Feis|Feis, Herbert]], ''The China Tangle: The American Effort in China from Pearl Harbor to the Marshall Mission'', Princeton University Press, 1953.
* [[Ken Hammond|Hammond, Kenneth J.]] [http://www.thegreatcourses.com/ttcx/coursedesclong2.aspx?cid=8320&id=8320&d=From+Yao+to+Mao%3A+5000+Years+of+Chinese+History&pc=History%20-%20Ancient%20and%20Medieval From Yao to Mao: 5000 Years of Chinese History]. The Teaching Company, 2004. (A lecture on DVD.)
* [[Herbert Giles|Giles, Herbert Allen]]. [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/2076 ''The Civilization of China'']. [[Project Gutenburg]] e-text. A general history, originally published around 1911.
*[[Herbert Giles|Giles, Herbert Allen]]. [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/2156/2156-h/2156-h.htm ''China and the Manchus'']. Project Gutenberg e-text. Covers the Qing (Manchu) dynasty, published shortly after the fall of the dynasty, around 1912.
*{{cite book|url=http://urss.ru/cgi-bin/db.pl?lang=en&blang=en&page=Book&list=14&id=37484 |title=Introduction to Social Macrodynamics: Secular Cycles and Millennial Trends|last=Korotayev|first= A.|coauthors= Malkov A., Khaltourina D.|isbn= 5-484-00559-0 |publisher=URSS.ru|year= 2006|accessdate=2011-01-23|chapter=Chapter 2: Historical Population Dynamics in China}}
* [[Berthold Laufer|Laufer, Berthold]]. 1912. ''JADE: A Study in Chinese Archaeology & Religion''. Reprint: Dover Publications, New York. 1974.
* Murray, Hugh ; Crawfurd, John; Gordon, Peter, [http://books.google.com/books?id=PJEoAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover ''An historical and descriptive account of China''], Edinburgh & London : Oliver & Boyd, 1836. 3 volumes.
* Terrill, Ross, ''800,000,000: the real China'', Boston, Little, Brown, 1972
* Wilkinson, Endymion Porter, [http://books.google.com/books?id=ERnrQq0bsPYC&printsec=frontcover ''Chinese history : a manual],'' revised and enlarged. - Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University, Asia Center (for the Harvard-Yenching Institute), 2000, 1181 p., ISBN 0-674-00247-4; ISBN 0-674-00249-0

==External links==
<!-- PER WIKIPEDIA'S POLICIES, DO ''not'' USE GLOBAL CHINAWIKIPEDIA AND SIMILAR SITES AS SOURCES OR EXTERNAL LINKS. THEY WILL BE DELETED -->
{{ChineseText}}
{{Commons category}}
*[http://www.ihp.sinica.edu.tw/database/index.htm Chinese Database] by [[Academia Sinica]] {{zh icon}}
*[http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552524 Modernizing China] from the [http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552494 Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives]
*[http://saturn.ihp.sinica.edu.tw/~wenwu/ww.htm Manuscript and Graphics Database] by [[Academia Sinica]] {{zh icon}}
*[http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/history.htm A universal guide for China studies]
*[http://www.ourorient.com/ Oriental Style] The Genuine Soul of Ancient Chinese People
*[http://chinese.dsturgeon.net/ Chinese Text Project] Texts and translations of historical Chinese works.
*[http://authors.history-forum.com/liang_jieming/chinesesiegewarfare/ Chinese Siege Warfare] - Mechanical Artillery and Siege Weapons of Antiquity - An Illustrated History bought to you by [http://www.history-forum.com/ History Forum]
*[http://pem.org/yinyutang/ '' Yin Yu Tang: A Chinese Home ''] Explore the historical contents of domestic architecture during the Qing dynasty and its pertinence to Chinese heritage and historical culture.
*[http://www.aall.ufl.edu/EMC/ ''Early Medieval China''] is a journal devoted to academic scholarship relating to the period roughly between the end of the Han and beginning of the Tang eras.
*[http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http://www.geocities.com/crmaozedong/index.html&date=2009-10-25+17:56:42 Cultural Revolution Propaganda Poster]
*[http://www.loc.gov/today/cyberlc/feature_wdesc.php?rec=4043 China Rediscovers its Own History] 100 minute lecture on Chinese history given by renowned scholar/author Yu Ying-shih, Emeritus Professor of East Asian Studies and History at Princeton University.
* [http://sd71.bc.ca/sd71/school/courtmid/Library/subject_resources/socials/CHINA.htm Resources for Middle School students] Readable resources for students in grades 5-9 - more than 250 links.
* Wolfram Eberhard, [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/17695/17695-h/17695-h.htm A history of China] (online), February 7, 2006 [EBook #17695], ISO-8859-1
*[http://www.pbs.org/kqed/chinainside/ China from the Inside] - 2006 PBS documentary. KQED Public Television and Granada Television for PBS, Granada International and the BBC
*[http://www.automaticfreeweb.com/index.cfm?s=ancientasianworld Ancient Asian World] History, culture and archaeology of the ancient Asian continent. Many articles and pictures
*[http://www-chaos.umd.edu/history/toc.html History of China: Table of Contents] - Chaos Group at University of Maryland
*[http://www.history-forum.com/forum/ History Forum] - Discuss Chinese history at [http://www.history-forum.com/ History Forum's] [http://www.history-forum.com/forum/forum-1.html Asian History] section
*{{cite journal|journal=BMC Biology|last=Li|issue=8:15|url=http://www.biomedcentral.com/content/pdf/1741-7007-8-15.pdf |title=Evidence that a West-East admixed population lived in the Tarim Basin as early as the early Bronze Age |format=PDF |year=2010}}
{{History of Asia}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:History Of China}}
[[Category:History of China|History of China]]

{{Link GA|lt}}
{{Link FA|id}}
{{Link FA|sl}}
{{Link FA|zh-yue}}
{{Link GA|es}}
[[ar:تاريخ الصين]]
[[az:Çin tarixi]]
[[be:Гісторыя Кітая]]
[[be-x-old:Гісторыя Кітая]]
[[bcl:Historya kanTsina]]
[[bg:История на Китай]]
[[ca:Història de la Xina]]
[[cs:Dějiny Číny]]
[[cy:Hanes Tsieina]]
[[da:Kinas historie]]
[[de:Geschichte Chinas]]
[[et:Hiina ajalugu]]
[[el:Ιστορία της Κίνας]]
[[es:Historia de China]]
[[eo:Historio de Ĉinio]]
[[fa:چین باستان]]
[[fr:Histoire de la Chine]]
[[gl:Historia da China]]
[[gu:ચીનનો ઇતિહાસ]]
[[ko:중국의 역사]]
[[hy:Չինաստանի պատմություն]]
[[hi:चीन का इतिहास]]
[[hr:Povijest Kine]]
[[io:Historio di Chinia]]
[[id:Sejarah Cina]]
[[it:Storia della Cina]]
[[he:היסטוריה של סין]]
[[kn:ಚೀನಾದ ಇತಿಹಾಸ]]
[[ka:ჩინეთის ისტორია]]
[[lv:Ķīnas vēsture]]
[[lt:Kinijos istorija]]
[[hu:Kína történelme]]
[[ms:Sejarah China]]
[[mwl:Stória de la China]]
[[my:တရုတ်သမိုင်း]]
[[nl:Geschiedenis van China]]
[[ja:中国の歴史]]
[[no:Kinas historie]]
[[nn:Kinesisk historie]]
[[km:ប្រវត្តិសាស្ត្រចិន]]
[[pl:Historia Chin]]
[[pt:História da China]]
[[ru:История Китая]]
[[sq:Historia e Shteteve - Kina]]
[[si:චීන ඉතිහාසය]]
[[simple:History of China]]
[[sl:Zgodovina Kitajske]]
[[sr:Историја Кине]]
[[sh:Historija Kine]]
[[fi:Kiinan historia]]
[[sv:Kinas historia]]
[[ta:சீன வரலாறு]]
[[te:చైనా చరిత్ర]]
[[th:ประวัติศาสตร์จีน]]
[[tg:Таърихи Чин]]
[[uk:Історія Китаю]]
[[vi:Lịch sử Trung Quốc]]
[[zh-yue:中國史]]
[[zh:中国历史]]