Difference between revisions 112480947 and 112480948 on dewiki

{{Infobox military conflict
|image=[[ImagFile:Greekfire-madridskylitzes1.jpg|center|300px]]
|caption=[[Greek fire]], first used by the [[Byzantine Navy]] during the Byzantine-Arab Wars.
|conflict=Byzantine-Arab Wars
|partof=the [[Muslim conquests]]
|date=634–1057
|place= Levant, Syria, Egypt, North Africa, Anatolia, Crete, Sicily, Southern Italy
|result= Overall Arab gains, despite [[Byzantine-Arab Wars (780–1180)|Byzantine resurgence]]
|territory=[[Levant]], [[Mesopotamia]] and [[North Africa]] annexed by [[Arab]]s
(contracted; show full)

===Arab conquest of Roman Syria: 634–638===
{{details|Muslim conquest of Syria}}
{| class="toccolours" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 2em; font-size: 85%;  color:black; width:300px; max-width: 40%;" cellspacing="5"
|[[
ImagFile:Muslim-Byzantine troop movement (635-636).svg|center|thumb| Muslim and Byzantine troop movements before the [[battle of Yarmouk]].]]
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | "The people of [[Homs]] replied [to the Muslims], "We like your rule and justice far better than the state of oppression and tyranny in which we were. The army of Heraclius we shall indeed, with your 'amil's' help, repulse from the city." The Jews rose and said, "We swear by the [[Torah]], no gover(contracted; show full)endid capitals of [[Fes, Morocco|Fes]] and [[Morocco]], and at length penetrated to the verge of the [[Atlantic]] and the [[Sahara|great desert]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=Desmond J. |authorlink= |coauthors=Roland Anthony Oliver, J. D. Fage, A. D. Roberts |editor= |others= |title=The Cambridge History of Africa |origdate= |origyear=1975 |origmonth= |url= |format= |accessdate= |edition= |series= |date= |year= 1978|month= |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location= |language= |isbn=0-521
2-21592-7 |oclc= |doi= |id=  |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote=|page=637}}</ref> In his conquest of the [[Maghreb]], he took the coastal cities of [[Bugia]] and [[Tangier|Tingi]], overwhelming what had once been the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] province of [[Mauretania Tingitana]] where here he was finally halted.<ref name="Gibbon">Edward Gibbon, ''History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'',  [http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/g/gibbon/edward/g43d/chapter51.html Ch(contracted; show full) the siege was Eyup, the standard bearer of Muhammed and the last of his companions; to Muslims today, his tomb is considered one of the holiest sites in Istanbul.<ref name="Walls">''[http://www.ospreypublishing.com/title_detail.php/title=S759X~ser=FOR The Walls of Constantinople, AD 324–1453]'', [[Osprey Publishing]], ISBN 1-84176-759-X.</ref> The Byzantine victory over the invading Umayyads halted the Islamic expansion into [[Europe]] for almost thirty years.

[[
ImagFile:Solidus-Justinian II-Christ b-sb1413.jpg|thumb|250px|left|In spite of the turbulent reign of Justinian II, last emperor of the [[Heraclian dynasty]], his coinage still bore the traditional "[[Pax Romana|PAX]]", ''peace''.]]
(contracted; show full)7–345</ref> The Caliphate's army and navy, led by Maslamah, numbered some 120,000 men and 1,800 ships according to the sources. Whatever the real number, it was a huge force, far larger than the imperial army. Thankfully for Leo and the Empire, the capital's sea walls had recently been repaired and strengthened. In addition, the emperor concluded an alliance with the Bulgar khan [[Tervel]], who agreed to harass the invaders' rear.<ref>Treadgold (1997), pp. 346–347</ref>

[[
ImagFile:Byzantijnse stadsmuren.JPG|thumb|right|250px|The [[Theodosian Walls]] of [[Constantinople]]]]
From July 717 to August 718, the city was [[Siege of Constantinople (717–718)|besieged by land and sea]] by the Muslims, who built an extensive double line of [[circumvallation]] and [[contravallation]] on the landward side, isolating the capital. Their attempt to complete the blockade by sea however failed when the [[Byzantine navy]] employed [[Greek fire]] against them; the Arab fleet kept well off the city wal(contracted; show full)menia in the 930s; the next three decades were dominated by the struggle of the [[Phokas (Byzantine family)|Phokas]] clan and their dependants against the [[Hamdanid]] emir of [[Aleppo]], [[Sayf al-Dawla]]. Al-Dawla was finally defeated by [[Nikephoros II Phokas]], who conquered [[Cilicia]] and northern Syria and recovered Crete. His nephew and successor, [[John I Tzimiskes]], pushed even further south, almost reaching [[Jerusalem]], but his death in 976 ended Byzantine expansion towards [[Palestine]].

[[
ImagFile:Histamenon nomisma-Nicephorus II and Basil II-sb1776.jpg|thumb|left||[[Nikephoros II]] and his stepson [[Basil II]] (right). Under the [[Macedonian dynasty]], the Byzantine Empire became the strongest power in Europe, recovering territories lost in the war.]]

(contracted; show full)al which Manuel would pursue with determination throughout his reign and which would be evident when King Amalric subsequently placed his whole kingdom under the protection of Manuel, effectively extending the agreement on Antioch by making the entire Kingdom of Jerusalem at least nominally part of the Empire. However, this was a personal arrangement, in the [[feudal]] tradition of [[Western Europe]], and as such only applied for as long as Manuel and Amalric were the rulers of their respective states.

[[
ImagFile:The Byzantine Empire, c.1180.PNG|thumb|right|The Byzantine Empire in purple, c.1180, at the end of the [[Komnenian restoration|Komnenian period]] and the Byzantine-Arab Wars.]]
(contracted; show full)med [[Sultan of Egypt]]; his uniting of Egypt and Syria would ultimately lead to the [[Third Crusade]]. Meanwhile, the Byzantine alliance ended with the death of Manuel I in 1180; Manuel would be the last Emperor truly sympathetic to the Crusades.<ref name="Castle">''[http://www.ospreypublishing.com/title_detail.php/title=S8278 Crusader Castles in the Holy Land 1192–1302]'', [[Osprey Publishing]], ISBN 1-84176-827-8.</ref>

==Effects==
<!-- Alternative image: [[
ImagFile:Charlemagne and Pope Adrian I.jpg|thumb|right|The Byzantine-Arab Wars provided the conditions that developed [[feudalism]] in [[Middle Ages|Medieval Europe]].]]-->
[[ImagFile:Karl den store krons av leo III.jpg|thumb|left|The Byzantine-Arab Wars provided the conditions that developed [[feudalism]] in [[Middle Ages|Medieval Europe]].]]

{{see|Byzantine Papacy|East–West Schism}}
(contracted; show full)
{{refend}}

===Secondary sources===
{{refbegin}}
*{{cite journal|last=Baynes|first=Norman H.|year=1912|title=The restoration of the Cross at Jerusalem |doi=10.1093/ehr/XXVII.CVI.287|journal=The English Historical Review|volume=27|issue=106|pages=287–299}}
* {{Cite book |title=The end of the jihâd state: the reign of Hishām ibn ʻAbd al-Malik and the collapse of the Umayyads | first = Khalid Yahya | last = Blankinship | publisher = State University of New York Press | year = 1994 | isbn = 978-0-7914
-1827-7 | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Jz0Yy053WS4C |postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}}}}
* {{citation | last = Brooks | first = E.W. | title = The Cambridge Medieval History, Vol. IV: The Eastern Roman Empire (717–1453) | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 1923 | chapter = Chapter V. The Struggle with the Saracens (717–867) | pages = 119–138}}
*{{cite book |title=The Arab Conquest of Egypt{{spaced ndash}}And the Last Thirty Years of the Roman|last=Butler|first=Alfred J.|year=2007|publisher=Read Books|isbn=1-406-7-5238-X|url=http://books.google.com/?id=1nvvDMWN-iEC&dq=Heraclius,+battle+of+Tabuk}}
*{{cite book |title=Europe|last=Davies|first=Norman|authorlink=Norman Davies|year=1996|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0-198-820171-0|url=http://books.google.com/?id=jrVW9W9eiYMC&dq=Cyprus,+643,+Arabs|chapter=The Birth of Europe}}
* {{cite book | first= Nadia Maria | last=El-Cheikh | title=Byzantium viewed by the Arabs | publisher=Harvard Center of Middle Eastern Studies |year= 2004 | isbn=978-0-932885-30-2}}
* {{citation | title = The New Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 1: The Formation of the Islamic World, Sixth to Eleventh Centuries | editor-first = Chase F. | editor-last = Robinson | chapter = The empire in Iraq, 763–861 | first = Tayeb | last = El Hibri | pages = 269–304 | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 2011 | isbn = 978-0-521-83823-8}}
*{{cite journal|last=Foss|first=Clive|year=1975|title=The Persians in Asia Minor and the End of Antiquity|journal=The English Historical Review|volume=90|pages=721–47|doi=10.1093/ehr/XC.CCCLVII.721}}
*{{cite book |title=The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars (Part II, 363–630 AD) |last=Greatrex |first=Geoffrey |coauthors=Lieu, Samuel N. C. |year=2002 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=0-415-14687-9 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=zoZIxpQ8A2IC&dq=Eternal+Peace,+Justinian,+Kavadh}}
*{{cite book|last=Haldon|first=John|title=Byzantium in the Seventh Century: the Transformation of a Culture|publisher=Cambridge|year=1997|isbn=0-521-31917-X|chapter=The East Roman World: the Politics of Survival|url=http://books.google.com/?id=pSHmT1G_5T0C&dq=Rhodes,+Arab,+655}}
*{{cite book |last=Haldon |first=John F. |title=Warfare, State and Society in the Byzantine World, 565-1204 |year=1999|publisher=Routledge |isbn=1-8572-8-494-1 |chapter=The Army at Wars: Campaigns |url=http://books.google.com/?id=-R0G0Enf58AC&dq=Haldon,+Warfare,+Byzantine+Society}}
*{{cite book |title=East Rome, Sasanian Persia And the End of Antiquity: Historiographical And Historical Studies|last=Howard-Johnston|first=James|authorlink=James Howard-Johnston|year=2006|publisher=Ashgate Publishing|isbn=0-860-78-992-6|url=http://books.google.com/?id=1U4rUaLdYnQC&dq=Howard-Johnston,+East+Rome,+Sasanian+Persia+and+the+End+of+Antiquity}}
* {{Cite book |title=Byzantium and the early Islamic conquests | first = Walter Emil | last = Kaegi | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 1995 | isbn = 0-5214-48455-3 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=IvPVEb17uzkC}}
*{{cite book |title=The Cambridge Ancient History|last=Kennedy|first=Hugh|authorlink=Hugh N. Kennedy|year=1970|publisher=Cambridge University Press|editor=Edwards, Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen |chapter=Syria, Palestine, and Mesopotamia|isbn=0-521-32591-9|url=http://books.google.com/?id=Qf8mrHjfZRoC&dq=muslim+conquest+of+Antioch}}
*{{cite book |title=The Cambridge History of Egypt|last=Kennedy|first=Hugh|year=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|editor=Daly, M.W.; Petry, Calf. F.|chapter=Egypt as a Province in the Islamic Caliphate, 641&ndash;868|isbn=0-521-47137-0|url=http://books.google.com/?id=2GD6og3c15IC&dq=muslim+conquest+of+Egypt}}
* {{citation | last = Kennedy | first = Hugh | title = The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State | publisher = Routledge | year = 2001 | isbn = 978-0-203-45853-2 }}
*{{cite book |title=The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: The Islamic Near East from the 6th to the 11th Century (Second Edition)|last=Kennedy|first=Hugh|year=2004|publisher=Pearson Education Ltd.|isbn=0-582-40525-4}}
*{{cite book |title=The Byzantine and Early Islamic Near East|last=Kennedy|first=Hugh|year=2006|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|chapter=Antioch: from Byzantium to Islam|isbn=0-754-6-5909-7|url=http://books.google.com/?id=XdFqgSBTYeYC&dq=muslim+conquest+of+Antioch}}
*{{cite book |title=Expanding Realism: The Historical Dimension of World Politics|last=Liska|first=George|year=1998|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=0-847-6-8680-9|url=http://books.google.com/?id=oaPlJgAACAAJ&dq=Liska,+Expanding+Realism|chapter=Projection contra Prediction: Alternative Futures and Options}}
*{{cite encyclopedia |year=1999 |title=Muhammad |encyclopedia=Late Antiquity: A Guide to the Postclassical World |publisher=Harvard University Press |editor=Warren Bowersock, Glen; Brown, Peter; Robert Lamont Brown, Peter; Grabar, Oleg |isbn=0-674-51173-5|url=http://books.google.com/?id=c788wWR_bLwC&dq=Late+Antiquity:+A+Guide+to+the+Postclassical+World}}
*{{cite book|last=Nicolle|first=Davis|title=Yarmuk AD&nbsp;636|year=1994|url=http://books.google.com/?id=IR9rNAai2koC&dq=muslim+conquest+of+Syria|isbn=1-855-32-414-8|publisher=Osprey Publishing}}
* {{cite book| first = John Julius| last = Norwich| title = Byzantium: The Early Centuries| publisher = Penguin Books| year = 1990| isbn = 9780-0-14-011447-8|authorlink=John Julius Norwich}}
* {{Cite book|last=Omrčanin |first=Ivo |title=Military history of Croatia |year=1984 |location= |publisher=Dorrance |isbn=0-8059-2893-6, 9780805928938}}
*{{Cite book | first1 = John H. | last1 = Pryor | last2= Jeffreys | first2 = Elizabeth M. | title = The Age of the ΔΡΟΜΩΝ: The Byzantine Navy ca. 500–1204 | publisher = Brill Academic Publishers | year = 2006 | isbn = 978-90-04-15197-0 | postscript = <!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}}}}
* {{Cite book|last=Rački | first=Franjo | authorlink=Franjo Rački | title=Odlomci iz državnoga práva hrvatskoga za narodne dynastie | publisher=F. Klemma | location= | year=1861 | language=Croatian | isbn=}}
*{{cite book|last=Read|first=Piers Paul|authorlink=Piers Paul Read|title=The Templars|publisher=[[Phoenix Books|Phoenix Press]], [[Orion Publishing Group]]|year=2001|isbn=0-75381-1087-5}}
*{{cite book|last=Runciman|first=Steven|authorlink=Steven Runciman|title=A History of the Crusades|year=1987|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-34770-X}}
*{{cite book|last=Sahas|first=Daniel J.|title=John of Damascus on Islam|year=1972|url=http://books.google.com/?id=pYSl_cyYHssC&dq=Baladhuri,+Heraclius,+Antioch|isbn=9-0-04-03495-1|publisher=BRILL|chapter=Historical Considerations}}
*{{cite book|last=Speck|first=Paul|title=Varia 1 (Poikila Byzantina 4)|year=1984|publisher=Rudolf Halbelt|chapter=Ikonoklasmus und die Anfänge der Makedonischen Renaissance|pages=175–210}}
*{{cite book |last=Stathakopoulos |first=Dionysios |title=Famine and Pestilence in the Late Roman and Early Byzantine Empire |year=2004 |publisher=Ashgate Publishing |isbn=0-7546-3021-8}}
*{{cite book|last=Treadgold|first=Warren|title=A History of the Byzantine State and Society|publisher=Stanford University Press|year=1997|isbn=0-804-7-2630-2|url=http://books.google.com/?id=nYbnr5XVbzUC&dq=Gregory,+Arab,+Exarchate,+Gennadius}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book
 |author=Kennedy, Hugh N.
 |year=2006
 |title=The Byzantine And Early Islamic Near East
 |publisher=Ashgate Publishing
 |isbn=0-7546-5909-7
}}
{{refend}}

{{good article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2011}}

[[Category:Byzantine–Arab Wars| ]]

{{Link FA|pt}}

[[ar:الحروب العربية البيزنطية]]
[[bg:Арабско-византийски войни]]
[[ca:Guerres arabobizantines]]
[[cs:Byzantsko-arabské války]]
[[et:Bütsantsi-Araabia sõjad]]
[[es:Guerras arabo-bizantinas]]
[[eo:Araba-bizancaj militoj]]
[[fr:Guerres arabo-byzantines]]
[[id:Peperangan Bizantium-Arab]]
[[it:Guerre arabo-bizantine]]
[[ms:Perang Arab-Byzantine]]
[[nl:Byzantijns-Arabische oorlogen]]
[[ja:アラブ・東ローマ戦争]]
[[pt:Guerras bizantino-árabes]]
[[ro:Războaiele bizantino-arabe]]
[[ru:Арабо-византийские войны]]
[[fi:Bysantin–arabien sodat]]
[[th:สงครามไบแซนไทน์-อาหรับ]]