Difference between revisions 92952 and 92967 on aswiki

'''পচন সাৰ''' হৈছে একপ্ৰকাৰ জৈৱিক সাৰ। ইয়াক ঘৰুৱা জৈৱিক পেলনীয়া পদাৰ্থৰ পৰা তৈয়াৰ কৰা হয়।
==উৎপাদন প্ৰক্ৰিয়া==
সাধাৰণতঃ বাৰীৰ পাচফালে এটা গাঁত খান্দি তাত ঘৰত কটা, ৰন্ধা ৱা খোৱাৰ পাছত বাকী ৰোৱা শাক, পাচলি, বা অন্যান্য খাদ্যবস্তুৰ অৱশিষ্ট সমূহ কেইবামাহৰো{{citation needed}} বাবে পুতি ৰখা হয়, যাতে পচে। ইয়াৰ পাচত এইখিনি গাঁতৰ পৰা উলিয়াই কৃষিকাৰ্য্যত জৈৱিক সাৰ হিচাবে ব্যৱহাৰ কৰিব পৰা যায়।{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2012}}

[[File:Compost-dirt.jpg|thumb|right|Compost]]

[[File:Tumbler.skips.jpg|thumb|A homemade compost tumbler]]




'''পচন সাৰ''' ({{IPAc-en|icon|ˈ|k|ɒ|m|p|ɒ|s|t}} বা {{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|ɒ|m|p|oʊ|s|t}}) জৈব-পদাৰ্থক (enwiki|organic material}} প্রাকৃতিক ভাৱে বিঘটন {{enwiki|Biodegradation}} ঘটাই প্রস্তুত কৰা এবিধ জৈবিক সাৰ। জৈবিক পদ্ধতিৰে কৰা কৃষিকাৰ্য্যৰ ই এটা মূখ্য অংগ। সাধাৰণ ভাৱে বিভিন্ন জৈবিক পদাৰ্থক (যেনে 'সেউজীয়া আবৰ্জনা' - গছপাত, ৰন্ধাঘৰৰ পেলনীয়া শাক-পাচলিৰ টুকুৰা আদি) পানীৰ সহযোগত এসপ্তাৰপৰা কেইবামাহলৈকো পচাই [[হিউমাচ]]লৈ {{enwiki}humus}} ৰূপান্তৰিত হ'বলৈ দি সহজতে পচন সাৰ প্রস্তুত কৰিব পাৰি। আধুনিক ব্যৱস্থিত প্রক্ৰিয়াত ইয়াক কেইবাটাও পৰ্য্যায়ত নিয়ন্ত্ৰিত ভাবে পানী, বায়ু, কাৰ্বন, বিভিন্ন নাইট্রজেন যুক্ত উপাদান আদি যোগান ধৰি তৈয়াৰ কৰা হয়। ইয়াৰ লগতে সোনকালে পচিবৰ বাবে কেঁচু, ভেঁকুৰ, বেক্টেৰীয়া আদি বিভিন্ন জৈব বিঘটক যোগ লৰি মাজে মাজে তল ওপৰ কৰি থকা হয়। মিশ্রনত থকা ''এৰ'বিক বেক্টেৰীয়াই আবৰ্জনাবোক তাপ, [[কাৰ্বন ডাইঅক্সাইড]], [[এম'নিয়া]] আদিলৈ ৰূপান্তৰ কৰে। এম'নীয়া খিনি পাচৰ পৰ্য্যায়ত [[নাইট্ৰাইট]] আৰু [[নাইট্ৰেট]]লৈ পৰিবৰ্তিত হৈ উদ্ভিদৰ পোষক পদাৰ্থলৈ হিচাবে পৃথিৱীৰ [[নাইট্ৰজেন চক্ৰ]]ত {{enwiki|nitrogen cycle}} ভাগ লয়। ইয়াক [[নাইট্ৰজেন চক্ৰ|''নাইট্ৰিফিকেশ্যন'']] বোলে।



পচন সাৰত বিভিন্ন পোষক তত্ব থাকিব বা যোগ দিয়া হ'ব পাৰে, যেনে হিউমাচ, হিউমিক




Compost can be rich in nutrients. It is used in [[gardens]], [[landscaping]], [[horticulture]], and [[agriculture]]. The compost itself is beneficial for the land in many ways, including as a [[soil conditioner]], a [[fertilizer]], addition of vital [[humus]] or [[humic acids]], and as a natural [[pesticide]] for soil. In ecosystems, compost is useful for erosion control, land and stream reclamation, wetland construction, and as landfill cover (see [[compost uses]]). Organic ingredients intended for composting can alternatively be used to generate [[biogas]] through [[anaerobic digestion]]. Anaerobic digestion is fast overtaking composting in some parts of the world including central Europe as a primary means of downcycling waste organic matter.




==Ingredients==

[[Image:Composting in the Escuela Barreales.jpg|200px|thumb|Home compost barrel in the Escuela Barreales, Chile.]]

Composting organisms require four equally important things to work effectively:

* Carbon — for energy; the microbial [[oxidation]] of carbon produces the heat, if included at suggested levels [http://web.extension.illinois.edu/homecompost/science.html].

** High carbon materials tend to be brown and dry.

* Nitrogen — to grow and reproduce more organisms to oxidize the carbon.

** High nitrogen materials tend to be green (or colorful, such as fruits and vegetables) and wet.<ref>[http://web.extension.uiuc.edu/homecompost/materials.html Materials for composting - University of Illinois extension, retrieval date: 3/12/2009]</ref>

* Oxygen — for oxidizing the carbon, the decomposition process.

* Water — in the right amounts to maintain activity without causing anaerobic conditions.

[[Image:Compost pile.JPG|200px|thumb|Materials in a compost pile.]]

Certain ratios of these materials will provide beneficial bacteria with the nutrients to work at a rate that will heat up the pile. In that process much water will be released as [[evaporation|vapor]] ("steam"), and the oxygen will be quickly depleted, explaining the need to actively manage the pile. The hotter the pile gets, the more often added air and water is necessary; the air/water balance is critical to maintaining high temperatures (135°-160° Fahrenheit / 50° - 70° Celsius) until the materials are broken down. At the same time, too much air or water also slows the process, as does too much carbon (or too little nitrogen).




The most efficient composting occurs with a carbon:nitrogen mix of about 30 to 1. Nearly all plant and animal materials have both carbon and nitrogen, but amounts vary widely, with characteristics noted above (dry/wet, brown/green).<ref>[http://www.klickitatcounty.org/SolidWaste/fileshtml/organics/compostCalc.htm Klickitat County WA, USA Compost Mix Calculator]</ref> Fresh grass clippings have an average ratio of about 15 to 1 and dry autumn leaves about 50 to 1 depending on species. Mixing equal parts by volume approximates the ideal C:N range. Few individual situations will provide the ideal mix of materials at any point in time. Observation of amounts, and consideration of different materials<ref name="compost.css.cornell.edu">[http://compost.css.cornell.edu/calc/lignin.html Effect of lignin content on bio-availability]</ref> as a pile is built over time, can quickly achieve a workable technique for the individual situation.




===Urine===

People excrete far more of certain [[water-soluble]] plant nutrients ([[nitrogen]], [[phosphorus]], [[potassium]]) in [[urine]] than in [[feces]].<ref>[http://esa.un.org/iys/docs/san_lib_docs/ESR2web%5B1%5D.pdf Stockholm Environment Institute - EcoSanRes - Guidelines on the Use of Urine and Feces in Crop Production]</ref> Human [[Fertilizer#Animal|urine can be used directly as fertilizer]] or it can be put onto compost. Adding a healthy person's urine to compost usually will increase temperatures and therefore increase its ability to destroy pathogens and unwanted seeds. Urine from a person with no obvious symptoms of infection is generally much more sanitary than fresh feces. Unlike feces, urine doesn't attract disease-spreading [[flies]] (such as [[house flies]] or [[blow flies]]), and it doesn't contain the most hardy of pathogens, such as [[parasitic worm]] eggs. Urine usually does not [[odor|stink]] for long, particularly when it is fresh, diluted, or put on [[sorbent]]s.{{citation needed|date=October 2011}}




Urine is primarily composed of water and [[urea]]. Although metabolites of urea are nitrogen fertilizers, it is easy to over-fertilize with urine, or to utilize urine containing pharmaceutical (or other) content, creating too much ammonia for plants to absorb, acidic conditions, or other [[phytotoxicity]].<ref>[http://doku.b.tu-harburg.de/volltexte/2009/557/pdf/PhD_Thesis_Winker.pdf ''Pharmaceutical residures in urine and potential risks related to use as fertilzer in agriculture,'' Martina Winker, Doctoral dissertation, 2009 ]</ref>




===Manure and bedding===

On many farms, the basic composting ingredients are manure generated on the farm and bedding. Straw and sawdust are common bedding materials. Non-traditional bedding materials are also used, including newspaper and chopped cardboard. The amount of manure composted on a livestock farm is often determined by cleaning schedules, land availability, and weather conditions. Each type of manure has its own physical, chemical, and biological characteristics. Cattle and horse manures, when mixed with bedding, possess good qualities for composting. Swine manure, which is very wet and usually not mixed with bedding material, must be mixed with straw or similar raw materials. Poultry manure also must be blended with carbonaceous materials - those low in nitrogen preferred, such as sawdust or straw.<ref>Dougherty, Mark. (1999). Field Guide to On-Farm Composting. Ithaca, New York: Natural Resource, Agriculture, and Engineering Service.</ref>




===Microorganisms===

With the proper mixture of water, oxygen, carbon, and nitrogen, micro-organisms are allowed to break down organic matter to produce compost.<ref name="Greenmi">{{cite web|url=http://greenmi.net/compost-made-simple/|title=Compost Made Simple|publisher=Greenmi.net|accessdate=21 October 2010}}</ref> The composting process is dependant on micro-organisms to break down organic matter into compost. There are many types of microorganisms found in active compost of which the most common are:<ref name="cornell">{{cite web|url=http://compost.css.cornell.edu/microorg.html|title=Composting - Compost Microorganisms|work=[[Cornell University]]|accessdate=6 October 2010}}</ref>

* [[Bacteria]]- The most numerous of all the [[micro organisms]] found in compost.

* [[Actinomycetes]]- Necessary for breaking down paper products such as newspaper, [[bark]], etc.

* [[Fungi]]- [[Molds]] and [[yeast]] help break down materials that bacteria cannot, especially [[lignin]] in woody material.

* [[Protozoa]]- Help consume bacteria, fungi and micro organic particulates.

* [[Rotifers]]- Rotifers help control populations of bacteria and small protozoans.




In addition, [[earthworm]]s not only ingest partly composted material, but also continually re-create aeration and drainage tunnels as they move through the compost.




A lack of a healthy micro-organism community is the main reason why composting processes are slow in [[landfills]] with environmental factors such as lack of oxygen, nutrients or water being the cause of the depleted biological community.<ref name="cornell"/>




==Uses==

{{Main|Uses of compost}}

Compost is generally recommended as an additive to soil, or other matrices such as [[coir]] and [[peat]], as a [[tilth]] improver, supplying humus and nutrients. It provides a rich ''growing medium'', or a porous, absorbent material that holds moisture and soluble minerals, providing the support and [[nutrients]] in which plants can flourish, although it is rarely used alone, being primarily mixed with [[soil]], [[sand]], grit, bark chips, [[vermiculite]], [[perlite]], or [[clay]] granules to produce [[loam]]. Compost can be tilled directly into the soil or growing medium to boost the level of organic matter and the overall fertility of the soil. Compost that is ready to be used as an additive is dark brown or even black with an earthy smell.<ref>[http://www.epa.gov/wastes/conserve/rrr/greenscapes/pubs/asla-soil.pdf Healthy Soils, Healthy Landscapes]</ref>




Generally, direct seeding into a compost is not recommended due to the speed with which it may dry and the possible presence of [[phytotoxin]]s that may inhibit germination,<ref>Morel, P. and Guillemain, G. 2004. Assessment of the possible phytotoxicity of a substrate using an easy and representative biotest. Acta Horticulture 644:417–423</ref><ref>Itävaara et al. Compost maturity - problems associated with testing. in Proceedings of Composting. Innsbruck Austria 18-21.10.2000</ref><ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18585031 Phytotoxicity and maturation]</ref> and the possible tie up of nitrogen by incompletely decomposed lignin.<ref name="compost.css.cornell.edu"/> It is very common to see blends of 20–30% compost used for transplanting [[seedlings]] at [[cotyledon]] stage or later.




Composting can destroy [[pathogen]]s or unwanted [[seed]]s. Unwanted living plants (or [[weed]]s) can be discouraged by [[Mulch#Mulching (composting) over unwanted plants|covering with mulch/compost]]. The "[[biopesticide|microbial pesticides]]" in compost may include [[thermophile]]s and [[mesophile]]s, however certain composting [[detritivores]] such as [[black soldier fly larvae]] and [[redworm]]s, also reduce many pathogens. Thermophilic (high-temperature) composting is well known to destroy many seeds and nearly all types of pathogens (exceptions may include [[prion]]s). The [[Disinfection|sanitizing]] qualities of ([[thermophilic]]) composting are desirable where there is a high likelihood of pathogens, such as with [[manure]]. Applications include [[humanure]] composting or the [[deep litter]] technique.




==Composting approaches==

In addition to the traditional compost pile, various approaches have been developed to handle different composting processes, ingredients, locations, and applications for the composted product.




===Grub composting===

[[v:Grub composting|Grub composting]] uses the [[black soldier fly larvae]] ('''BSFL''') to quickly convert manure or kitchen waste into an animal feed for [[poultry]], fish, pigs, lizards, turtles, and possibly dogs. In a grub bin, BSFL self-harvest when mature by crawling into a separate collection container. The harvested grubs are exceptionally nutritious and medicinal for poultry. This is probably the fastest composting technique. The composted residue can be used as a [[soil amendment]] or as food for [[worm]]s ([[redworm]]s).




BSFL often appear naturally in [[worm bin]]s, [[composting toilet]]s, or [[compost bin]]s. Without much added cost, these devices could be designed to also harvest BSFL.




===Bokashi composting===

[[Image:Bokashi bin - inside.JPG|thumb|Inside a recently started bokashi bin. The aerated base is just visible through the food scraps and bokashi bran.]]

Bokashi composting uses an [[Aerobic organism|aerobic]] or [[Anaerobic organism|anaerobic]] inoculation to produce the compost. Once a [[starter culture]] is made, it can be used to extend the culture indefinitely, like [[yogurt]] culture. Since the popular introduction of [[effective microorganism]]s (EM), bokashi is commonly made with only [[molasses]], water, EM, and [[wheat bran]].




In home composting applications, kitchen waste is placed into a container (often known as a bokashi bin or bokashi bucket) that can be sealed with an [[air-tight]] lid. These scraps are then [[Inoculation|inoculated]] with a bokashi EM mix. This usually takes the form of a carrier, such as [[rice hulls]], wheat bran, or sawdust, that has been inoculated with composting micro-organisms. The EM are natural [[lactic acid]] bacteria, yeast, and [[phototroph]]ic bacteria that act as a microbe community within the kitchen scraps, fermenting and accelerating breakdown of the organic matter. The user would place alternating layers of food scraps and Bokashi mix until the container is full. Liquid "compost tea" is drained once or twice a week and can be diluted 1:100 and added to plants as fertilizer, and is safe to pour down the sewer for disposal.<ref>{{cite web|title=Bokashi Composting Australia|url=http://www.bokashi.com.au/How-Bokashi-works.htm}}</ref> Once the container is full, it is left to ferment for one to two weeks in the container, and then buried under 6-8&nbsp;inches of soil, in ground or in a non-reactive container. After another two weeks buried under soil, the food scraps should be broken down into rich humus.




===Compost tea===

Compost tea is a liquid extract or a dissolved solution but not simply a suspension of compost. It is made by steeping compost in water for 3–7 days. It was discovered in Germany and became a practice to suppress foliar fungal diseases by nature of the bacterial competition, suppression, antibiosis on the leaf surface (phyllosphere). It has also been used as a fertilizer although lab tests show it is very weak in nutrients with less than 100ppm of available nitrogen and potassium. Other salts present in the tea solution are sodium, chlorides and sulfates.<ref>Zhang, W., Han, D. Y., Dick, W. A., Davis, K. R., and Hoitink, H. A. J. 1998. Compost and compost water extract-induced systemic acquired resistance in cucumber and ''Arabidopsis''. Phytopathology 88:450-455.</ref> The extract is applied as a spray to non-edible plant parts such as seedlings, or as a soil-drench (root dip), or as a surface spray to reduce incidence of harmful [[phytopathogenic]] fungi in the [[phyllosphere]].<ref>Tränkner, A. 1992. Use of agricultural and municipal organic wastes to develop suppression to plant pathogens. in: ''Biological Control of Plant Diseases''. E. C. Tjamos, G. C. Papavizas, and R. J. Cook, eds. Plenum Press, New York.</ref>




===Hügelkultur===

The practice of making raised garden beds filled with rotting wood.<ref name="richsoil.com">http://www.richsoil.com/hugelkultur/</ref><ref name="permaculture.org.au">http://permaculture.org.au/2010/08/03/the-art-and-science-of-making-a-hugelkultur-bed-transforming-woody-debris-into-a-garden-resource/</ref> It is in effect creating a [[Nurse log]], however, covered with dirt.




Benefits of hugelkultur garden beds include water retention and warming of soil.<ref name="richsoil.com"/><ref>http://permaculture.org.au/2012/01/04/hugelkultur-composting-whole-trees-with-ease/#more-6825</ref> Buried wood becomes like a [[sponge (material)|sponge]] as it decomposes, able to capture water and store it for later use by crops planted on top of the hugelkultur bed.<ref name="richsoil.com"/><ref>Hemenway, Toby (2009). Gaia's Garden: A Guide to Home-Scale Permaculture. Chelsea Green Publishing. pp. 84-85. ISBN 978-1-60358-029-8.</ref>




The buried decomposing wood will also give off heat, as all compost does, for several years. These effects have been used by [[Sepp Holzer]] for one to allow fruit trees to survive at otherwise inhospitable temperatures and altitudes.<ref name="permaculture.org.au"/>




==="Humanure"{{anchor|Humanure}}===

'''"Humanure"''' is a [[portmanteau]] [[neologism]] designating human excrement (feces and urine) that is [[recycling|recycled]] via composting for agricultural or other purposes. The term was first used in a 1994 book by Joseph Jenkins<ref>[http://www.josephjenkins.com ''Joseph Jenkins'']</ref> that advocates the use of this [[organic material|organic]] soil amendment.<ref>{{cite book |title= The Humanure Handbook: A Guide to Composting Human Manure|last= Jenkins|first=J.C. |year= 2005|publisher= Joseph Jenkins, Inc.; 3rd edition|location=Grove City, PA |isbn= 978-0-9644258-3-5|pages=255 |url=http://www.humanurehandbook.com |accessdate=April 2011}}</ref>




Humanure is '''not''' [[sewage]] that has been processed by [[Sewage treatment|waste-treatment]] facilities, which may include waste from [[industry|industrial]] and other sources; rather, it is the combination of feces and urine with paper and additional [[carbon]] material (such as [[sawdust]]). A humanure system, such as a [[compost toilet]], does not require water or electricity, and when properly managed does not smell. A compost toilet collects human excrement which is then added to a hot compost heap together with sawdust and straw or other carbon rich materials, where pathogens are destroyed.  A [[composting toilet]] processes the waste in situ. Because the term "humanure" has no authoritative definition it is subject to misuse; news reporters occasionally fail to correctly distinguish between humanure and "sewer sludge" or "biosolids".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.yourottawaregion.com/feature/article/1224782--humanure-dumping-sickens-homeowner |title='Humanure' dumping sickens homeowner |author=Courtney Symons |date=13 October 2011 |work=YourOttawaRegion |publisher=Metroland Media Group Ltd. |accessdate=16 October 2011 }}</ref>




By disposing of feces and urine through composting, the nutrients contained in them are returned to the soil. This aids in preventing [[soil degradation]]. Human fecal matter and urine have high percentages of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, carbon, and calcium. It is equal to many [[fertilizers]] and [[manures]] purchased in garden stores. Humanure aids in the conservation of [[fresh water]] by avoiding the usage of potable water required by the typical flush [[toilet]]. It further prevents the pollution of ground water by controlling the fecal matter decomposition before entering the system. When properly managed, there should be no ground contamination from [[leachate]].




As a substitute for a flush water process, it reduces the energy consumption and, hence, [[greenhouse gas]] emissions associated with the transportation and processing of [[Water purification|water]] and waste water.




Humanure may be deemed safe for humans to use on crops if handled in accordance with local health regulations, and composted properly. This means that thermophilic decomposition of the humanure must heat it sufficiently to destroy harmful pathogens, or enough time must have elapsed since fresh material was added that [[biology|biological]] activity has killed any pathogens. To be safe for crops, a curing stage is often needed to allow a second mesophilic phase to reduce potential phytotoxins.




Humanure is different from [[night soil]], which is raw human waste spread on crops. While aiding the return of nutrients in fecal matter to the soil, it can carry and spread a number of human pathogens. Humanure kills these pathogens both by the extreme heat of the composting and the extended amount of time (1 to 2 years) that it is allowed to decompose.




===Vermicompost===

[[Image:Worm.casts.jpg|thumb|left|Rotary screen harvested worm castings]]

[[Vermicompost]] is the product of composting utilizing various species of worms, usually [[Eisenia foetida|red wigglers]], [[Enchytraeus buchholzi|white worms]], and earthworms to create a heterogeneous mixture of decomposing vegetable or food waste (excluding meat, dairy, fats, or oils), bedding materials, and vermicast. Vermicast, also known as [[worm castings]], worm humus or worm manure, is the end-product of the breakdown of organic matter by [[species]] of earthworm.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://southwoodsforestgardens.blogspot.com/2009/01/paper-on-invasive-european-worms.html |title=Paper on Invasive European Worms |accessdate=22 February 2009}}</ref> Vermicomposting is widely used in North America for on-site institutional processing of food waste, such as in hospitals and shopping malls.<ref name="jgpress.com">{{cite web | url=http://www.jgpress.com/BCArticles/2000/110051.html | title=Latest Developments in Mid- to Large-scale Vermicomposting | accessdate=31 January 2012}}</ref> This type of composting is sometimes suggested as a feasible indoor home composting method.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mass.gov/dep/recycle/reduce/vermi.htm |title=Vermicomposting: Indoor Composting with Earthworms |accessdate=201-06-26}}</ref> Vermicomposting has gained popularity in both these industrial and domestic settings because, as compared to conventional composting, it provides a way to compost organic materials more quickly (as defined by a higher rate of [[carbon-to-nitrogen ratio]] increase) and to attain products that have lower [[salinity]] levels that are therefore more beneficial to plant mediums.<ref name="Lacanzo, 2008">{{cite journal | author = Lazcano, Cristina; Gómez-Brandón, María; Domínguez, Jorge | title = Comparison of the effectiveness of composting and vermicomposting for the biological stabilization of cattle manure | journal = Chemosphere | volume = 72 | issue = | pages = 1013–1019 | year = 2008 | pmid = | doi = | url = http://webs.uvigo.es/jdguez/wp-content/uploads/2011/10/Comparison-of-the-effectiveness-of-composting-and-vermicomposting.pdf}}</ref>




The earthworm species (or '''composting worms''') most often used are red wigglers (''[[Eisenia fetida]]'' or ''[[Eisenia andrei]]''), though European nightcrawlers (''[[Eisenia hortensis]]'' or ''[[Eisenia hortensis|Dendrobaena Veneta]]'') could also be used. Red wigglers are recommended by most vermiculture experts, as they have some of the best appetites and breed very quickly. Users refer to European nightcrawlers by a variety of other names, including ''dendrobaenas'', ''dendras'', Dutch Nightcrawlers, and Belgian nightcrawlers.




Containing water-soluble nutrients, vermicompost is a nutrient-rich [[organic fertilizer]] and soil conditioner in a form that is relatively easy for plants to absorb.<ref>Coyne, Kelly and Erik Knutzen. ''The Urban Homestead: Your Guide to Self-Sufficient Living in the Heart of the City.'' Port Townsend: Process Self Reliance Series, 2008.</ref> Worm castings are sometimes used as an [[organic fertilizer]]. Because the [[earthworm]]s grind and uniformly mix minerals in simple forms, plants need only minimal effort to obtain them. The worms' digestive systems also add beneficial microbes to help create a "living" soil environment for plants.{{citation needed|date=October 2011}}




Vermicompost tea in conjunction with 10% castings has been shown to cause up to a 1.7 times growth in plant mass over plants grown without.<ref>[http://www.wormsetc.com/worms-etc-blog/2010/04/worm-castings/ Web article on worm castings effects on plant growth]</ref>




==History==

[[File:Green compost bin.JPG|thumb|right|A modern compost bin constructed from plastics]]

Composting as a recognized practice dates to at least the early Roman Empire since [[Pliny the Elder]] (AD 23-79). Traditionally, composting was to pile organic materials until the next planting season, at which time the materials would have decayed enough to be ready for use in the soil. The advantage of this method is that little working time or effort is required from the composter and it fits in naturally with agricultural practices in temperate climates. Disadvantages (from the modern perspective) are that space is used for a whole year, some nutrients might be leached due to exposure to rainfall, and disease producing organisms and insects may not be adequately controlled.




Composting was somewhat modernized beginning in the 1920s in Europe as a tool for organic farming.<ref>[http://www.trit.us/farming/history-organic-farming.html Heckman, J. 2006. A history of organic farming: transitions from Sir Albert Howard’s War in the Soil to USDA National Organic Program. Renew. Agric. Food Syst. 21:143–150.]</ref> The first industrial station for the transformation of urban organic materials into compost was set up in Wels/Austria in the year 1921.<ref>Welser Anzeiger vom 05. Januar 1921, 67. Jahrgang, Nr. 2, S. 4</ref> The early personages most cited for propounding composting within farming are for the German-speaking world [[Rudolf Steiner]], founder of a farming method called [[biodynamics]], and [[Annie Francé-Harrar]], who was appointed on behalf of the government in [[Mexico]] and supported the country 1950–1958 to set up a large humus organization in the fight against erosion and soil degradation. In the English-speaking world it was [[Sir Albert Howard]] who worked extensively in [[India]] on sustainable practices and [[Lady Eve Balfour]] who was a huge proponent of composting. Composting was imported to America by various followers of these early European movements in the form of persons such as [[Jerome Irving Rodale|J.I. Rodale]] (founder of Rodale Organic Gardening), E.E. Pfeiffer (who developed scientific practices in biodynamic farming), Paul Keene (founder of Walnut Acres in Pennsylvania), and Scott and Helen Nearing (who inspired the back-to-land movement of the 1960s). Coincidentally, some of these personages met briefly in India - all were quite influential in the U.S. from the 1960s into the 1980s.




There are many modern proponents of rapid composting that attempt to correct some of the perceived problems associated with traditional, slow composting. Many advocate that compost can be made in 2 to 3 weeks.<ref>[http://vric.ucdavis.edu/pdf/compost_rapidcompost.pdf The Rapid Compost Method by Robert Raabe, Professor of Plant Pathology, Berkeley]</ref> Many such short processes involve a few changes to traditional methods, including smaller, more homogenized pieces in the compost, controlling [[Carbon to nitrogen ratio|carbon to nitrogen (CN) ratio]] at 30 to 1 or less, and monitoring the moisture level more carefully. However, none of these parameters differ significantly from early writings of Howard and Balfour, suggesting that in fact modern composting has not made significant advances over the traditional methods that take a few months to work. For this reason and others, many modern scientists who deal with carbon transformations are sceptical that there is a "super-charged" way to get nature to make compost rapidly.<ref>http://www.bvsde.paho.org/bvsacd/cd43/korner.pdf</ref>




In fact, both sides are right to some extent. The bacterial activity in rapid high heat methods breaks down the material to the extent that pathogens and seeds are destroyed, and the original feedstock is unrecognizable. At this stage, the compost can be used to prepare fields or other planting areas.  However, most professionals recommend that the compost be given time to cure before using in a nursery for starting seeds or growing young plants. The curing time allows fungi to continue the decomposition process and eliminating phytotoxic substances.{{citation needed|date=March 2012}}




Some cities such as Seattle and [[San Francisco Mandatory Recycling and Composting Ordinance|San Francisco]] require food and yard waste to be sorted for composting.<ref>{{cite web|title=San Francisco Signs Mandatory Recycling & Composting Laws |url=http://www.inhabitat.com/2009/06/24/san-francisco-mandates-recycling-composting/|accessdate=19 September 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=The case for mandatory composting |url=http://www.boston.com/bostonglobe/magazine/articles/2010/03/21/the_case_for_mandatory_composting/|accessdate=19 September 2010|work=The Boston Globe|first=Aubin|last=Tyler|date=21 March 2010}}</ref>




[[Kew Gardens]] in London has one of the biggest non-commercial compost heaps in Europe.<ref>{{cite news|title=Kew Compost heaps|url=http://www.kew.org/visit-kew-gardens/garden-attractions-A-Z/compost-heap.htm|publisher=[[Kew Gardens]]|accessdate=2012-08-09}}</ref>




==Compost and land-filling==

As concern about [[landfill]] space increases, worldwide interest in recycling by means of composting is growing, since composting is a process for converting decomposable organic materials into useful stable products.<ref>[http://www.stormcon.com/mw_0107_history.html A Brief History of Solid Waste Management]</ref> Composting is one of the only ways to revitalize soil vitality due to [[phosphorus]] depletion in soil.<ref>{{cite web|title=Preventing Contaminants in Home Compost Piles |url=http://www.networx.com/article/preventing-contaminants-in-home-compost|accessdate=16 June 2012}}</ref> Industrial scale composting in the form of [[in-vessel composting]], [[aerated static pile composting]], and anaerobic digestion takes place in most Western countries now, and in many areas is mandated by law. There are process and product guidelines in Europe that date to the early 1980s (Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland) and only more recently in the UK and the US. In both these countries, private trade associations within the industry have established loose standards, some say as a stop-gap measure to discourage independent government agencies from establishing tougher consumer-friendly standards.<ref>[http://www.wrap.org.uk/composting/production/bsi_pas_100.html British Standards Institute Specifications FAQ]</ref><ref>http://www.compostingcouncil.org/</ref> The USA is the only Western country that does not distinguish sludge-source compost from green-composts, and by default in the USA 50% of states expect composts to comply in some manner with the federal EPA 503 rule promulgated in 1984 for sludge products.<ref>U.S. Government Printing Office. 1998. Electronic Code of Federal Regulations. Title 40, part 503. Standards for the use or disposal of sewage sludge. Available at: http://ecfr.gpoaccess.gov/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c ecfr&tpl /ecfrbrowse/Title40/40cfr503 main 02.tpl. Retrieved 30 March 2009.</ref> Compost is regulated in Canada and Australia as well.




===Industrial systems===

[[Image:Bomberos2.jpg|thumb|right|A large compost pile that is steaming with the heat generated by [[thermophile|thermophilic]] microorganisms.]]

Industrial composting systems are increasingly being installed as a waste management alternative to landfills, along with other [[advanced waste processing systems]]. Mechanical sorting of mixed waste streams combined with anaerobic digestion or in-vessel composting is called [[mechanical biological treatment]], and are increasingly being used in developed countries due to regulations controlling the amount of organic matter allowed in landfills. Treating [[biodegradable waste]] before it enters a landfill reduces [[global warming]] from fugitive [[methane]]; untreated waste breaks down [[Anaerobic respiration|anaerobically]] in a landfill, producing [[landfill gas]] that contains [[atmospheric methane|methane]], a potent greenhouse gas.




Vermicomposting, also known as vermiculture, is used for medium-scale on-site institutional composting,  such as for food waste from universities and shopping malls: selected either as a more environmental choice, or to reduce the cost of commercial waste removal.<ref name="jgpress.com"/>




Large-scale composting systems are used by many urban areas around the world. Co-composting is a technique that combines solid waste with de-watered biosolids, although difficulties controlling inert and plastics contamination from [[municipal solid waste]] makes this approach less attractive. The World's largest MSW co-composter is the [[Edmonton Composting Facility]] in [[Edmonton]], [[Alberta]], [[Canada]], which turns 220,000 tonnes of residential solid waste and 22,500 dry tonnes of biosolids per year into 80,000 tonnes of compost. The facility is 38,690&nbsp;meters<sup>2</sup> (416,500&nbsp;ft<sup>2</sup>), equivalent to 4½ [[Canadian football]] fields, and the operating structure is the largest stainless steel building in [[North America]], the size of 14 [[NHL]] rinks.<ref>[http://www.edmonton.ca/for_residents/garbage_recycling/edmonton-composting-facility.aspx Edmonton composting facility]</ref> In 2006, the [[State of Qatar]] awarded Keppel Seghers Singapore, a subsidiary of [[Keppel Corporation]] to begin construction on a 275,000 tonne/year Anaerobic Digestion and Composting Plant licensed by [[Kompogas]] Switzerland. This plant, with 15 independent anaerobic digestors will be the world's largest composting facility once fully operational in early 2011 and forms part of the [[Qatar Domestic Solid Waste Management Center]], the largest integrated [[waste management]] complex in the [[Middle East]].<ref>[http://keppelseghers.com.sg/ref_Qatar Keppel Seghers developing the first integrated waste management facility in the Middle East]</ref>




Another large MSW composter is the [[Lahore Composting Facility]] in [[Lahore]], Pakistan, which has a capacity to convert 1,000 tonnes of municipal solid waste per day into compost. It also has a capacity to convert substantial portion of the intake into [[Refuse-derived fuel]] (RDF) materials for further combustion use in several energy consuming industries across Pakistan e.g., in cement manufacturing companies where it is used to heat up the [[Cement Kiln]] systems. This project has also been approved by the Executive Board of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ([[UNFCCC]]) for reduction of emission of methane gas into the climate and has been registered with a capacity of reducing 108,686 metric tonnes CO2 equivalent per annum.<ref>Details on project design and its validation and monitoring reports are available at: [http://cdm.unfccc.int/Projects/DB/SGS-UKL1248265320.71/view Project 2778 : Composting of Organic Content of Municipal Solid Waste in Lahore]</ref>




==See also==

{{Portal|Sustainable development|Gardening}}

* [[Ecological sanitation]]

* [[List of composting systems]]

* [[Municipal composting]]

* [[San Francisco Mandatory Recycling and Composting Ordinance]]

* [[Jean Pain]]

* [[Terra preta]]




==References==

{{Reflist|2}}




==Further reading==

* Roger Tim Haug, Practical Handbook of Compost Engineering [Hardcover]. Lewis Publishers.

* Insam, H; Riddech, N; Klammer, S (Eds.): ''Microbiology of Composting'',Springer Verlag, Berlin New York 2002, ISBN 978-3-540-67568-6

* Hogg, D., J. Barth, E. Favoino, M. Centemero, V. Caimi, F. Amlinger, W. Devliegher, W. Brinton., S. Antler. 2002. ''Comparison of compost standards within the EU, North America, and Australasia''. Waste and Resources Action Programme Committee (UK)




==External links==

* [http://www.recyclenow.com/home_composting/composting/the_look_of.html The Look of Compost] - Waste & Resources Action Programme, UK

* [http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/conserve/tools/cpg/products/compost.htm Compost and Fertilizer Made From Recovered Organic Materials] - US Environmental Protection Agency regulations

* [http://www.bae.ncsu.edu/topic/vermicomposting/ Vermicompost homepage] - North Carolina State University Extension

* [http://www.simplysetup.com/in-the-garden/worm-composting Worm-Composting]- SimplySetup guide to reducing carbon footprints

* [http://web.extension.illinois.edu/homecompost/science.html Composting for the Homeowner] - University of Illinois Extension




;Organisations

* [http://www.goodgardeners.org.uk/index.html Good Gardener's Association] (UK)

* [http://www.cre.ie Cré, Composting Association of Ireland]

* [http://www.compostingcouncil.org US Composting Council]




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[[Category:Organic gardening]]

[[Category:Organic farming]]

[[Category:Organic fertilizers]]

[[Category:Waste management]]

[[Category:Gardening aids]]

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