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[[File:Dog morphological variation.png|thumb|300px|Dogs show great [[Morphology (biology)|morphological variation]]]]

The '''domestic dog''' (''Canis lupus familiaris'' when considered a subspecies of the [[wolf]] or ''Canis familiaris'' when considered a distinct species)<ref name=wang2008/> is a member of the genus ''[[Canis]]'' (canines), which forms part of the [[Evolution of the wolf#Wolf-like canids|wolf-like canids]],<ref name=lindblad2005/> and is the most widely abundant terrestrial [[carnivore]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Young|first=Julie K.|last2=Olson|first2=Kirk A.|last3=Reading|first3=Richard P.|last4=Amgalanbaatar|first4=Sukh|last5=Berger|first5=Joel|date=1 February 2011|title=Is Wildlife Going to the Dogs? Impacts of Feral and Free-roaming Dogs on Wildlife Populations|url=https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article/61/2/125/242696|journal=[[BioScience]]|language=en|volume=61|issue=2|pages=125–132|doi=10.1525/bio.2011.61.2.7|issn=0006-3568|via=}}</ref><ref name=fan2016/><ref name=thalmann2013/><ref name=vila1999/><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=J.|first=Daniels, Thomas|last2=Marc|first2=Bekoff,|date=1989|title=Population and Social Biology of Free-Ranging Dogs, Canis familiaris|url=http://animalstudiesrepository.org/acwp_ehlm/18/|language=en}}</ref> The dog and the [[Neontology|extant]] [[gray wolf]] are [[Sister group|sister taxa]]<ref name="vila1997" /><ref name="freedman2014" /><ref name="larson2014" /> as modern wolves are not closely related to the wolves that were first [[Domestication|domesticated]],<ref name=freedman2014/><ref name=larson2014/> which implies that the direct ancestor of the dog is [[Extinction|extinct]].<ref name=vonholdt2016/> The dog was the first [[species]] to be domesticated<ref name=larson2014/><ref name=perri2016/> and has been [[selective breeding|selectively bred]] over millennia for various behaviors, sensory capabilities, and physical attributes.<ref name="ADW"/>

Their [[Human–canine bond|long association with humans]] has led dogs to be uniquely attuned to human behavior<ref name=berns2012/> and they are able to thrive on a starch-rich diet that would be inadequate for other canid species.<ref name=axelssonetal2013>{{Cite journal | last1 = Axelsson | first1 = E. | last2 = Ratnakumar | first2 = A. | last3 = Arendt | first3 = M. L. | last4 = Maqbool | first4 = K. | last5 = Webster | first5 = M. T. | last6 = Perloski | first6 = M. | last7 = Liberg | first7 = O. | last8 = Arnemo | first8 = J. M. | last9 = Hedhammar | first9 = Å. | last10 = Lindblad-Toh | first10 = K. | title = The genomic signature of dog domestication reveals adaptation to a starch-rich diet | doi = 10.1038/nature11837 | journal = Nature | volume = 495 | issue = 7441 | pages = 360–364 | year = 2013 | pmid =  23354050| pmc = |bibcode = 2013Natur.495..360A }}</ref> Dogs vary widely in shape, size and colors.<ref>[http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/different-dog-breeds-same-species/ Why are different breeds of dogs all considered the same species? - Scientific American] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161010110745/http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/different-dog-breeds-same-species/ |date=10 October 2016 }}.  Nikhil Swaminathan. Accessed on 28 August 2016.</ref> Dogs perform many roles for humans, such as [[hunting dog|hunting]], [[herding dog|herding]], [[sled dog|pulling loads]], [[guard dog|protection]], [[police dog|assisting police]] and [[Dogs in warfare|military]], [[pet|companionship]] and, more recently, [[service dog|aiding disabled people]] and [[Therapy dog|therapeutic]] roles. This influence on human society has given them the [[sobriquet]] "[[Man's best friend (phrase)|man's best friend]]".

==Terminology==
* The term ''dog'' typically is applied both to the species (or subspecies) as a whole, and any adult male member of the same.
* An adult female is a ''bitch''.
* An adult male capable of reproduction is a ''stud''.
* An adult female capable of reproduction is a ''brood bitch'', or ''brood mother''.
* Immature males or females (that is, animals that are incapable of reproduction) are ''pups'' or ''puppies''.
* A group of pups from the same [[gestation period]] is a ''litter''.
* The father of a litter is a ''sire''. It is possible for one litter to have multiple sires.
* The mother of a litter is a ''dam''.
* A group of any three or more adults is a ''pack''.

==Taxonomy==
In 1999, a study of [[mitochondrial DNA]] indicated that the domestic dog may have originated from multiple grey [[wolf]] populations, with the [[dingo]] and [[New Guinea singing dog]] "breeds" having developed at a time when human populations were more isolated from each other.<ref name=wayne1999/> In the third edition of ''[[Mammal Species of the World]]'' published in 2005, the mammalogist [[:de:W. Christopher Wozencraft|W. Christopher Wozencraft]] listed under the wolf ''Canis lupus'' its wild subspecies, and proposed two additional subspecies: "''familiaris'' Linneaus, 1758 [domestic dog]" and "''dingo'' Meyer, 1793 [domestic dog]". Wozencraft included ''hallstromi'' - the New Guinea singing dog - as a [[taxonomic synonym]] for the dingo. Wozencraft referred to the mDNA study as one of the guides in forming his decision.<ref name=wozencraft2005/> The inclusion of ''familiaris'' and ''dingo'' under a "domestic dog" clade has been noted by other mammalogists.<ref name=jackson2017/> This classification by Wozencraft is debated among zoologists.<ref name=smithC1/>

:''See further [[Canis lupus dingo#Taxonomic debate — dog, dingo, and New Guinea singing dog|Taxonomic debate - dog, dingo, and New Guinea singing dog]]''

==Origin==
{{Main|Origin of the domestic dog}}
<!--Note: What is reflected in this section must be in accord with what is on the "Origin of the domestic dog" page and the "Gray wolf" page (sub-heading "Evolution and relationship with the dog"). Unless you have some subject knowledge on the topic, please don't tinker – if you are dog-kind then take your concerns to the "Origin of the domestic dog" Talk page, or wolf-kind take it to the "Gray wolf" Talk page&nbsp;– all of your queries will be eventually answered.-->

The origin of the domestic dog is not clear. It is known that the dog was the first domesticated species.<ref name=larson2014/><ref name=perri2016/> The domestic dog is a member of the genus ''[[Canis]]'' (canines), which forms part of the [[Evolution of the wolf#Wolf-like canids|wolf-like canids]],<ref name=lindblad2005/> and is the most widely abundant terrestrial carnivore.<ref name=":0" /><ref name="fan2016" /><ref name="thalmann2013" /><ref name="vila1999" /><ref name=":1" /> The closest living relative of the dog is the [[gray wolf]] and there is no evidence of any other canine contributing to its genetic lineage.<ref name="fan2016" /><ref name="thalmann2013" /><ref name="vonholdt2010" /><ref name="vila1997" /> The dog and the [[Neontology|extant]] gray wolf form two sister [[clades]],<ref name="vila1997" /><ref name="freedman2014" /><ref name="larson2014" /> with modern wolves not closely related to the wolves that were first domesticated.<ref name="freedman2014" /><ref name="larson2014" /> The archaeological record shows the first undisputed dog remains buried beside humans 14,700 years ago,<ref name="giemsch2015" /> with disputed remains occurring 36,000 years ago.<ref name="germonpre2009" />  These dates imply that the earliest dogs arose in the time of human [[hunter-gatherers]] and not at the dawn of [[agriculture]].<ref name=thalmann2013/><ref name=freedman2014/>

Where the [[genetic divergence]] of dog and wolf took place remains controversial, with the most plausible proposals spanning Western Europe,<ref name=machugh2016/><ref name=thalmann2013/> Central Asia,<ref name=machugh2016/><ref name=shannon2015/> and East Asia.<ref name=machugh2016/><ref name=wang2015/> This has been made more complicated by the most recent proposal that fits the available evidence, which is that an initial wolf population split into East and West Eurasian wolves, these were then domesticated independently before going extinct into two distinct dog populations between 14,000-6,400 years ago, and then the Western Eurasian dog population was partially and gradually replaced by East Asian dogs that were brought by humans at least 6,400 years ago.<ref name=machugh2016/><ref name=frantz2016/><ref name=grimm2016/>

==Biology==
[[File:Dog anatomy lateral skeleton view.jpg|thumb|250px|Lateral view of skeleton]] 

===Anatomy===
{{main|Dog anatomy}}
Domestic dogs have been selectively bred for millennia for various behaviors, sensory capabilities, and physical attributes.<ref name="ADW"/> Modern [[dog breed]]s show more variation in size, appearance, and behavior than any other domestic animal.<ref name="ADW"/> Dogs are [[predation|predators]] and [[scavenger]]s, and like many other predatory mammals, the dog has powerful muscles, fused wrist bones, a cardiovascular system that supports both sprinting and endurance, and teeth for catching and tearing.

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====Size and weight====
Dogs are highly variable in height and weight. The smallest known adult dog was a [[Yorkshire Terrier]], that stood only {{convert|6.3|cm|abbr=on}} at the shoulder, {{convert|9.5|cm|abbr=on}} in length along the head-and-body, and weighed only {{convert|113|g}}. The largest known dog was an [[English Mastiff]] which weighed {{convert|155.6|kg|abbr=on}} and was {{convert|250|cm|abbr=on}} from the snout to the tail.<ref name="zorba">{{cite web|url=http://worldslargestdog1.com/zorba2/|title=World's Largest Dog|accessdate=7 January 2008}}</ref> The tallest dog is a [[Great Dane]] that stands {{convert|106.7|cm|abbr=on}} at the shoulder.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/records/natural_world/fantastic_pets/tallest_dog_living.aspx |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110711133443/http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/records/natural_world/fantastic_pets/tallest_dog_living.aspx |archivedate=11 July 2011 |title=Guinness World Records – Tallest Dog Living |accessdate=7 January 2009 |publisher=Guinness World Records |date=31 August 2004}}</ref>

====Senses====
{{further|Dog anatomy#Senses}}

The [https://www.aces.edu/pubs/docs/U/UNP-0066/UNP-0066.pdf dog's senses] include vision, hearing, sense of smell, sense of taste, touch and sensitivity to the earth's magnetic field. Another study suggested that dogs can see the earth's magnetic field.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1038/srep21848|pmid=26898837|pmc=4761878|title=Cryptochrome 1 in Retinal Cone Photoreceptors Suggests a Novel Functional Role in Mammals|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=6|pages=21848|year=2016|last1=Nießner|first1=Christine|last2=Denzau|first2=Susanne|last3=Malkemper|first3=Erich Pascal|last4=Gross|first4=Julia Christina|last5=Burda|first5=Hynek|last6=Winklhofer|first6=Michael|last7=Peichl|first7=Leo|bibcode=2016NatSR...621848N}}</ref><ref>[http://brain.mpg.de/news-events/news/news/archive/2016/february/article/magnetoreception-molecule-found-in-the-eyes-of-dogs-and-primates.html Magnetoreception molecule found in the eyes of dogs and primates] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161223085252/http://brain.mpg.de/news-events/news/news/archive/2016/february/article/magnetoreception-molecule-found-in-the-eyes-of-dogs-and-primates.html |date=23 December 2016 }} MPI Brain Research, 22 February 2016</ref>

====Coat====
{{Main|Coat (dog)}}
[[File:Dog coat variation.png|thumb|Dogs display a wide variation on coat type, density, length, color, and composition]]

The [[pelage|coats]] of domestic dogs are of two varieties: "double" being common with dogs (as well as wolves) originating from colder climates, made up of a coarse [[guard hair]] and a soft [[down hair]], or "single", with the topcoat only.

Domestic dogs often display the remnants of [[countershading]], a common natural camouflage pattern. A countershaded animal will have dark coloring on its upper surfaces and light coloring below,<ref name="About.com">{{cite web|url=http://animals.about.com/od/zoology12/f/countershading.htm|title=What is Counter Shading?|last= Klappenbach|first=Laura|year=2008|publisher=About.com|accessdate=22 October 2008}}</ref> which reduces its general visibility. Thus, many breeds will have an occasional "blaze", stripe, or "star" of white fur on their chest or underside.<ref name="Encyclopedia of Dog Breeds">{{Cite book|last=Cunliffe|first=Juliette|title=The Encyclopedia of Dog Breeds|publisher=Paragon Publishing|year=2004|pages=20–23|chapter=Coat Types, Colours and Markings|isbn=0-7525-8276-3}}</ref>

Regarding coat appearance or health, the coat can be maintained or affected by multiple nutrients present in the diet, see [[Coat (dog)]] for more information.

====Tail====
{{See also|Docking (dog)|label 1=Docking}}
There are many different shapes for [[dog tail]]s: straight, straight up, sickle, curled, or cork-screw. As with many canids, one of the primary functions of a dog's tail is to communicate their emotional state, which can be important in getting along with others. In some hunting dogs, however, the tail is traditionally [[docking (dog)|docked]] to avoid injuries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cdb.org/case4dock.htm|title=The Case for Tail Docking|publisher=Council of Docked Breeds|accessdate=22 October 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090414210955/http://cdb.org/case4dock.htm|archive-date=14 April 2009|dead-url=yes|df=dmy-all}}</ref> In some breeds, such as the [[Braque du Bourbonnais]], puppies can be born with a short tail or no tail at all.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.braquedubourbonnais.info/en/tail-genetics.htm |title=Bourbonnais pointer or 'short tail pointer' |publisher=Braquedubourbonnais.info |accessdate=19 December 2012}}</ref>

====Differences from wolves====
[[File:Bow bow.jpg|thumb|150px|The [[Saarloos wolfdog]] carries more [[gray wolf]] DNA than any other dog breed<ref name=skoglund2015/>]]

Despite their close genetic relationship and the ability to inter-breed, there are a number of diagnostic features to distinguish the gray wolves from domestic dogs. Domesticated dogs are clearly distinguishable from wolves by starch gel [[electrophoresis]] of red blood cell acid [[phosphatase]].<ref>Elliot, D. G., and M. Wong. 1972. Acid phosphatase, handy enzyme that separates the dog from the wolf. Acta Biologica et Medica Germanica 28:957–62</ref> The [[Auditory bulla|tympanic bullae]] are large, convex and almost spherical in gray wolves, while the bullae of dogs are smaller, compressed and slightly crumpled.<ref name="mech1974">{{cite journal | last1 = Mech | first1 = D. L. | year = 1974 | title = Canis lupus | url = http://www.science.smith.edu/msi/pdf/i0076-3519-037-01-0001.pdf | format = PDF | journal = Mammalian Species | volume = 37 | issue = 37 | pages = 1–6 | doi = 10.2307/3503924 | jstor = 3503924 | access-date = 4 June 2015 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150924115145/http://www.science.smith.edu/msi/pdf/i0076-3519-037-01-0001.pdf | archive-date = 24 September 2015 | dead-url = yes | df = dmy-all }}</ref> Compared with equally sized wolves, dogs tend to have 20% smaller skulls and 30% smaller brains.<ref name="serpell1995" />{{rp|35}} The teeth of gray wolves are also proportionately larger than those of dogs.<ref>Clutton-Brock, Juliet (1987). ''A Natural History of Domesticated Mammals.'' British Museum (Natural History), p. 24, {{ISBN|0-521-34697-5}}</ref> Dogs have a more domed forehead and a distinctive "stop" between forehead and nose.<ref>{{cite journal | pmc= 4742516 | pmid=26893534 | doi=10.1007/s00435-015-0294-3 | volume=135 | title=Can orbital angle morphology distinguish dogs from wolves? | journal=Zoomorphology | pages=149–158 | last1 = Janssens | first1 = L | last2 = Spanoghe | first2 = I | last3 = Miller | first3 = R | last4 = Van Dongen | first4 = S| year=2016 }}</ref> The [[temporalis muscle]] that closes the jaws is more robust in wolves.<ref name=wang2008/>{{rp|p158}} Wolves do not have [[dewclaws]] on their back legs, unless there has been admixture with dogs that had them.<ref>{{Citation | last = Rincon  | first = Paul | title = Claws reveal wolf survival threat | publisher = BBC News | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3602741.stm | date = 8 April 2004 | accessdate = 12 December 2014}}</ref>  Most dogs lack a functioning [[pre-caudal gland]] and enter [[estrus]] twice yearly, unlike gray wolves which only do so once a year.{{sfn|Boitani|Mech|2003|p=257}} So-called primitive dogs such as Dingoes and Basenjis retain the yearly estrus cycle.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://veterinarycalendar.dvm360.com/canine-estrous-cycle-and-ovulation-proceedings|title=Canine estrous cycle and ovulation (Proceedings)|first=Walter Threlfall DVM MS PhD|last=ACT|publisher=}}</ref>

Dogs generally have brown eyes and wolves almost always have amber or light colored eyes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dnr.wi.gov/topic/wildlifehabitat/wolf/identify.html|title=Wolf identification - Wisconsin DNR|website=dnr.wi.gov}}</ref> The skin of domestic dogs tends to be thicker than that of wolves, with some [[Inuit]] tribes favoring the former for use as clothing due to its greater resistance to wear and tear in harsh weather.<ref name="DOGS">{{Cite book| author=Coppinger, Ray|title=Dogs: a Startling New Understanding of Canine Origin, Behavior and Evolution|year=2001|isbn=0-684-85530-5|publisher=Scribner|location= New York}}</ref> The paws of a dog are half the size of those of a wolf, and their tails tend to curl upwards, another trait not found in wolves.<ref name="Lopez">{{cite book | author = Lopez, Barry | title = Of wolves and men | year = 1978 | isbn = 0-7432-4936-4 | publisher = Scribner Classics | location = New York | page = 320}}</ref> The dog has developed into hundreds of varied [[Dog breed|breeds]], and shows more behavioral and morphological variation than any other land mammal.<ref name="spady">{{Cite journal|vauthors=Spady TC, Ostrander EA |title=Canine Behavioral Genetics: Pointing Out the Phenotypes and Herding up the Genes |journal=American Journal of Human Genetics |volume=82 |issue=1 |pages=10–8 |date=January 2008 |pmid=18179880 |pmc=2253978 |doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2007.12.001}}</ref> For example, height measured to the [[withers]] ranges from a {{convert|6|in}} in the [[Chihuahua (dog)|Chihuahua]] to {{convert|3.3|ft}} in the [[Irish Wolfhound]]; color varies from white through grays (usually called "blue") to black, and browns from light (tan) to dark ("red" or "chocolate") in a wide variation of patterns; [[coat (dog)|coats]] can be short or long, coarse-haired to wool-like, straight, curly, or smooth.<ref name="The Complete Dog">{{Cite book|title=The Complete dog book: the photograph, history, and official standard of every breed admitted to AKC registration, and the selection, training, breeding, care, and feeding of pure-bred dogs |publisher=Howell Book House |location=New York, N.Y |year=1992 |isbn=0-87605-464-5}}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}</ref> It is common for most breeds to [[Moult|shed]] their coat.

===Health===
{{Main|Dog health}}
There are many household plants that are poisonous to dogs (and other mammals) including [[begonia]], [[Poinsettia]] and [[aloe vera]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sunset.com/garden/flowers-plants/plants-poisonous-to-dogs-00418000068562/|title=Plants poisonous to dogs – Sunset|work=Sunset}}</ref>

Some breeds of dogs are prone to certain genetic ailments such as [[Elbow dysplasia|elbow]] and [[hip dysplasia (canine)|hip dysplasia]], [[blindness]], [[deafness]], [[pulmonary valve stenosis|pulmonic stenosis]], [[cleft lip and palate|cleft palate]], and [[luxating patella|trick knees]]. Two serious medical conditions particularly affecting dogs are [[pyometra]], affecting [[neutering|unspayed]] females of all types and ages, and [[gastric dilatation volvulus]] (bloat), which affects the larger breeds or deep-chested dogs. Both of these are acute conditions, and can kill rapidly. Dogs are also susceptible to parasites such as [[flea]]s, [[tick]]s, [[mite]]s, [[hookworms]], [[tapeworms]], [[roundworms]], and [[Dirofilaria immitis|heartworms]] ([[roundworm]] species that lives in the heart of dogs), keeps it from beating properly, and will eventually lead to death.

A number of common human foods and household ingestibles are toxic to dogs, including [[chocolate|chocolate solids]] ([[theobromine poisoning]]), onion and [[garlic]] ([[thiosulphate]], [[sulfoxide]] or [[disulfide]] poisoning),<ref>Sources vary on which of these are considered the most significant toxic item.</ref> [[grape]]s and [[raisin]]s, [[macadamia nut]]s, [[xylitol]],<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Murphy | first1 = L. A. | last2 = Coleman | first2 = A. E. | doi = 10.1016/j.cvsm.2011.12.003 | title = Xylitol Toxicosis in Dogs | journal = Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice | volume = 42 | issue = 2 | pages = 307–312 | year = 2012 | pmid =  | pmc = }}</ref> as well as various plants and other potentially ingested materials.<ref>{{cite web|title=Toxic Foods and Plants for Dogs|url=http://www.entirelypets.com/toxicfoods.html|publisher=entirelypets.com|accessdate=24 June 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Drs. Foster & Smith|title=Foods to Avoid Feeding Your Dog|url=http://www.peteducation.com/article.cfm?c=2+1659&aid=1030|publisher=peteducation.com|accessdate=24 June 2010}}</ref> The nicotine in tobacco can also be dangerous. Dogs can be exposed to the substance by scavenging garbage or ashtrays; eating cigars and cigarettes. Signs can be vomiting of large amounts (e.g., from eating cigar butts) or diarrhea. Some other signs are abdominal pain, loss of coordination, collapse, or death.<ref>{{cite book |last=Fogle |first=Bruce |authorlink=Bruce Fogle |year=1974 |title=Caring For Your Dog}}</ref> Dogs are susceptible to [[theobromine poisoning]], typically from ingestion of [[chocolate]]. Theobromine is toxic to dogs because, although the dog's metabolism is capable of breaking down the chemical, the process is so slow that for some dogs even small amounts of chocolate can be fatal, especially dark chocolate.

Dogs are also vulnerable to some of the same health conditions as humans, including [[diabetes in dogs|diabetes]], dental and heart disease, epilepsy, cancer, hypothyroidism, and arthritis.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dogtime.com/diseases-shared-by-humans-pets-ernie-ward.html|title=Diseases shared by humans and pets|author=Ward, Ernie|publisher=Dogtime.com|accessdate=2 October 2010}}</ref>

====Lifespan====
{{Further|Aging in dogs}}
[[File:Terrier mixed-breed dog.jpg|thumb|left|Mixed-breed dogs such as this [[terrier]] have been found to run faster and live longer than their pure-bred parents (See [[Heterosis#Heterosis in dogs|heterosis]])]]

In 2013, a study found that mixed breeds live on average 1.2 years longer than pure breeds, and that increasing body-weight was negatively correlated with longevity (i.e. the heavier the dog the shorter its lifespan).<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = O'Neill | first1 = D. G. | last2 = Church | first2 = D. B. | last3 = McGreevy | first3 = P. D. | last4 = Thomson | first4 = P. C. | last5 = Brodbelt | first5 = D. C. | title = Longevity and mortality of owned dogs in England | doi = 10.1016/j.tvjl.2013.09.020 | journal = The Veterinary Journal | year = 2013 | pmid =  24206631| pmc = | volume=198 | issue = 3 | pages=638–643}}</ref>

The typical lifespan of dogs varies widely among breeds, but for most the median longevity, the age at which half the dogs in a population have died and half are still alive, ranges from 10 to 13 years.<ref name="KC Survey">
{{cite web | url = http://www.thekennelclub.org.uk/item/570 | title = Kennel Club/British Small Animal Veterinary Association Scientific Committee | year = 2004 | accessdate =5 July 2007}}</ref><ref name="Denmark Survey">{{Cite journal |author1=Proschowsky, H. F. |author2=H. Rugbjerg |author3=A. K. Ersbell  |last-author-amp=yes | year = 2003 | title = Mortality of purebred and mixed-breed dogs in Denmark | journal=Preventive Veterinary Medicine | volume = 58| doi = 10.1016/S0167-5877(03)00010-2 | pmid=12628771 | issue=1–2 | pages=63–74}}</ref><ref name="British Owners">{{Cite journal|doi=10.1136/vr.145.22.625|author=Michell AR |title=Longevity of British breeds of dog and its relationships with sex, size, cardiovascular variables and disease |journal=The Veterinary Record |volume=145 |issue=22 |pages=625–9 |year=1999 |pmid=10619607}}</ref><ref name="Cassidy Data">{{cite web | url=http://users.pullman.com/lostriver/breeddata.htm | title=Dog Longevity Web Site, Breed Data page |author1=Compiled by Cassidy |author2=K. M. | accessdate=8 July 2007}}</ref> Individual dogs may live well beyond the median of their breed.

The breed with the shortest lifespan (among breeds for which there is a questionnaire survey with a reasonable sample size) is the [[Dogue de Bordeaux]], with a median longevity of about 5.2 years, but several breeds, including [[Bull Terrier (Miniature)|Miniature Bull Terriers]], [[Bloodhound]]s, and [[Irish Wolfhound]]s are nearly as short-lived, with median longevities of 6 to 7 years.<ref name="Cassidy Data"/>

The longest-lived breeds, including [[Toy Poodles]], [[Japanese Spitz]], [[Border Terrier]]s, and [[Tibetan Spaniel]]s, have median longevities of 14 to 15 years.<ref name="Cassidy Data"/> The median longevity of [[mixed-breed dog]]s, taken as an average of all sizes, is one or more years longer than that of purebred dogs when all breeds are averaged.<ref name="Denmark Survey"/><ref name="British Owners"/><ref name="Cassidy Data"/><ref name="Vet School Data">{{Cite journal|vauthors=Patronek GJ, Waters DJ, Glickman LT |title=Comparative longevity of pet dogs and humans: implications for gerontology research |journal=The Journals of Gerontology. Series A, Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=B171–8 |year=1997 |pmid=9158552|doi=10.1093/gerona/52A.3.B171}}</ref> The longest-lived dog was "[[Bluey (dog)|Bluey]]", who died in 1939 at age 29.5 years of age.<ref>{{cite web|editor=Guinness World Records|title=world's oldest dog|url=http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/oldest-dog}}</ref><ref name="gwr1998">{{cite book|title=Guinness Book of Records|year=1998|publisher=Guinness Publishing Ltd|page=240}}Edition included both Bluey and Taffy.</ref>

===Reproduction===
{{Main|Canine reproduction}}
[[File:Säugende Hündin.JPG|thumb|Dog nursing newborn puppies]]
In domestic dogs, [[puberty|sexual maturity]] begins to happen around age six to twelve months for both males and females,<ref name="ADW"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pets911.com/hosted/buffalo/puppy/article.php?num=11045|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090610035254/http://www.pets911.com/hosted/buffalo/puppy/article.php?num=11045|archivedate=10 June 2009|title=Sexual Maturity&nbsp;— Spay and Neuter|publisher=Buffalo.com|accessdate=22 October 2008}}</ref> although this can be delayed until up to two years old for some large breeds. This is the time at which female dogs will have their first [[estrous cycle]]. They will experience subsequent estrous cycles semiannually, during which the body prepares for [[pregnancy]]. At the peak of the cycle, females will come into estrus, being mentally and physically receptive to [[Canine tying|copulation]].<ref name="ADW"/> Because the [[ovum|ova]] survive and are capable of being fertilized for a week after ovulation, it is possible for more than one male to sire the same litter.<ref name="ADW"/>

Fertilization typically occurs 2–5 days after ovulation; 14–16 days after ovulation, the embryo attaches to the uterus, and after 7-8 more days the heart beat is detectable.<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=11787146 |year=2001 |last1=Concannon |first1=P |last2=Tsutsui |first2=T |last3=Shille |first3=V |title=Embryo development, hormonal requirements and maternal responses during canine pregnancy |volume=57 |pages=169–79 |journal=Journal of Reproduction and Fertility. Supplement}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://php.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/index.php?title=Dog_Development#Development_Overview |title=Dog Development – Embryology |publisher=Php.med.unsw.edu.au |date=16 June 2013 |accessdate=22 September 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202234138/http://php.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/index.php?title=Dog_Development |archivedate=2 December 2013  }}</ref>

Dogs bear their litters roughly 58 to 68 days after [[fertilization]],<ref name="ADW"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cpvh.com/2011/07/27/gestation-in-dogs/ |title=Gestation in dogs |accessdate=24 March 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130603145809/http://www.cpvh.com/2011/07/27/gestation-in-dogs/ |archivedate=3 June 2013 |df= }}</ref> with an average of 63 days, although the length of gestation can vary. An average litter consists of about six [[puppy|puppies]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.humanesociety.org/issues/pet_overpopulation/facts/overpopulation_estimates.html|title=HSUS Pet Overpopulation Estimates|publisher=The Humane Society of the United States|accessdate=22 October 2008}}</ref> though this number may vary widely based on the breed of dog. In general, [[toy dog]]s produce from one to four puppies in each litter, while much larger breeds may average as many as twelve.

Some dog breeds have acquired traits through selective breeding that interfere with reproduction. Male [[French Bulldog]]s, for instance, are incapable of mounting the female. For many dogs of this breed, the female must be [[artificial insemination|artificially inseminated]] in order to reproduce.<ref name="French">{{cite web|url=http://www.frenchbulldog.org/2008/05/01/is-a-french-bulldog-the-right-breed-for-you/|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726070030/http://www.frenchbulldog.org/2008/05/01/is-a-french-bulldog-the-right-breed-for-you/|archivedate=26 July 2011|title=French Bulldog Pet Care Guide|accessdate=7 January 2008}}</ref>

====Neutering====
[[File:Wilde huendin am stillen.jpg|right|thumb|A feral dog from [[Sri Lanka]] nursing very well-developed puppies]]

[[Neutering]] refers to the [[Neutering|sterilization]] of animals, usually by [[Castration|removal of the male's testicles]] or the female's [[ovary|ovaries]] and [[uterus]], in order to eliminate the ability to procreate and reduce [[sex drive]]. Because of the [[overpopulation in companion animals|overpopulation of dogs]] in some countries, many animal control agencies, such as the [[American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals]] (ASPCA), advise that dogs not intended for further breeding should be neutered, so that they do not have undesired puppies that may later be euthanized.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.aspca.org/pet-care/spayneuter/ | title=Top 10 reasons to spay/neuter your pet | publisher=American Society for Prevention of Cruelty to Animals | accessdate =16 May 2007}}</ref>

According to the [[Humane Society of the United States]], 3–4&nbsp;million dogs and cats are [[euthanasia|euthanized]] each year in the United States and many more are confined to cages in shelters because there are many more animals than there are homes. Spaying or castrating dogs helps keep overpopulation down.<ref>{{Cite journal | quote = Although the cause of pet overpopulation is multifaceted, the lack of guardians choosing to spay or neuter their animals is a major contributing factor. | last = Mahlow | first = Jane C. | year = 1999 | title = Estimation of the proportions of dogs and cats that are surgically sterilized | journal=Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association | volume = 215 | pages = 640–643 | pmid= 10476708 | issue = 5}}</ref> Local humane societies, SPCAs, and other [[animal protection organizations]] urge people to neuter their pets and to adopt animals from shelters instead of purchasing them.

Neutering reduces problems caused by [[hypersexuality]], especially in male dogs.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Heidenberger |first=E |last2=Unshelm |first2=J |title=Changes in the behavior of dogs after castration |language=German |journal=Tierärztliche Praxis |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=69–75 |date=Feb 1990 |pmid=2326799 |issn=0303-6286}}</ref> Spayed female dogs are less likely to develop some forms of cancer, affecting mammary glands, ovaries, and other reproductive organs.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Morrison, Wallace B.|title=Cancer in Dogs and Cats (1st ed.)|publisher=Williams and Wilkins|year=1998|isbn=0-683-06105-4}}</ref> However, neutering increases the risk of [[urinary incontinence]] in female dogs,<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Arnold S |title=[Urinary incontinence in castrated bitches. Part 1: Significance, clinical aspects and etiopathogenesis] |language=German |journal=Schweizer Archiv für Tierheilkunde |volume=139 |issue=6 |pages=271–6 |year=1997 |pmid=9411733}}</ref> and [[prostate cancer]] in males,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Johnston |first=SD |last2=Kamolpatana |first2=K |last3=Root-Kustritz |first3=MV |last4=Johnston |first4=GR |title=Prostatic disorders in the dog |journal=[[Anim. Reprod. Sci.]] |volume=60–61 |pages=405–15 |date=Jul 2000 |pmid=10844211 |doi=10.1016/S0378-4320(00)00101-9 |issn=0378-4320}}</ref> as well as [[osteosarcoma]], [[hemangiosarcoma]], [[cruciate ligament]] rupture, obesity, and [[diabetes mellitus]] in either sex.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Root-Kustritz MV |title=Determining the optimal age for gonadectomy of dogs and cats |journal=JAVMA |volume=231 |issue=11 |pages=1665–1675 |date=Dec 2007|doi=10.2460/javma.231.11.1665 |pmid=18052800  |issn=0003-1488}}</ref>

===Inbreeding depression===

A common breeding practice for pet dogs is mating between close relatives (e.g. between half- and full siblings).<ref name=Leroy>{{cite journal |vauthors=Leroy G |title=Genetic diversity, inbreeding and breeding practices in dogs: results from pedigree analyses |journal=Vet. J. |volume=189 |issue=2 |pages=177–82 |year=2011 |pmid=21737321 |doi=10.1016/j.tvjl.2011.06.016 |url=}}</ref> [[Inbreeding depression]] is considered to be due largely to the expression of homozygous deleterious recessive mutations.<ref name="pmid19834483">{{cite journal |vauthors=Charlesworth D, Willis JH |title=The genetics of inbreeding depression |journal=Nat. Rev. Genet. |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=783–96 |year=2009 |pmid=19834483 |doi=10.1038/nrg2664 |url=}}</ref> Outcrossing between unrelated individuals, including dogs of different breeds, results in the beneficial masking of deleterious recessive mutations in progeny.<ref name="pmid3324702">{{cite journal |vauthors=Bernstein H, Hopf FA, Michod RE |title=The molecular basis of the evolution of sex |journal=Adv. Genet. |volume=24 |issue= |pages=323–70 |year=1987 |pmid=3324702 |doi= 10.1016/s0065-2660(08)60012-7|url=|series=Advances in Genetics |isbn=9780120176243 }}</ref>

In a study of seven breeds of dogs ([[Bernese mountain dog]], [[basset hound]], [[Cairn terrier]], [[Brittany (breed)|Epagneul Breton]], [[German Shepherd]] dog, [[Leonberger]], and [[West Highland white terrier]]) it was found that inbreeding decreases litter size and survival.<ref name="pmid25475165">{{cite journal |vauthors=Leroy G, Phocas F, Hedan B, Verrier E, Rognon X |title=Inbreeding impact on litter size and survival in selected canine breeds |journal=Vet. J. |volume=203 |issue=1 |pages=74–8 |year=2015 |pmid=25475165 |doi=10.1016/j.tvjl.2014.11.008 |url=}}</ref> Another analysis of data on 42,855 [[dachshund]] litters found that as the [[inbreeding coefficient]] increased, litter size decreased and the percentage of stillborn puppies increased, thus indicating inbreeding depression.<ref name="pmid15803761">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gresky C, Hamann H, Distl O |title=[Influence of inbreeding on litter size and the proportion of stillborn puppies in dachshunds] |language=German |journal=Berl. Munch. Tierarztl. Wochenschr. |volume=118 |issue=3–4 |pages=134–9 |year=2005 |pmid=15803761 |doi= |url=}}</ref> In a study of boxer litters, 22% of puppies died before reaching 7 weeks of age.<ref name=Beek>{{cite journal |vauthors=van der Beek S, Nielen AL, Schukken YH, Brascamp EW |title=Evaluation of genetic, common-litter, and within-litter effects on preweaning mortality in a birth cohort of puppies |journal=Am. J. Vet. Res. |volume=60 |issue=9 |pages=1106–10 |year=1999 |pmid=10490080 |doi= |url=}}</ref> Stillbirth was the most frequent cause of death, followed by infection. Mortality due to infection increased significantly with increases in inbreeding.<ref name=Beek />

==Intelligence, behavior, and communication==

===Intelligence===
{{Main|Dog intelligence}}

Dog intelligence is the ability of the dog to perceive information and retain it as knowledge for applying to solve problems. Dogs have been shown to learn by inference. A study with [[Rico (Border Collie)|Rico]] showed that he knew the labels of over 200 different items. He inferred the names of novel items by exclusion learning and correctly retrieved those novel items immediately and also 4 weeks after the initial exposure. Dogs have advanced memory skills. A study documented the learning and memory capabilities of a border collie, "Chaser", who had learned the names and could associate by verbal command over 1,000 words. Dogs are able to read and react appropriately to human body language such as gesturing and pointing, and to understand human voice commands, although a 2018 study on canine cognitive abilities found that dogs' capabilities are not more exceptional than those of other animals, such as [[horse]]s, [[chimpanzee]]s or [[cat]]s.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/08/science/dog-smart-study.html|title=Your Dog May Be Smart, but She’s Not Exceptional|access-date=2018-10-11|language=en}}</ref>

Dogs demonstrate a [[theory of mind]] by engaging in deception. An experimental study showed compelling evidence that Australian [[dingo]]s can outperform domestic dogs in non-social problem-solving, indicating that domestic dogs may have lost much of their original problem-solving abilities once they joined humans.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Smith | first1 = B. | last2 = Litchfield | first2 = C. | year = 2010 | title = How well do dingoes (Canis dingo) perform on the detour task | url = | journal = Animal Behaviour | volume = 80 | issue = | pages = 155–162 | doi=10.1016/j.anbehav.2010.04.017}}</ref> Another study indicated that after undergoing training to solve a simple manipulation task, dogs that are faced with an insoluble version of the same problem look at the human, while socialized wolves do not.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/S0960-9822(03)00263-X | pmid=12725735 | volume=13 | issue=9 | title=A simple reason for a big difference: wolves do not look back at humans, but dogs do | date=Apr 2003 | journal=Curr Biol | pages=763–6| author1=Miklósi | first1=A | last2=Kubinyi | first2=E | last3=Topál | first3=J | last4=Gácsi | first4=M | last5=Virányi | first5=Z | last6=Csányi | first6=V }}</ref> Modern domestic dogs use humans to solve their problems for them.<ref name="hare2013" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/innovation/why-dogs-are-more-like-humans-than-wolves-22095590/|title=Why Dogs are More Like Humans Than Wolves|author=Amy Crawford|work=Smithsonian|accessdate=2 September 2015}}</ref>

===Behavior===
{{Main|Dog behavior}}
{{see also|Dog behavior#Behavior compared with other canids}}
Dog behavior is the internally coordinated responses (actions or inactions) of the domestic dog (individuals or groups) to internal and/or external stimuli.<ref name=levitis2009/> As the oldest domesticated species, with estimates ranging from 9,000–30,000 years BCE, the minds of dogs inevitably have been shaped by millennia of contact with humans. As a result of this physical and social evolution, dogs, more than any other species, have acquired the ability to understand and communicate with humans, and they are uniquely attuned to human behaviors.<ref name=berns2012/> Behavioral scientists have uncovered a surprising set of social-cognitive abilities in the domestic dog. These abilities are not possessed by the dog's closest canine
relatives nor by other highly intelligent mammals such as great apes but rather parallel some of the social-cognitive skills of human children.<ref name=tomasello2009/>

Unlike other domestic species which were primarily selected for production-related traits, dogs were initially selected for their behaviors.<ref>Serpell J, Duffy D. Dog Breeds and Their Behavior. In: Domestic Dog Cognition and Behavior. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer; 2014</ref><ref name=cagan2016/> In 2016, a study found that there were only 11 fixed genes that showed variation between wolves and dogs. These gene variations were unlikely to have been the result of natural evolution, and indicate selection on both morphology and behavior during dog domestication. These genes have been shown to affect the [[Catecholamine#Synthesis|catecholamine synthesis]] pathway, with the majority of the genes affecting the fight-or-flight response<ref name=cagan2016/><ref>Almada RC, Coimbra NC. Recruitment of striatonigral disinhibitory and nigrotectal inhibitory GABAergic pathways during the organization of defensive behavior by mice in a dangerous environment with the venomous snake Bothrops alternatus [ Reptilia, Viperidae ] Synapse 2015:n/a–n/a</ref> (i.e. selection for tameness), and emotional processing.<ref name=cagan2016/> Dogs generally show reduced fear and aggression compared with wolves.<ref name=cagan2016/><ref>Coppinger R, Schneider R: Evolution of working dogs. The domestic dog: Its evolution, behaviour and interactions with people. Cambridge: Cambridge University press, 1995.</ref> Some of these genes have been associated with aggression in some dog breeds, indicating their importance in both the initial domestication and then later in breed formation.<ref name=cagan2016>{{cite journal|doi=10.1186/s12862-015-0579-7|title=Identification of genomic variants putatively targeted by selection during dog domestication|journal=BMC Evolutionary Biology|volume=16|pages=10|year=2016|last1=Cagan|first1=Alex|last2=Blass|first2=Torsten|pmid=26754411|pmc=4710014}}</ref> Traits of high sociability and lack of fear in dogs may include genetic modifications related to [[Williams-Beuren syndrome]] in humans, which cause [[hypersociability]] at the expense of problem solving ability.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://advances.sciencemag.org/content/3/7/e1700398|title=Structural variants in genes associated with human Williams-Beuren syndrome underlie stereotypical hypersociability in domestic dogs|first1=Bridgett M.|last1=vonHoldt|first2=Emily|last2=Shuldiner|first3=Ilana Janowitz|last3=Koch|first4=Rebecca Y.|last4=Kartzinel|first5=Andrew|last5=Hogan|first6=Lauren|last6=Brubaker|first7=Shelby|last7=Wanser|first8=Daniel|last8=Stahler|first9=Clive D. L.|last9=Wynne|first10=Elaine A.|last10=Ostrander|first11=Janet S.|last11=Sinsheimer|first12=Monique A. R.|last12=Udell|date=1 July 2017|publisher=|journal=Science Advances|volume=3|issue=7|pages=e1700398|via=advances.sciencemag.org|doi=10.1126/sciadv.1700398|pmid=28776031|bibcode=2017SciA....3E0398V}}</ref><ref name=sciencemag>{{cite journal|url=http://advances.sciencemag.org/content/3/7/e1700398.full|title=Structural variants in genes associated with human Williams-Beuren syndrome underlie stereotypical hypersociability in domestic dogs|author=Bridgett M. von Holdt, Emily Shuldiner, Ilana Janowitz Koch, Rebecca Y. Kartzinel, Andrew Hogan, Lauren Brubaker, Shelby Wanser4, Daniel Stahler, Clive D. L. Wynne, Elaine A. Ostrander, Janet S. Sinsheimer and Monique A. R. Udell|journal=Science Advances|date=19 July 2017|volume=3|number=7|page=e1700398|doi=10.1126/sciadv.1700398|bibcode=2017SciA....3E0398V}}</ref><ref name=latimes>{{cite web|url=http://www.latimes.com/science/sciencenow/la-sci-sn-dog-friendliness-genes-20170719-story.html|title=Scientists find key 'friendliness' genes that distinguish dogs from wolves|publisher=L.A. Times|date=21 July 2017|author=Mira Abed}}</ref>

===Communication===
{{Main|Dog communication}}

Dog communication is about how dogs convey information to other dogs, how they understand messages from humans, and how humans translate the information that dogs are transmitting.<ref>Coren, Stanley "How To Speak Dog: Mastering the Art of Dog-Human Communication" 2000 Simon & Schuster, New York.</ref>{{rp|xii}} Communication behaviors of dogs include eye gaze, facial expression, vocalization, body posture (including movements of bodies and limbs) and gustatory communication (scents, pheromones and taste). Humans communicate to dogs by using vocalization, hand signals and body posture.

==Ecology==

===Population===
The global dog population is estimated at 900 million and rising.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gompper |first=Matthew E. |year=2013 |chapter=The dog–human–wildlife interface: assessing the scope of the problem |title=Free-Ranging Dogs and Wildlife Conservation |editor-last=Gompper |editor-first=Matthew E. |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0191810185 |pages=9–54}}</ref><ref name=lescureaux2014/> Although it is said that the [[Man's best friend (phrase)|"dog is man's best friend"]],<ref name="J. Derbett London">{{cite book |author1=Laveaux, C.J.|author2=King of Prussia, F|lastauthoramp=y |year=1789 |title=The life of Frederick the Second, King of Prussia: To which are added observations, Authentic Documents, and a Variety of Anecdotes.|publisher=J. Derbett London}}</ref> this refers largely to the ~20% of dogs that live in developed countries. In the developing world dogs are more commonly feral, or village or community dogs, with pet dogs uncommon.<ref name="DOGS"/> Most of these dogs live their lives as scavengers and have never been owned by humans, with one study showing their most common response when approached by strangers is to run away (52%) or respond aggressively (11%).<ref>{{Cite journal| last = Ortolani|first = A|title = Ethiopian village dogs: Behavioural responses to a stranger's approach|year=2009|doi=10.1016/j.applanim.2009.03.011|volume=119|issue = 3–4|journal=Applied Animal Behaviour Science|pages=210–218}}</ref> Little is known about these dogs, or the dogs in developed countries that are feral, stray or are in shelters, because the great majority of modern research on dog cognition has focused on pet dogs living in human homes.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1111/j.1469-185X.2009.00104.x| pmid = 19961472| title = What did domestication do to dogs? A new account of dogs' sensitivity to human actions| journal = Biological Reviews| volume = 85| issue = 2| pages = 327–45| year = 2010| last1 = Udell | first1 = M. A. R. | last2 = Dorey | first2 = N. R. | last3 = Wynne | first3 = C. D. L. }}</ref>

===Competitors and Predators===
Although dogs are most abundant and widely distributed terrestrial carnivores, the potential of feral and [[free-ranging dog]]s to compete with other large carnivores is limited by their strong association with humans.<ref name=":0" /> For example, a review of the studies in the competitive effects of dogs on [[Sympatry|sympatric]] carnivores did not mention any research on competition between dogs and wolves.<ref name=lescureaux2014/><ref name=vanak2014/> Although wolves are known to kill dogs, they tend to live in pairs or in small packs in areas where they are highly persecuted, giving them a disadvantage facing large dog groups.<ref name=lescureaux2014/>{{sfn|Boitani|Mech|2003|p=259-264}}

Wolves kill dogs wherever they are found together.{{sfn|Boitani|Mech|2003|p=305-306}} One study reported that in Wisconsin in 1999 more compensation had been paid for losses due to wolves taking dogs than for wolves taking livestock. In Wisconsin wolves will often kill hunting dogs, perhaps because they are in the wolf's territory.{{sfn|Boitani|Mech|2003|p=305-306}} A strategy has been reported from Russia where one wolf lures a dog into heavy brush where the another animal waits in ambush.<ref name="Graves">{{Cite book | author = Graves, Will | url = http://www.wolvesinrussia.com/ | title = Wolves in Russia: Anxiety throughout the ages | year = 2007 | isbn = 1-55059-332-3 | publisher = Detselig Enterprises | location = Calgary | page = 222 | access-date = 13 June 2008 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090802182158/http://www.wolvesinrussia.com/ | archive-date = 2 August 2009 | dead-url = yes | df = dmy-all }}</ref> In some instances, wolves have displayed an uncharacteristic fearlessness of humans and buildings when attacking dogs, to the extent that they have to be beaten off or killed.<ref>{{Cite journal | title=Interactions between wolves Canis lupus and dogs C. familiaris in Finland|publisher=Nordic Council for Wildlife Research |author1=Kojola, I. |author2=Ronkainen, S. |author3=Hakala, A. |author4=Heikkinen, S. |author5=Kokko, S. }}</ref> Although the numbers of dogs killed each year are relatively low, it induces a fear of wolves entering villages and farmyards to take dogs, and losses of dogs to wolves has lead to demands for more liberal wolf hunting regulations.<ref name=lescureaux2014/>

[[Coyote]]s and big cats have also been known to attack dogs. [[Leopard]]s in particular are known to have a predilection for dogs, and have been recorded to kill and consume them regardless of their size.<ref name="Leopard">{{Cite book|author1=Scott, Jonathan  |author2=Scott, Angela |title = Big Cat Diary: Leopard|year = 2006|isbn = 0-00-721181-3|publisher=Collins|location = London|page = 108}}</ref> [[Tiger]]s in [[Manchuria]], [[Indochina]], [[Indonesia]], and [[Malaysia]] are also reported to kill dogs.<ref name="Perry">{{Cite book| author=Perry, Richard|title = The World of the Tiger|year = 1965|id = ASIN: B0007DU2IU|page = 260}}</ref> [[Striped hyena]]s are known to kill dogs in [[Turkmenistan]], [[India]], and the [[Caucasus]].<ref name="Striped">{{cite web| url = http://www.hyaena.ge/striped.htm|title = Striped Hyaena ''Hyaena (Hyaena) hyaena'' (Linnaeus, 1758)|publisher=IUCN Species Survival Commission Hyaenidae Specialist Group|accessdate =21 May 2008|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928225108/http://www.hyaena.ge/striped.htm| archivedate=28 September 2007}}</ref>

===Diet===
{{See also|Dog food}}
[[File:Golden retriever eating pigs foot.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Golden Retriever]] gnawing on a pig's foot]]
Dogs have been described as [[carnivore]]s<ref>{{Cite book | title=Animal passions and beastly virtues | author1=Marc Bekoff | author2=Dale Jamieson | publisher=Temple University Press | year=2006 | isbn=978-1-59213-348-2 | chapter=Ethics and the Study of Carnivores | url=https://books.google.com/?id=5qQNetdJKnwC&pg=PA232}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | title=The mammals of Minnesota | author=Hazard, Evan B. | publisher=U of Minnesota Press | year=1982 | isbn=978-0-8166-0952-9 | chapter=Order Carnivora | url=https://books.google.com/?id=sjoQK1bedB0C&pg=PA113}}</ref> or [[omnivore]]s.<ref name="ADW"/><ref>{{Cite book | title=Biology of the pancreas in growing animals | volume=Volume 28 of Developments in animal and veterinary sciences | author1=S. G. Pierzynowski | author2=R. Zabielski | publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences | year=1999 | isbn=978-0-444-50217-9 | page=417 | url=https://books.google.com/?id=p_n1qXT7SuEC&pg=PA417}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | title=Nutrient requirements of dogs and cats | author=National Research Council (U.S.). Ad Hoc Committee on Dog and Cat Nutrition | publisher=National Academies Press | year=2006 | isbn=978-0-309-08628-8 | page=137 | url=https://books.google.com/?id=aqeCwxbRWvsC&pg=PA137}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | title=Grab Life by the Leash: A Guide to Bringing Up and Bonding with Your Four-Legged Friend | author=Smith, Cheryl S. | publisher=John Wiley and Sons | year=2008 | isbn=978-0-470-17882-9 | chapter=Chapter 6, Omnivores Together | url=https://books.google.com/?id=p0y9b9voiI8C&pg=PA77}}</ref> Unlike [[obligate carnivore]]s, domestic dogs (and wild canids) can adapt to a wide-ranging diet, and are not dependent on meat-specific protein nor a very high level of protein in order to fulfill their basic dietary requirements. Dogs can healthily digest a variety of foods, including vegetables, fruits and grains, and can consume a large proportion of these in their diet, and some sources do not recommend all-meat diets for dogs, due to their lack of calcium and iron.<ref name="ADW"/> Compared to wolves, dogs have genes involved in starch digestion that contribute to an increased ability to thrive on a starch-rich diet.<ref name="axelssonetal2013"/>

===Range===
As a domesticated or semi-domesticated animal, the dog is nearly universal among human societies. Notable exceptions once included:
* [[Aboriginal Tasmanians]], who were separated from Australia before the arrival of [[dingos]] on that continent
* The [[Andamanese]], who were isolated when rising sea levels covered the land bridge to Myanmar
* The [[Fuegians|natives of Tierra del Fuego]], who instead domesticated the [[Fuegian dog]], a different canid species
* Certain Pacific islands whose maritime settlers did not bring dogs, or where dogs died out after original settlement, notably: the [[Mariana Islands]],<ref>{{cite journal |display-authors=3 |last1=Hung |first1=H. |last2=Carson |first2= Mike T. |last3=Bellwood |first3=Peter |last4=Campos |first4= Fredeliza Z. |last5= |first5= |date=2011 |title=The first settlement of Remote Oceania: The Philippines to the Marianas |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/antiquity/article/first-settlement-of-remote-oceania-the-philippines-to-the-marianas/C36A1BD58E098F888395D1123B1C0CCC |journal=Antiquity |volume=85 |pages=909-926 |doi=10.1017/S0003598X00068393 |access-date=2018-12-04}}</ref> [[Palau]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Osborne |first=Douglas |date=1966 |title=The archaeology of the Palau Islands |series=Bernice P. Bishop Museum Bulletin |volume=230 |page=29 |isbn=0910240582}}</ref> [[Marshall Islands]],<ref name=Urban>{{cite book |last=Urban |first=Manfred |date=1961 |title=Die Haustiere der Polynesier |location=Göttingen |publisher=Häntzschel |page= }}</ref> [[Gilbert Islands]],<ref name=Urban/> [[New Caledonia]],<ref name=Matisoo-Smith>{{cite journal |last=Matisoo-Smith |first=Elizabeth |date=Feb 2015 |title=Ancient DNA and the human settlement of the Pacific: A review |url= |journal=Journal of Human Evolution |volume=79 |pages=97 |doi=10.1016/j.jhevol.2014.10.017 |access-date=}}</ref> [[Vanuatu]],<ref name=Matisoo-Smith /><ref name=Forster>{{cite book |last=Forster |first=Johann Reinhold |date=1778 |title=Observations Made During a Voyage Round the World |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VI8-AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA188 |page=188 }}</ref> [[Tonga]],<ref name=Forster /> [[Marquesas]],<ref name=Forster /> [[Mangaia]] in the [[Cook Islands]], [[Rapa Iti]] in [[French Polynesia]], [[Easter Island]],<ref name=Forster /> [[Chatham Islands]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Sharp |first=Andrew |date=1964 |title=Ancient Voyagers in Polynesia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Eap3YItHj6cC&pg=PA120 |location=Berkeley |publisher=University of California Press |page=120 }}</ref> and [[Pitcairn Island]] (settled by the [[Mutiny on the Bounty|''Bounty'' mutineers]], who killed off their dogs in order to escape discovery by passing ships<ref>{{cite journal|title=Pitcairn's Island|work=The Asiatic Journal and Monthly Register for British and Foreign India, China, and Australia|volume=10|page=38|year=1820|publisher=Black, Parbury, & Allen|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x6o3AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA38}}</ref>).

==Breeds==
{{main|Dog breed}}

[[File:Big and little dog.jpg|thumb|Different dog breeds show a range of [[Phenotype|phenotypic variation]]]]

The domestic dog is the first species, and the only large [[carnivore]], known to have been domesticated. Especially over the past 200 years, dogs have undergone rapid [[Phenotype|phenotypic]] change and were formed into today's modern [[dog breeds]] due to [[artificial selection]] by humans. These breeds can vary in size and weight from a {{convert|0.46|kg|lb|abbr=on}} teacup [[poodle]] to a {{convert|90|kg|lb|abbr=on}} giant [[mastiff]]. Phenotypic variation can include height measured to the [[withers]] ranging from {{convert|15.2|cm}} in the [[Chihuahua (dog)|Chihuahua]] to {{convert|76|cm|abbr=on}} in the [[Irish Wolfhound]]; color varies from white through grays (usually called "blue") to black, and browns from light (tan) to dark ("red" or "chocolate") in a wide variation of patterns; [[coat (dog)|coats]] can be short or long, coarse-haired to wool-like, straight, curly, or smooth.<ref name="The Complete Dog"/> The skull, body, and limb proportions vary significantly between breeds, with dogs displaying more phenotypic diversity than can be found within the entire order of carnivores. Some breeds demonstrate outstanding skills in herding, retrieving, scent detection, and guarding, which demonstrates the functional and behavioral diversity of dogs. The first dogs were domesticated from shared ancestors of modern wolves, however the phenotypic changes that coincided with the dog–wolf [[genetic divergence]] are not known.<ref name=freedman2017/>

{{further|Dog type}}

==Roles with humans==
[[File:Gunnar Kaasen with Balto.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Gunnar Kaasen]] and [[Balto]], the lead dog on the last relay team of the [[1925 serum run to Nome]]]]

Domestic dogs inherited complex behaviors, such as [[bite inhibition]], from their wolf ancestors, which would have been [[pack hunter]]s with complex body language. These sophisticated forms of social cognition and communication may account for their trainability, playfulness, and ability to fit into human households and social situations, and these attributes have given dogs a relationship with humans that has enabled them to become one of the most successful species on the planet today.<ref name="Miklósi">{{cite book|author=Miklósi, Adám |title=Dog Behaviour, Evolution, and Cognition|url=https://books.google.com/?id=KnVEIrVNGhIC|year=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-929585-2|doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199295852.001.0001}}</ref>{{rp|pages95-136}}

The dogs' value to early human hunter-gatherers led to them quickly becoming ubiquitous across world cultures. Dogs perform many roles for people, such as [[hunting dog|hunting]], [[herding dog|herding]], [[sled dog|pulling loads]], [[guard dog|protection]], [[police dog|assisting police]] and [[Dogs in warfare|military]], [[pet|companionship]], and, more recently, [[service dog|aiding handicapped individuals]]. This influence on human society has given them the nickname "[[Man's best friend (phrase)|man's best friend]]" in the Western world. In some cultures, however, dogs [[#As food|are also a source of meat]].<ref name="Wingfield-Hayes"/><ref name="Vietnam's dog meat tradition"/>

===Early roles===
Wolves, and their dog descendants, likely derived significant benefits from living in human camps—more safety, more reliable food, lesser caloric needs, and more chance to breed.<ref name="Groves">{{Cite journal|last = Groves |first= Colin |year= 1999|title= The Advantages and Disadvantages of Being Domesticated | journal=Perspectives in Human Biology|volume = 4| pages = 1–12 | issn = 1038-5762}}</ref> They would have benefited from humans' upright gait that gives them larger range over which to see potential predators and prey, as well as better color vision that, at least by day, gives humans better visual discrimination.<ref name=Groves/> Camp dogs would also have benefited from human tool use, as in bringing down larger prey and [[control of fire|controlling fire]] for a range of purposes.<ref name=Groves/>

Humans would also have derived enormous benefit from the dogs associated with their camps.<ref name="Tacon">{{Cite journal|first1=Paul |last1=Tacon |first2=Colin |last2=Pardoe |year=2002 |title=Dogs make us human |journal=Nature Australia |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=52–61}}</ref> For instance, dogs would have improved sanitation by cleaning up food scraps.<ref name="Tacon"/> Dogs may have provided warmth, as referred to in the Australian Aboriginal expression "three dog night" (an exceptionally cold night), and they would have alerted the camp to the presence of predators or strangers, using their acute hearing to provide an early warning.<ref name="Tacon"/>

It has been suggested that the most significant benefit would have been the use of dogs' robust sense of smell to assist with the hunt.<ref name="Tacon"/> The relationship between the presence of a dog and success in the hunt is often mentioned as a primary reason for the domestication of the wolf, and a 2004 study of hunter groups with and without a dog gives quantitative support to the hypothesis that the benefits of cooperative hunting was an important factor in wolf domestication.<ref name="Ruusila">{{Cite journal|first1=Vesa |last1=Ruusila |first2=Mauri |last2=Pesonen|year=2004 |title=Interspecific cooperation in human (''Homo sapiens'') hunting: the benefits of a barking dog (''Canis familiaris'') |journal=Annales Zoologici Fennici |volume=41 |issue=4 |pages=545–9 |url=http://www.sekj.org/PDF/anzf41/anzf41-545.pdf}}</ref>

The cohabitation of dogs and humans likely improved the chances of survival for early human groups, and the domestication of dogs may have been one of the key forces that led to human success.<ref name="Newby">{{Cite book|last= Newby |first= Jonica |title= The Pact for Survival |publisher=ABC Books |location= Sydney |year= 1997 |isbn= 0-7333-0581-4}}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}</ref>

Human emigrants from [[Siberia]] that came across the [[Beringia|Bering land bridge]] into North America likely had dogs in their company. Although one writer<ref name="Early Americas 1998">''A History of Dogs in the Early Americas'', Marion Schwartz, 1998, 260 p., {{ISBN|978-0-300-07519-9}}, Yale University Press</ref> even suggests that the use of [[sled dogs]] may have been critical to the success of the waves that entered North America roughly 12,000 years ago,<ref name="Early Americas 1998"/> the earliest archaeological evidence of dog-like canids in North America dates from about 9,400 years ago.<ref name="Miklósi"/>{{rp|104}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://umaine.edu/news/blog/2011/01/11/umaine-student-finds-oldest-known-domesticated-dog-in-americas/ |title=The University of Maine – UMaine News – UMaine Student Finds Oldest Known Domesticated Dog in Americas |publisher=Umaine.edu |date=11 January 2011 |accessdate=4 July 2013}}</ref> Dogs were an important part of life for the [[Athabaskan languages|Athabascan]] population in North America, and were their only domesticated animal. Dogs as [[pack animal]]s  may have contributed migration of the [[Apache]] and [[Navajo people|Navajo]] tribes 1,400 years ago. This use of dogs in these cultures often persisted after the introduction of the [[horse]] to North America.<ref>{{Cite book|title=A dogs history of America|author=Derr, Mark |year=2004|publisher=North Point Press}} p.12</ref>

===As pets===
[[File:Hundhalsband grön sammet - Livrustkammaren - 86119.tif|thumb|Green velvet dog collar, dating from 1670 to 1690]]
[[File:Siberian Husky pho.jpg|thumb|[[Siberian Husky|Siberian Huskies]] are [[pack animal]]s that still enjoy some human companionship]]
[[File:Family pet.jpg|thumb|alt=Couple sitting on the lawn with a pet British Bulldog| A [[Bulldog|British Bulldog]] relaxes at a park]]

It is estimated that three-quarters of the world's dog population lives in the developing world as feral, village, or community dogs, with pet dogs uncommon.<ref name="DOGS"/>

"The most widespread form of interspecies bonding occurs between humans and dogs"<ref name="Tacon"/> and the keeping of dogs as companions, particularly by elites, has a long history.<ref name="Derr">{{Cite book|last= Derr |first= Mark |title = Dog's Best Friend |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location= Chicago |year= 1997 |isbn= 0-226-14280-9}}</ref> (As a possible example, at the [[Natufian culture]] site of [[Ain Mallaha]] in [[Israel]], dated to 12,000 BC, the remains of an elderly human and a four-to-five-month-old puppy were found buried together).<ref name="Clutton-Brock1995">{{Citation |title=The domestic dog: its evolution, behaviour and interactions with people |last=Clutton-Brock |first=Juliet |editor=Serpell, James |year=1995 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=0-521-41529-2 |pages= |chapter=Origins of the dog: domestication and early history}}</ref> However, pet dog populations grew significantly after World War II as suburbanization increased.<ref name="Derr"/> In the 1950s and 1960s, dogs were kept outside more often than they tend to be today<ref name="Franklin">{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1080/14036090600813760|last = Franklin| first = A| year = 2006| title = Be[a]ware of the Dog: a post-humanist approach to housing| journal=Housing Theory and Society| volume = 23| issue = 3| pages = 137–156| issn = 1403-6096}}</ref> (using the expression "in the doghouse" to describe exclusion from the group signifies the distance between the doghouse and the home) and were still primarily functional, acting as a guard, children's playmate, or walking companion. From the 1980s, there have been changes in the role of the pet dog, such as the increased role of dogs in the emotional support of their human guardians.<ref name="Katz">{{Cite book|last= Katz |first= Jon |title= The New Work of Dogs |publisher=Villard Books |location= New York |year= 2003 |isbn= 0-375-76055-5}}</ref> People and dogs have become increasingly integrated and implicated in each other's lives,<ref name="Haraway">{{Cite book|last= Haraway |first= Donna |title= The Companion Species manifesto: Dogs, People and Significant Otherness |publisher=Prickly Paradigm Press |location= Chicago |year= 2003 |isbn= 0-9717575-8-5}}</ref> to the point where pet dogs actively shape the way a family and home are experienced.<ref name="Power">{{Cite journal|last= Power |first= Emma |year= 2008 |title= Furry Families: Making a Human-Dog Family through Home | journal= Social and Cultural Geography |volume= 9|issue= 5|pages= 535–555|doi= 10.1080/14649360802217790}}</ref>

There have been two major trends in the changing status of pet dogs. The first has been the 'commodification' of the dog, shaping it to conform to human expectations of personality and behaviour.<ref name="Power"/> The second has been the broadening of the concept of the family and the home to include dogs-as-dogs within everyday routines and practices.<ref name="Power"/>

There are a vast range of commodity forms available to transform a pet dog into an ideal companion.<ref name="Nast">{{Cite journal |last= Nast |first= Heidi J. |year= 2006|title= Loving&nbsp;... Whatever: Alienation, Neoliberalism and Pet-Love in the Twenty-First Century| journal=ACME: an International E-Journal for Critical Geographies |volume= 5 |issue= 2| pages = 300–327|issn= 1492-9732}}</ref> The list of goods, services and places available is enormous: from dog perfumes, couture, furniture and housing, to dog groomers, therapists, trainers and caretakers, dog cafes, spas, parks and beaches, and dog hotels, airlines and cemeteries.<ref name="Nast"/> While [[dog training]] as an organized activity can be traced back to the 18th century, in the last decades of the 20th century it became a high-profile issue as many normal [[dog behavior]]s such as barking, jumping up, digging, rolling in dung, fighting, and [[Spraying (animal behavior)|urine marking]] (which dogs do to establish territory through scent), became increasingly incompatible with the new role of a pet dog.<ref name="dogzone">{{cite web|url=http://www.dogzone.co.za/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=22%3Aa-brief-history-of-dog-training&catid=16%3Ageneral&Itemid=31 |title= A Brief History of Dog Training |date= 3 June 2007 |work=Dog Zone| accessdate=19 February 2010}}</ref> Dog training books, classes and television programs proliferated as the process of commodifying the pet dog continued.<ref name="Myths">{{Cite journal| last = Jackson Schebetta|first = Lisa |title = Mythologies and Commodifications of Dominion in The Dog Whisperer with Cesar Millan|journal=Journal for Critical Animal Studies|volume = 7|issue = 1|pages = 107–131|publisher=Institute for Critical Animal Studies|year = 2009|issn = 1948-352X}}</ref>

The majority of contemporary dog owners describe their pet as part of the family,<ref name="Power" /> although some ambivalence about the relationship is evident in the popular reconceptualization of the dog–human family as a pack.<ref name="Power"/> A [[dominance (ethology)|dominance]] model of dog–human relationships has been promoted by some dog trainers, such as on the television program ''[[Dog Whisperer]]''. However it has been disputed that "trying to achieve status" is characteristic of dog–human interactions.<ref name="Bradshaw">{{Cite journal|last=Bradshaw |first=John |last2=Blackwell |first2=Emily J. |last3=Casey |first3=Rachel A. |title=Dominance in domestic dogs: useful construct or bad habit? |journal=Journal of Veterinary Behavior |volume=4 |year=2009 |pages=135–144 |publisher=Elsevier |url=http://www.pawsoflife.org/pdf/Library%20articles/Bradshaw%202009.pdf |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5sIbRXtwx?url=http://www.pawsoflife.org/pdf/Library%20articles/Bradshaw%202009.pdf |archivedate=27 August 2010 |doi=10.1016/j.jveb.2008.08.004 |issue=3 |deadurl=yes  }}</ref> Pet dogs play an active role in family life; for example, a study of conversations in dog–human families showed how family members use the dog as a resource, talking to the dog, or talking through the dog, to mediate their interactions with each other.<ref name="Tannen">{{Cite journal|doi= 10.1207/s15327973rlsi3704_1 |last= Tannen|first = Deborah|year= 2004|title= Talking the Dog: Framing Pets as Interactional Resources in Family Discourse |journal=Research on Language and Social Interaction |volume= 37|issue= 4 | pages = 399–420 |issn= 1532-7973}}</ref>

Increasingly, human family members are engaging in activities centered on the perceived needs and interests of the dog, or in which the dog is an integral partner, such as [[Musical canine freestyle|dog dancing]] and [[Doga (Dog Yoga)|dog yoga]].<ref name="Nast"/>

According to statistics published by the [[American Pet Products Manufacturers Association]] in the National Pet Owner Survey in 2009–2010, it is estimated there are 77.5&nbsp;million people with pet dogs in the United States.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.humanesociety.org/issues/pet_overpopulation/facts/pet_ownership_statistics.html| title=U.S. Pet Ownership Statistics|accessdate=24 June 2010}}</ref> The same survey shows nearly 40% of American households own at least one dog, of which 67% own just one dog, 25% two dogs and nearly 9% more than two dogs. There does not seem to be any gender preference among dogs as pets, as the statistical data reveal an equal number of female and male dog pets. Yet, although several programs are ongoing to promote [[pet adoption]], less than a fifth of the owned dogs come from a shelter.

The latest study using [[magnetic resonance imaging]] (MRI) comparing humans and dogs showed that dogs have same response to voices and use the same parts of the brain as humans do. This gives dogs the ability to recognize emotional human sounds, making them friendly social pets to humans.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/science-news/10653182/Dogs-and-humans-respond-to-voices-in-same-way.html |title=Dogs and humans respond to voices in same way |author=James Edgar |date=21 February 2014 |location=London |work=The Daily Telegraph}}</ref>

===Work===
Dogs have lived and worked with humans in many roles. In addition to dogs' role as companion animals, dogs have been bred for herding livestock ([[collies]], [[sheepdog]]s),<ref>{{Cite book|last=Williams|first=Tully|title=Working Sheep Dogs|isbn=978-0-643-09343-0|year=2007|publisher=CSIRO Publishing|location=Collingwood, Vic.}}</ref><ref name="ADW">Dewey, T. and S. Bhagat. 2002. "[https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Canis_lupus_familiaris/ Canis lupus familiaris], Animal Diversity Web.</ref>  hunting (hounds, pointers),<ref name="serpell1995">{{Cite book|last=Serpell|first=James|title=The Domestic Dog|chapter=Origins of the dog: domestication and early history|isbn=978-0-521-41529-3|year=1995|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge}}</ref> and rodent control (terriers).<ref name="ADW"/> Other types of [[working dog]]s include [[search and rescue dogs]],<ref>Vikki Fenton, [https://www.wemjournal.org/article/S0953-9859(92)71243-1/pdf The use of dogs in search, rescue and recovery], ''Journal of Wilderness Medicine'', Vol. 3, Issue 3, August 1992, pp. 292-300.</ref> [[detection dogs]] trained to detect [[Illegal drug trade|illicit drugs]]<ref>John J. Ensminger, ''Police and Military Dogs: Criminal Detection, Forensic Evidence, and Judicial Admissibility'' (CRC Press, 2012).</ref> or [[chemical weapon]]s;<ref>Philip Shernomay, [https://www.nytimes.com/2003/05/13/us/aftereffects-chemical-weapons-dogs-take-their-place-arsenal-against-chemical.html Dogs Take Their Place in Arsenal Against Chemical Attack], ''New York Times'' (13 May 2003).</ref> guard dogs; dogs who assist fishermen with the use of nets; and dogs that pull loads.<ref name="ADW"/> In 1957, the dog [[Laika]] became the first animal to be launched into [[Earth orbit]], aboard the [[Soviet space program|Soviets]]' [[Sputnik 2]]; she died during the flight.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.newyorker.com/tech/elements/remembering-laika-space-dog-and-soviet-hero|title=Remembering Laika, Space Dog and Soviet Hero|magazine=New Yorker|author=Alex Wellerstein|date=3 November 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/2008/04/11/us-russia-space-dog-idUSL1117596720080411 |title=Russia fetes dog Laika, first earthling in space |last1= Solovyov |first1=Dmitry |last2= Pearce |first2=Tim (ed.) |date=11 April 2008 |publisher=[[Reuters]]}}</ref>

Various kinds of [[service dog]]s and [[assistance dog]]s, including [[guide dog]]s, [[hearing dog]]s, [[mobility assistance dog]]s, and [[psychiatric service dog]]s provide assistance to individuals with disabilities.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1016/j.dhjo.2015.07.001|pmid = 26364936| title=Recognizing the value of assistance dogs in society| journal=Disability and Health Journal| volume=8| issue=4| pages=469–474| year=2015| last1=Audrestch| first1=Hilary M.| last2=Whelan| first2=Chantelle T.| last3=Grice| first3=David| last4=Asher| first4=Lucy| last5=England| first5=Gary C.W.| last6=Freeman| first6=Sarah L.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.3389/fvets.2017.00001|pmid = 28154816|pmc = 5243836|year = 2017|last1 = Walther|first1 = S.|title = Assistance Dogs: Historic Patterns and Roles of Dogs Placed by ADI or IGDF Accredited Facilities and by Non-Accredited U.S. Facilities|journal = Frontiers in Veterinary Science|volume = 4|pages = 1|last2 = Yamamoto|first2 = M.|last3 = Thigpen|first3 = A. P.|last4 = Garcia|first4 = A.|last5 = Willits|first5 = N. H.|last6 = Hart|first6 = L. A.}}</ref> Some dogs owned by epileptics have been shown to alert their handler when the handler shows signs of an impending seizure, sometimes well in advance of onset, allowing the guardian to seek safety, medication, or medical care.<ref name="seizure">{{Cite journal|vauthors=Dalziel DJ, Uthman BM, Mcgorray SP, Reep RL |title=Seizure-alert dogs: a review and preliminary study |journal=Seizure |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=115–20 |year=2003|pmid=12566236 |doi=10.1016/S105913110200225X}}</ref>

===Sports and shows===
{{See also|Conformation show}}

People often enter their dogs in competitions<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.akc.org/events/conformation/beginners.cfm|title=A Beginner's Guide to Dog Shows|publisher=American Kennel Club|accessdate=30 October 2008}}</ref> such as breed-conformation shows or [[list of dog sports|sports]], including racing, sledding and agility competitions.

In conformation shows, also referred to as breed shows, a judge familiar with the specific dog breed evaluates individual purebred dogs for conformity with their established breed type as described in the breed standard. As the breed standard only deals with the externally observable qualities of the dog (such as appearance, movement, and temperament), separately tested qualities (such as ability or health) are not part of the judging in conformation shows.

===As food===
{{Main|Dog meat}}
Dog meat is consumed in some [[East Asian]] countries, including [[Korea]], [[China]]<ref name="Wingfield-Hayes">{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/2074073.stm | work=BBC News | first=Rupert | last=Wingfield-Hayes | title=China's taste for the exotic | date=29 June 2002}}</ref> and [[Vietnam]],<ref name="Vietnam's dog meat tradition">{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/1735647.stm | work=BBC News | title=Vietnam's dog meat tradition | date=31 December 2001}}</ref> a practice that dates back to antiquity.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Eat not this flesh: food avoidances from prehistory to the present|author=Simoons, Frederick J. |edition=second|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=1994|isbn=978-0-299-14254-4|pages=208–212|url=https://books.google.com/?id=JwGZTQunH00C&pg=PA208}}</ref> It is estimated that 13–16&nbsp;million dogs are killed and consumed in Asia every year.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.animalpeoplenews.org/03/9/dogs.catseatenAsia903.html |title=How many dogs and cats are eaten in Asia? |publisher=Animalpeoplenews.org |accessdate=19 December 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120125062225/http://www.animalpeoplenews.org/03/9/dogs.catseatenAsia903.html |archivedate=25 January 2012 |df= }}</ref> In China, debates have ensued over banning the consumption of dog meat.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/yulin-dog-meat-festival-ban-china-authorities-a7741431.html|title=China bans dog meat at infamous Yulin festival|work=The Independent|access-date=2018-10-11|language=en-GB}}</ref> Other cultures, such as [[Polynesia]] and [[pre-Columbian Mexico]], also consumed dog meat in their history. However, Western, South Asian, African, and Middle Eastern cultures, in general, regard consumption of dog meat as [[taboo food and drink|taboo]]. In some places, however, such as in rural areas of Poland, dog fat is believed to have medicinal properties—being good for the lungs for instance.<ref>{{cite news|last=Day |first=Matthew |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/poland/5985367/Polish-couple-accused-of-making-dog-meat-delicacy.html |title=Polish couple accused of making dog meat delicacy|publisher=Telegraph.co.uk |date=7 August 2009 |accessdate=21 December 2010 |location=London}}</ref> Dog meat is also consumed in some parts of Switzerland.<ref>{{cite book|title=Unmentionable Cuisine |first=Calvin W. |last=Schwabe |year=1979 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=SiBntk9jGmoC&pg=PA173 173] |publisher= University Press of Virginia |location=Charlottesville |isbn=0-8139-1162-1}}</ref>  Proponents of eating dog meat have argued that placing a distinction between livestock and dogs is western hypocrisy, and that there is no difference with eating the meat of different animals.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.slate.com/id/2060840/|title=Wok The Dog – What's wrong with eating man's best friend?|accessdate=23 July 2007|author= William Saletan|author-link=William Saletan|date=16 January 2002|publisher=slate.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sunysb.edu/writrhet/philosophy/handbook/essaycontest/2004essaywinners/2004+Ahmet+Zihni.htm|title=Dog Meat Dilemma|author=Ahmed Zihni|publisher=sunysb.edu|year=2004|accessdate=11 May 2008|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070811115017/http://www.sunysb.edu/writrhet/philosophy/handbook/essaycontest/2004essaywinners/2004%20Ahmet%20Zihni.htm|archivedate=11 August 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://lovingkorean.com/2013/07/12/do-koreans-eat-dogs-and-western-hypocrisy/|title='Do Koreans eat dogs?' and Western hypocrisy}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.prospect.org/print/V13/10/feffer-j.html|title=The Politics of Dog – When globalization and culinary practice clash|author=John Feffer|date=2 June 2002|accessdate=11 May 2007 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060427201343/http://www.prospect.org/print/V13/10/feffer-j.html |archivedate=27 April 2006}}</ref>

In Korea, the primary dog breed raised for meat, the ''[[nureongi]]'' (누렁이), differs from those breeds raised for pets that Koreans may keep in their homes.<ref name="pettid">Pettid, Michael J., Korean Cuisine: An Illustrated History, London: Reaktion Books Ltd., 2008, 25. {{ISBN|1-86189-348-5}}</ref>

The most popular Korean dog dish is ''[[bosintang|gaejang-guk]]'' (also called ''bosintang''), a spicy stew meant to balance the body's heat during the summer months. Followers of the custom claim this is done to ensure good health by balancing one's ''[[Qi|gi]]'', or vital energy of the body. A 19th century version of ''gaejang-guk'' explains that the dish is prepared by boiling dog meat with [[scallion]]s and chili powder. Variations of the dish contain chicken and bamboo shoots. While the dishes are still popular in Korea with a segment of the population, dog is not as widely consumed as beef, chicken, and pork.<ref name="pettid"/>

===Health risks to humans===
{{Further|Dog attack|Canine vector-borne disease}}
{{See|Dog bite prevention}}

In 2005, the [[WHO]] reported that 55,000 people died in Asia and Africa from rabies, a disease for which dogs are the most important vector.<ref>{{citation|title=WHO expert consultation on rabies: First report |volume=WHO Technical Report Series, 931|publisher=World Health Organisation|year=2005}}</ref>

Citing a 2008 study, the U.S. [[Center for Disease Control]] estimated in 2015 that 4.5 million people in the USA are bitten by dogs each year.<ref>{{cite web|title=Home & Recreational Safety – Dog Bites|url=https://www.cdc.gov/homeandrecreationalsafety/dog-bites/ |publisher=[[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]]|accessdate=27 January 2015}} citing {{cite journal|title=Dog Bites: Still a Problem?|journal=Injury Prevention|volume=14|issue=5|pages=296–301|doi=10.1136/ip.2007.016220|pmid=18836045|author1=Gilchrist J.|author2=Sacks J.J.|author3=White, D.|author4=Kresnow, M.J.|year=2008}}</ref> A 2015 study estimated that 1.8% of the U.S. population is bitten each year.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://injuryprevention.bmj.com/content/2/1/52.full.pdf|title=Dog bites: how big a problem?
|author1=Jeffrey J Sacks|author2=Marcie-jo Kresnow|author3=Barbara Houston|page=53}}</ref> In the 1980s and 1990s the US averaged 17 fatalities per year, while in the 2000s this has increased to 26.<ref name= autogenerated1>{{cite web|url=http://www.dogbitelaw.com/PAGES/statistics.html |title=Statistics about dog bites in the USA and elsewhere |publisher=Dogbitelaw.com |accessdate=18 December 2012}}</ref> 77% of dog bites are from the pet of family or friends, and 50% of attacks occur on the property of the dog's legal owner.<ref name=autogenerated1/>

A [[Colorado]] study found bites in children were less severe than bites in adults.<ref>{{cite web| url= http://veterinarynews.dvm360.com/dvm/Working+with+patients+-+technicians/Study-Chihuahuas-bite-vets-most-Lhaso-Apsos-inflic/ArticleStandard/Article/detail/613820?contextCategoryId=204 | title= Study: Chihuahuas bite vets most; Lhaso Apsos inflict worst injuries | date= 1 July 2009 |first= Rachael |last= Whitcomb | work= DVM Newsmagazine | accessdate= 15 February 2013}}</ref> The incidence of dog bites in the US is 12.9 per 10,000 inhabitants, but for boys aged 5 to 9, the incidence rate is 60.7 per 10,000. Moreover, children have a much higher chance to be bitten in the face or neck.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1= Weiss |first1= HB |last2= Friedman |first2= DI |last3= Coben |first3= JH |title=Incidence of dog bite injuries treated in emergency departments |journal=JAMA |volume=279 |issue=1 |pages=51–3 |year=1998 |pmid=9424044 |doi= 10.1001/jama.279.1.51}}</ref> Sharp claws with powerful muscles behind them can lacerate flesh in a scratch that can lead to serious infections.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1= Tierney |first1= DM |last2= Strauss |first2= LP |last3= Sanchez |first3= JL |title=Capnocytophaga canimorsus Mycotic Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm: Why the Mailman Is Afraid of Dogs |journal=Journal of Clinical Microbiology |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=649–51 |year=2006 |pmid=16455937 |pmc=1392675 |doi=10.1128/JCM.44.2.649-651.2006}}</ref>

In the UK between 2003 and 2004, there were 5,868 [[dog attack]]s on humans, resulting in 5,770 working days lost in sick leave.<ref>{{cite news| url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/wales/south_east/4142200.stm |title= Mail campaign over dog attacks |date= 11 August 2005 | publisher= BBC News}}</ref>

In the [[Dogs in the United States|United States]], [[cat]]s and dogs are a factor in more than 86,000 falls each year.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Injury Prevention Bulletin |url=http://www.hlthss.gov.nt.ca/english/services/health_promotion/pdf/injury_prevention_bulletin.pdf |publisher=Northwest Territories Health and Social Services |date=25 March 2009 |accessdate=7 January 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110322113606/http://www.hlthss.gov.nt.ca/english/services/health_promotion/pdf/injury_prevention_bulletin.pdf |archivedate=22 March 2011 |df= }}</ref> It has been estimated around 2% of dog-related injuries treated in UK hospitals are domestic accidents. The same study found that while dog involvement in road traffic accidents was difficult to quantify, dog-associated road accidents involving injury more commonly involved two-wheeled vehicles.<ref>{{Cite journal| last=Bewley |first= BR |title=Medical hazards from dogs |journal=British Medical Journal |volume= 291 |issue=6498 |pages=760–1 |year=1985 |pmid=3929930 |pmc=1417177 |doi=10.1136/bmj.291.6498.760}}</ref>

''[[Toxocara canis]]'' (dog [[roundworm]]) eggs in dog feces can cause [[toxocariasis]]. In the United States, about 10,000 cases of ''Toxocara'' infection are reported in humans each year, and almost 14% of the U.S. population is infected.<ref>{{cite web| url= http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/229855-overview |title= Toxocariasis | date= 20 August 2008 | publisher=Medscape.com | first1=Sun |last1=Huh |first2= Sooung |last2= Lee| accessdate= 15 February 2013}}</ref> In Great Britain, 24% of soil samples taken from public parks contained ''T. canis'' eggs.<ref name= kidshealth>{{cite web |title= Toxocariasis |work= Kids' Health |publisher=The Nemours Foundation |year= 2010 |url= http://kidshealth.org/parent/infections/parasitic/toxocariasis.html |accessdate =12 February 2010}}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=April 2016|reason=No percentages given}} Untreated toxocariasis can cause retinal damage and decreased vision.<ref name=kidshealth /> Dog feces can also contain [[hookworm]]s that cause [[cutaneous larva migrans]] in humans.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Parasites in pet feces cause puzzling infections| url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb4384/is_5_36/ai_n28919851| archive-url=https://archive.is/20120707225524/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb4384/is_5_36/ai_n28919851| dead-url=yes| archive-date=7 July 2012|publisher=Pediatric News| date= May 2002|accessdate=11 May 2009|first=Kate|last=Johnson}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |doi= 10.1590/S0074-02762006000400009 |title=Related factors to human toxocariasis in a rural community of Argentina |year=2006 |last1=Chiodo |first1=Paula |last2=Basualdo |first2=Juan |last3=Ciarmela |first3=Laura |last4=Pezzani |first4=Betina |last5=Apezteguía |first5=María |last6=Minvielle |first6=Marta |journal=Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz |volume=101 |issue=4 |pages=397–400}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | first=A. H. |last= Talaizadeh | first2= S. |last2= Maraghi2 |first3= A. |last3= Jelowdar |first4= M. |last4= Peyvasteh |url= http://pjms.com.pk/issues/octdec107/article/casereport6.html |title= Human toxocariasis: A report of 3 cases | work= Pakistan Journal of Medical Sciences Quarterly | volume = 23 | issue= 5 | date= October–December 2007 |at= Part I}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url= http://www.woking.gov.uk/planning/envhealthservice/dog/dogfouling |title=Dog fouling |publisher=Woking Borough Council |location= UK| accessdate=21 December 2010}}</ref>

===Health benefits for humans===
[[File:Puppy near Coltani - 17 apr 2010.jpg|thumb|alt=Small dog laying between the hands|[[Doberman Pinscher|Doberman]] puppy being cuddled]]
The scientific evidence is mixed as to whether companionship of a dog can enhance human physical health and psychological wellbeing.<ref name="Pet ownership and human health: a brief review of evidence and issues">{{cite journal |doi=10.1136/bmj.331.7527.1252 |title=Pet ownership and human health: A brief review of evidence and issues |year=2005 |last1=McNicholas |first1=June |journal=BMJ |volume=331 |issue=7527 |pages=1252–4 |pmid=16308387 |last2=Gilbey |first2=Andrew |last3=Rennie |first3=Ann |last4=Ahmedzai |first4=Sam |last5=Dono |first5=Jo-Ann |last6=Ormerod |first6=Elizabeth |pmc=1289326}}</ref> Studies suggesting that there are benefits to physical health and psychological wellbeing<ref>{{Cite journal|last= Podberscek |first= A.L. |year= 2006|title=Positive and Negative Aspects of Our Relationship with Companion Animals |journal=Veterinary Research Communications |volume= 30|issue=1 |pages=21–27 |doi=10.1007/s11259-006-0005-0}}</ref> have been criticised for being poorly controlled,<ref name="Health effects of ownership of and attachment to companion animals in an older population">{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/10705500802365532 |title=Health effects of ownership of and attachment to companion animals in an older population |year=2008 |last1=Winefield |first1=Helen R. |last2=Black |first2=Anne |last3=Chur-Hansen |first3=Anna |journal=International Journal of Behavioral Medicine |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=303–10 |pmid=19005930}}</ref> and finding that "[t]he health of elderly people is related to their health habits and social supports but not to their ownership of, or attachment to, a companion animal." Earlier studies have shown that people who keep pet dogs or cats exhibit better mental and physical health than those who do not, making fewer visits to the doctor and being less likely to be on medication than non-guardians.<ref>{{Cite journal| author=Headey B.|year = 1999|title = Health benefits and health cost savings due to pets: preliminary estimates from an Australian national survey|journal=Social Indicators Research|volume = 47|pages = 233–243|doi = 10.1023/A:1006892908532| issue=2}}</ref>

A 2005 paper states "recent research has failed to support earlier findings that pet ownership is associated with a reduced risk of cardiovascular disease, a reduced use of general practitioner services, or any psychological or physical benefits on health for community dwelling older people. Research has, however, pointed to significantly less absenteeism from school through sickness among children who live with pets."<ref name="Pet ownership and human health: a brief review of evidence and issues"/> In one study, new guardians reported a highly significant reduction in minor health problems during the first month following pet acquisition, and this effect was sustained in those with dogs through to the end of the study.<ref name="autogenerated717">{{cite journal |author=Serpell J |title=Beneficial effects of pet ownership on some aspects of human health and behaviour |journal=Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine |volume=84 |issue=12 |pages=717–20 |year=1991 |pmid=1774745 |pmc=1295517}}</ref>

In addition, people with pet dogs took considerably more physical exercise than those with cats and those without pets. The results provide evidence that keeping pets may have positive effects on human health and behaviour, and that for guardians of dogs these effects are relatively long-term.<ref name="autogenerated717"/> Pet guardianship has also been associated with increased coronary artery disease survival, with human guardians being significantly less likely to die within one year of an acute myocardial infarction than those who did not own dogs.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Friedmann E, Thomas SA |title=Pet ownership, social support, and one-year survival after acute myocardial infarction in the Cardiac Arrhythmia Suppression Trial (CAST) |journal=The American Journal of Cardiology |volume=76 |issue=17 |pages=1213–7 |year=1995 |pmid=7502998 |doi=10.1016/S0002-9149(99)80343-9}}</ref>

The health benefits of dogs can result from contact with dogs in general, and not solely from having dogs as pets. For example, when in the presence of a pet dog, people show reductions in cardiovascular, behavioral, and psychological indicators of anxiety.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1097/00005053-199108000-00006 |author=Wilson CC |title=The pet as an anxiolytic intervention |journal=The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease |volume=179 |issue=8 |pages=482–9 |year=1991 |pmid=1856711}}</ref> Other health benefits are gained from exposure to immune-stimulating microorganisms, which, according to the [[hygiene hypothesis]], can protect against allergies and autoimmune diseases. The benefits of contact with a dog also include social support, as dogs are able to not only provide companionship and social support themselves, but also to act as facilitators of social interactions between humans.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=McNicholas |first1=J. |last2=Collis |first2=G. M. |chapter=Animals as social supports: Insights for understanding animal assisted therapy |editor=Fine, Aubrey H. |title=Handbook on animal-assisted therapy: theoretical foundations and guidelines for practice |publisher=Elsevier/Academic Press |location=Amsterdam |year=2006 |pages=49–71 |isbn=0-12-369484-1}}</ref> One study indicated that wheelchair users experience more positive social interactions with strangers when they are accompanied by a dog than when they are not.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Eddy J, Hart LA, Boltz RP |title=The effects of service dogs on social acknowledgments of people in wheelchairs |journal=The Journal of Psychology |volume=122 |issue=1 |pages=39–45 |year=1988 |pmid=2967371|doi=10.1080/00223980.1988.10542941}}</ref> In 2015, a study found that pet owners were significantly more likely to get to know people in their neighborhood than non-pet owners.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0122085 | pmid=25924013 | volume=10 | issue=4 | title=The Pet Factor – Companion Animals as a Conduit for Getting to Know People, Friendship Formation and Social Support | journal=PLoS ONE | pages=e0122085| year=2015 | last1=Wood | first1=Lisa | last2=Martin | first2=Karen | last3=Christian | first3=Hayley | last4=Nathan | first4=Andrea | last5=Lauritsen | first5=Claire | last6=Houghton | first6=Steve | last7=Kawachi | first7=Ichiro | last8=McCune | first8=Sandra | pmc=4414420| bibcode=2015PLoSO..1022085W }}</ref>

The practice of using dogs and other animals as a part of therapy dates back to the late 18th century, when animals were introduced into mental institutions to help socialize patients with mental disorders.<ref>Kruger, K.A. & Serpell, J.A. (2006). Animal-assisted interventions in mental health: Definitions and theoretical foundations, In Fine, A.H. (Ed.), Handbook on animal-assisted therapy: Theoretical foundations and guidelines for practice. San Diego, CA, Academic Press: 21–38. {{ISBN|0-12-369484-1}}</ref> Animal-assisted intervention research has shown that animal-assisted therapy with a dog can increase social behaviors, such as smiling and laughing, among people with Alzheimer's disease.<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Batson, K. |author2=McCabe, B. |author3=Baun, M.M. |author4=Wilson, C. |chapter=The effect of a therapy dog on socialization and psychological indicators of stress in persons diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease |editor1=Turner, Dennis C. |editor2=Wilson, Cindy C. |title=Companion animals in human health |publisher=Sage Publications |location=Thousand Oaks |year=1998 |pages=203–15 |isbn=978-0-7619-1061-9}}</ref> One study demonstrated that children with ADHD and conduct disorders who participated in an education program with dogs and other animals showed increased attendance, increased knowledge and skill objectives, and decreased antisocial and violent behavior compared with those who were not in an animal-assisted program.<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Katcher, A.H. |author2=Wilkins, G.G. |chapter=The Centaur's Lessons: Therapeutic education through care of animals and nature study |editor=Fine, Aubrey H. |title=Handbook on animal-assisted therapy: theoretical foundations and guidelines for practice |publisher=Elsevier/Academic Press |location=Amsterdam |year=2006 |pages=153–77 |isbn=0-12-369484-1}}</ref>

===Shelters===
{{Main|Animal shelter}}
Every year, between 6 and 8&nbsp;million dogs and cats enter US [[animal shelter]]s.<ref>[https://www.thestar.com/News/World/article/557223 Animals abandoned as recession hits home] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607064748/http://www.thestar.com/News/World/article/557223 |date=7 June 2011 }}. TheStar.com. 22 December 2008.</ref> The [[Humane Society of the United States]] (HSUS) estimates that approximately 3 to 4&nbsp;million of those dogs and cats are [[Animal euthanasia|euthanized]] yearly in the United States.<ref>[http://www.humanesociety.org/issues/pet_overpopulation/facts/overpopulation_estimates.html HSUS Pet Overpopulation Estimates] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130425142203/http://www.humanesociety.org/issues/pet_overpopulation/facts/overpopulation_estimates.html |date=25 April 2013 }} The Humane Society of the United States</ref> However, the percentage of dogs in US animal shelters that are eventually adopted and removed from the shelters by their new legal owners has increased since the mid-1990s from around 25% to a 2012 average of 40% among reporting shelters<ref>{{cite web|title=ASPCA Pet Statistics |url=http://www.aspca.org/about-us/faq/pet-statistics.aspx|accessdate=8 August 2012}}</ref> (with many shelters reporting 60–75%).<ref>{{Cite book|last=Palika|first=Liz|title=Purebred Rescue Dog Adoption: Rewards and Realities|publisher=Howell Book House|date=4 February 2004|isbn=978-0-7645-4971-7|url=https://books.google.com/?id=3UK5jPQqo7gC&pg=PA4|accessdate=24 February 2010}}</ref>

==Cultural depictions==
[[File:PELSO.png|thumb|Dogs at Lake Balaton, depicted on the [[Seuso Treasure]]]]
{{main|Cultural depictions of dogs}}
Dogs have been viewed and represented in different manners by different cultures and religions, over the course of history.

===Mythology===
{{see also|Category:Mythological dogs}}

In ancient [[Mesopotamia]], from the [[Babylonia|Old Babylonian period]] until the [[Neo-Babylonian Empire|Neo-Babylonian]], dogs were the symbol of [[Nintinugga|Ninisina]], the goddess of healing and medicine,<ref name="BlackGreen1992">{{cite book|last1=Black|first1=Jeremy|first2=Anthony|last2=Green|title=Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia: An Illustrated Dictionary|url=https://books.google.com/?id=05LXAAAAMAAJ&q=Inana|publisher=The British Museum Press|year=1992|isbn=0-7141-1705-6|pages=70, 101|ref=harv}}</ref> and her worshippers frequently dedicated small models of seated dogs to her.<ref name="BlackGreen1992"/> In the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire|Neo-Assyrian]] and Neo-Babylonian periods, dogs were used as emblems of magical protection.<ref name="BlackGreen1992"/>

In mythology, dogs often serve as pets or as watchdogs.<ref name="Sherman2008">{{cite book|author=Sherman, Josepha |title=Storytelling: An Encyclopedia of Mythology and Folklore|date=August 2008|publisher=Sharpe Reference|isbn=978-0-7656-8047-1|pages=118–121}}</ref> Stories of dogs guarding the gates of the underworld recur throughout Indo-European mythologies<ref name="MalloryAdams2006">{{cite book|last1=Mallory|first1 = James P.|author1-link = J. P. Mallory|last2 = Adams | first2 = Douglas Q.|author2-link = Douglas Q. Adams|date=2006|title = Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World|location=Oxford, England|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=439|ref=harv}}</ref><ref name="West2007">{{cite book|last=West|first=Martin Litchfield|authorlink=Martin Litchfield West|title=Indo-European Poetry and Myth|date=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford, England|isbn=978-0-19-928075-9|page=392|ref=harv}}</ref> and may originate from [[Proto-Indo-European religion]].<ref name="MalloryAdams2006"/><ref name="West2007"/> In [[Greek mythology]], [[Cerberus]] is a three-headed watchdog who guards the gates of [[Hades]].<ref name="Sherman2008"/> In [[Norse mythology]], a bloody, four-eyed dog called [[Garmr]] guards [[Helheim]].<ref name="Sherman2008"/> In [[Persian mythology]], two four-eyed dogs guard the [[Chinvat Bridge]].<ref name="Sherman2008"/> In [[Welsh mythology]], [[Annwn]] is guarded by [[Cŵn Annwn]].<ref name="Sherman2008"/> In [[Hindu mythology]], [[Yama]], the god of death, owns two watch dogs who have four eyes. They are said to watch over the gates of [[Naraka]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/iml/iml08.htm |title=Indian Myth and Legend: Chapter III. Yama, the First Man, and King of the Dead |publisher=Sacred-texts.com |accessdate=4 July 2013}}</ref>

The hunter god [[Muthappan]] from [[North Malabar]] region of [[Kerala]] has a hunting dog as his mount. Dogs are found in and out of the [[Muthappan Temple]] and offerings at the shrine take the form of bronze dog figurines.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=p00fjOeA2h4C&pg=PA485&q=Muthappan%20association%20with%20dogs |title=Fodor's Essential India: with Delhi, Rajasthan, Mumbai, and Kerala |publisher=Random House LLC |accessdate=13 May 2014|isbn=9780891419440 |date=7 May 2013}}</ref> In [[Philippine mythology]], Kimat who is the pet of Tadaklan, god of thunder, is responsible for lightning. The role of the [[dog in Chinese mythology]] includes a position as one of the twelve animals which cyclically represent years (the [[Dog (zodiac)|zodiacal dog]]).

===Literature===
In [[Homer]]'s [[Epic poetry|epic poem]] the ''[[Odyssey]]'', when the disguised [[Odysseus]] returns home after 20 years he is recognized only by his faithful dog, [[Argos (dog)|Argos]], who has been waiting for his return.

===Religion===
[[File:Wuchzenhofen Pfarrkirche Seitenaltar rechts Gemälde (Domenikus).jpg|thumb|200px|A painting of [[Saint Dominic]] with a dog bearing a torch at his side]]

In [[Christianity]], dogs represent faithfulness.<ref name="Sherman2008"/> Within the [[Roman Catholic]] denomination specifically, the iconography of [[Saint Dominic]] includes a dog, after the hallow's mother dreamt of a dog springing from her womb and becoming pregnant shortly thereafter.<ref name="CP2017">{{cite web|url=https://churchpop.com/2017/08/07/hounds-of-the-lord-the-little-known-meaning-of-the-dominican-dog/|title="Hounds of the Lord": The Little-Known Meaning of the Dominican Dog|date=7 August 2017|publisher=ChurchPOP|language=English|accessdate=9 December 2017}}</ref> As such, the [[Dominican Order]] ([[Ecclesiastical Latin]]: ''Dominicanus'') means "dogs of the Lord" of "hounds of the Lord" (Ecclesiastical Latin: ''domini canis'').<ref name="CP2017"/> In Christian folklore, a [[church grim]] often takes the form of a black dog to guard Christian churches and their [[churchyard]]s from [[sacrilege]].<ref name="Dyer1898">{{cite book|last=Dyer|first=Thomas Firminger Thiselton|title=The Ghost World|year=1898|publisher=Ward & Downey|language=English|pages=125–126}}</ref>

[[Jewish law]] does not prohibit keeping dogs and other pets.<ref name="jewishvirtuallibrary.org">{{cite web|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/animals.html|title=Judaism & The Treatment of Animals |work=Jewish Virtual Library}}</ref> Jewish law requires Jews to feed dogs (and other animals that they own) before themselves, and make arrangements for feeding them before obtaining them.<ref name="jewishvirtuallibrary.org"/>

The view on dogs in [[Islam]] is mixed, with some schools of thought viewing it as unclean,<ref name="Sherman2008" /> although [[Khaled Abou El Fadl]] states that this view is based on "pre-Islamic Arab mythology" and "a tradition to be falsely attributed to the Prophet".<ref>{{cite web|title=Dogs in the Islamic Tradition and Nature|author=Khaled Abou El Fadl|year=2004|work=Encyclopedia of Religion and Nature|publisher=Scholar of the House|language=English|location=New York}}</ref> Therefore, Sunni Malaki and Hanafi jurists permit the trade of and keeping of dogs as pets.<ref>{{cite web|title=Dogs and Islam: The Devil and the Seeing-Eye Dog |url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/canine-corner/201003/dogs-and-islam-the-devil-and-the-seeing-eye-dog |work=Psychology Today|last=Coren|first=Stanley|date=23 March 2010|publisher=Psychology Today|accessdate=26 May 2014}}</ref>

In [[China]], [[Korea]], and [[Japan]], dogs are viewed as kind protectors.<ref name="Sherman2008"/>

===Art===
{{Main|Cultural depictions of dogs in Western art}}
{{commons category|Dogs in art}}
Cultural depictions of dogs in art extend back thousands of years to when dogs were portrayed on the walls of caves. Representations of dogs became more elaborate as individual breeds evolved and the relationships between human and canine developed. [[Hunting]] scenes were popular in the [[Middle Ages]] and the [[Renaissance]]. Dogs were depicted to symbolize guidance, protection, loyalty, fidelity, faithfulness, watchfulness, and love.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.incredibleart.org/lessons/middle/animals2.htm|title=Animal Symbolism in Many Cultures}}</ref>
{{Multiple image
|align = left
|footer = [[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greek]] [[rhyton]] serving vessel in the shape of a dog's head, made by [[Brygos]], early 5th century BC. Jérôme Carcopino Museum, Department of Archaeology, [[Aleria]]
|image1 = Aleria, Rhyton, tête de chien.jpg
|width1 = 200
|image2 = Rhyton en forme de tête de chien.jpg
|width2 = 167
|image3 = Rhyton en forme de tête de chien2.jpg
|width3 = 115
}}
[[File:Figure of a Recumbent Dog, China.jpg|thumb|center|Dog with [[mastiff]] features, China, 4th century, [[Brooklyn Museum]]]]
{{Clear}}

== See also ==
{{Portal|Dogs|Mammals}}
{{Wikipedia books}}
{{Div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Aging in dogs]]
* [[Animal track]]
* [[Argos (dog)]]
* [[Cynanthropy]]
* [[Dog–cat relationship]]
* [[Dogs in art]]
* [[Dog in Chinese mythology]]
* [[Dog odor]]
* [[Dognapping]]
* [[Ethnocynology]]
* [[Fuegian dog]] — another domestic canid
* [[Hachikō]] — a notable example of dog loyalty
* [[Mountain dog]]
* [[Pet recovery service]]
* [[Toy Group]]
* [[Wolfdog]]
{{Div col end}}

'''Lists'''
* [[List of fictional dogs]]
* [[List of individual dogs]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|refs=

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}}

==Bibliography==
* {{cite book|author=Miklósi, Adám |title=Dog Behaviour, Evolution, and Cognition|url=https://books.google.com/?id=KnVEIrVNGhIC|year=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-929585-2|doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199295852.001.0001}}
* {{cite book|ref=harv|title=The Dingo Debate: Origins, Behaviour and Conservation|publisher=CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne, Australia|editor-last=Smith|editor-first=Bradley|year=2015|isbn=9781486300303|url={{Google books|plainurl=yes|id=j6omCgAAQBAJ}}}}
* {{Cite book |ref=harv |last=Boitani |first=Luigi |last2=Mech |first2=L. David |title=Wolves: Behavior, Ecology, and Conservation |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |location=Chicago |date=20 November 2003 |pages=482 |isbn=0-226-51696-2 |url=https://books.google.es/books?id=zhwfmQEACAAJ |oclc=904338888}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite encyclopedia |title=World Atlas of Dog Breeds |type=Hardcover |first1=Dominique |last1=De Vito |pages=960 pages |location=Neptune City, NJ Lanham, MD |date=March 1995 |publisher=TFH Publications, Inc. |edition=6th |isbn=0793806569 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |title=Atlas of Dog Breeds of the World |edition=5th |first1=Bonnie |last1=Wilcox |first2=Chris |last2=Walkowicz |isbn=0793812844 |location=Neptune City, NJ Lanham, MD |type=Print |pages=912 |date=March 1995 |publisher=TFH Publications, Inc. Distributed in the U.S. to the Bookstore and library trade by National Book Network}}

==External links==
{{Sister project links|wikt=dog|species=Canis lupus familiaris|v=no|s=1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Dog|q=Dogs|b=Dog Care}}
* [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/name/Canis_lupus_familiaris Biodiversity Heritage Library bibliography] for ''Canis lupus familiaris''
* [http://www.fci.be/ Fédération Cynologique Internationale (FCI) – World Canine Organisation]
* [http://www.ancient.eu.com/article/184/ Dogs in the Ancient World], an article on the history of dogs
* View the [http://www.ensembl.org/Canis_familiaris/Info/Index dog genome] on [[Ensembl]]

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[[Category:Dogs| ]]
[[Category:Wolves]]
[[Category:Cosmopolitan vertebrates]]
[[Category:Scavengers]]
[[Category:Apex predators]]
[[Category:Vertebrate animal models]]
[[Category:Extant Late Pleistocene first appearances]]
[[Category:Mammals described in 1758]]