Difference between revisions 1512291 and 1528151 on enwikiversity

[[Image:Detectors summary 3.png|thumb|right|200px|This tree diagram shows the relationship between types and classification of most common particle detectors. Credit: [[commons:User:Wdcf|Wdcf]].]]
'''Radiation detectors''' provide a signal that is converted to an electric current. The device is designed so that the current provided is proportional to the characteristics of the incident radiation.

There are detectors that provide a change in substance as the signal and these may be automated to provide an electric current or quantified proportional to the amount of new substance.
{{clear}}

==[[Astronomy]]==
{{main|Astronomy}}
A detector in [[radiation astronomy]] may need to be able to separate a collection of incoming radiation to obtain a clear set of signals for the radiation of interest. For example, a detector designed for [[red astronomy]] may need to be on the rocky-object surface of the [[Earth]] to separate X-rays and gamma-rays from red rays.

==[[Radiation]]==
{{main|Radiation}}
'''Def.''' an action or process of throwing or sending out a traveling ray in a line, beam, or stream of small cross section is called '''radiation'''.

"Radiation may affect materials and devices in deleterious ways:"<ref name=RadiationDamage>{{ cite web
|title=Radiation damage, In: ''Wikipedia''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=March 16,
(contracted; show full)|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=May 8,
|year=2013
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiation_hardening
|accessdate=2013-05-24 }}</ref>

==
[[Planetary science]]==s==
{{main|Planets/Sciences|Planetary sciences}}
[[Image:Ash and Steam Plume, Soufriere Hills Volcano, Montserrat.jpg|thumb|right|200px|This oblique astronaut photograph from the International Space Station (ISS) captures a white-to-grey ash and steam plume extending westwards from the Soufriere Hills volcano. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.]]
(contracted; show full)|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=May 5,
|year=2013
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadmium_telluride
|accessdate=2013-05-20 }}</ref>

==
[[Entities==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Entities|Entities]]==⏎
}}
'''Def.''' "the fraction of photoelectric events which end up in the photopeak of the measured energy spectrum"<ref name=Krawczynski>{{ cite book
|author=Henric S. Krawczynski ; Ira Jung ; Jeremy S. Perkins ; Arnold Burger ; Michael Groza
|title=Thick CZT Detectors for Space-Borne X-ray Astronomy, In: ''Hard X-Ray and Gamma-Ray Detector Physics VI, 1''
|publisher=The International Society for Optical Engineering
(contracted; show full)

'''Def.''' "the elastic collisions between the projectile ion and atoms in the sample ... [involving] the interaction of the ion with the ''nuclei'' in the target"<ref name=StoppingPowerParticleRadiation/> is called the '''nuclear stopping power'''.

==
[[Radiation astronomy sources==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Sources|SRadiation astronomy sources]]==⏎
}}
"[T]he hardware setup also defines key experimental parameters, such as source-detector distance, solid angle and detector shielding."<ref name=NeutronDetection>{{ cite web
|title=Neutron detection, In: ''Wikipedia''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=March 17,
|year=2013
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron_detection
(contracted; show full)|month=May 18,
|year=2013
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiography
|accessdate=2013-05-22 }}</ref>

"While in the past radium and radon have both been used for radiography, they have fallen out of use as they are radiotoxic alpha radiation emitters which are expensive; iridium-192 and cobalt-60 are far better photon sources."<ref name=Radiography/>

==
[[Objects==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Objects|Objects]]==⏎
 astronomy}}
"Feature-based object recognizers generally work by pre-capturing a number of fixed views of the object to be recognized, extracting features from these views, and then in the recognition process, matching these features to the scene and enforcing geometric constraints."<ref name=3DSingleObjectRecognition>{{ cite web
|title=3D single-object recognition, In: ''Wikipedia''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=August 22,
|year=2012
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D_single-object_recognition
|accessdate=2013-05-22 }}</ref>

"Object recognition – in computer vision, this is the task of finding a given object in an image or video sequence. Humans recognize a multitude of objects in images with little effort, despite the fact that the image of the objects may vary somewhat in different view points, in many different sizes / scale or even when they are translated or rotated. Objects can even be recognized when they are partially obstructed from view. This task is still a challenge for computer vision systems in general."<ref name=OutlineofObjectRecognition>{{ cite web
|title=Outline of object recognition, In: ''Wikipedia''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=April 5,
|year=2013
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_object_recognition
|accessdate=2013-05-22 }}</ref>

==Continuum==a==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Continua|Continua}}
[[Image:Continuous radiation source.jpg|thumb|right|200px|This is a xenon lamp which serves as a continuous light radiation source. Credit: Analytik Jena AG.]]
"A '''xenon arc lamp''' is a specialized type of gas discharge lamp, an electric light that produces light by passing electricity through ionized xenon gas at high pressure. It produces a bright white light that closely mimics natural sunlight."<ref name=XenonArcLamp>{{ cite web
(contracted; show full)|month=May 16,
|year=2013
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compton_scattering
|accessdate=2013-05-22 }}</ref>
{{clear}}

==Emissions==

{{main|Radiation astronomy/Emissions|Emissions}}
"Condensed noble gases, most notably liquid xenon and liquid argon, are excellent radiation detection media. They can produce two signatures for each particle interaction: a fast flash of light (scintillation) and the local release of charge (ionisation). In two-phase xenon – so called since it involves liquid and gas phases in equilibrium – the scintillation light produced by an interaction in the liquid is detected directly with photomultiplier tubes; the ionisation electrons released at the interaction site are drifted up to the liquid surface under an external electric field, and subsequently emitted into a thin layer of xenon vapour. Once in the gas, they generate a second, larger pulse of light (electroluminescence or proportional scintillation), which is detected by the same array of photomultipliers. These systems are also known as xenon 'emission detectors'.<ref name="dolgoshein">B. A. Dolgoshein, V. N. Lebedenko & B. I. Rodionov, "New method of registration of ionizing-particle tracks in condensed matter", ''JETP Lett.'' 11(11): 351 (1970)</ref>"<ref name=ZEPLINIII>{{ cite web
|title=ZEPLIN-III, In: ''Wikipedia''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=May 10,
|year=2013
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZEPLIN-III
|accessdate=2013-05-22 }}</ref>

==Absorptions==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Absorptions|Absorptions}}⏎
[[Image:Spectroscopy overview.svg|thumb|upright=2|center|300px|This is an overview of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]] absorption. Credit: .]]
(contracted; show full)tted lines). Upon striking the sample, photons that match the energy gap of the molecules present (green light in this example) are ''absorbed'' in order to excite the molecule. Other photons transmit unaffected and, if the radiation is in the visible region (400-700nm), the sample color is the complementary color of the absorbed light. By comparing the [[w:attenuation|attenuation]] of the transmitted light with the incident, an absorption spectrum can be obtained.
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==Bands==

{{main|Radiation astronomy/Bands|Bands}}⏎
[[Image:Bandgap in semiconductor.svg|right|thumb|200px|Semiconductor [[w:Electronic band structure|band structure]] is diagrammed qualitatively. Credit: [[commons:User:Pieter Kuiper|Pieter Kuiper]].]]
(contracted; show full)|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=May 20,
|year=2013
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_band_structure
|accessdate=2013-05-23 }}</ref>

==
[[Backgrounds==
{{main|Astronomy/Backgrounds|Backgrounds]]==⏎
}}
"The main components of background noise in neutron detection are high-energy photons, which aren't easily eliminated by physical barriers."<ref name=NeutronDetection/>

"'''[N]oise''' is a random fluctuation in an electrical signal, a characteristic of all [[w:electronics|electronic]] [[w:electrical circuit|circuits]].<ref name=noise>{{ cite book
|author=C. D. Motchenbacher, J. A. Connelly
|title=Low-noise electronic system design
(contracted; show full)che diode]], [[w:transient voltage suppression diode|transient voltage suppression diode]], [[w:transil|transil]], [[w:varistor|varistor]], overvoltage [[w:crowbar (circuit)|crowbar]], or a range of other overvoltage protective devices can divert ([[w:shunt (electrical)|shunt]]) this transient current thereby minimizing voltage.<ref>Transient Protection, LearnEMC Online Tutorial.  http://www.learnemc.com/tutorials/Transient_Protection/t-protect.html</ref>"<ref name=VoltageSpike/>

==
[[Meteors==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Meteors|Meteors]]==}}
[[Image:Big Meteor Explosion on Moon-19d7f8e05ad0515a229533edae7f1b19.jpeg|thumb|right|200px|The white spot on this image of the Earth side of the Moon is the impact site of a meteor from March 17, 2013. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:Hs-2009-23-crop.jpg|thumb|left|200px|This is a [[w:Hubble Space Telescope|Hubble Space Telescope]] image taken on July 23, 2009, showing a blemish of about 5,000 miles long left by the [[w:2009 Jupiter impact event|2009 Jupiter impact]].<ref name=Overbye>{{ cite web
|author=Dennis Overbye
|title=Hubble Takes Snapshot of Jupiter’s ‘Black Eye’
|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/25/science/space/25hubble.html?ref=science
|date=2009-07-24
|publisher=New York Times
|accessdate=2009-07-25 }}</ref> Credit: NASA, ESA, and H. Hammel (Space Science Institute, Boulder, Colo.), and the Jupiter Impact Team.]]
Usually, a meteor detector is designed for another form of radiation that the meteor may radiate.

In the image at right, a 0.3 m meteor has impacted a ''meteor detector'', in this case the [[Moon]], and created a scintillation event that in turn is detected by a photoelectronic detector system.

In the image at left, a meteor has impacted another detector, here [[Jupiter]], but instead of a scintillation event has created a lowering of albedo as detected by the photoelectronic system, the Hubble Space Telescope.

==[[Cosmic rays==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Cosmic rays|Cosmic rays]]==}}
[[Image:Cloud chamber bionerd.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Cloud chamber shows visible tracks from α-particles (short, thick) and β-particles (long, thin). Credit: Bionerd.]]
[[Image:Electronic nuclear stopping Al in Al.png|thumb|right|200px|Diagram shows the electronic and nuclear stopping power for aluminum ions in aluminum. Credit: HPaul.]]
[[Image:Ion slowing.png|thumb|right|200px|This is an illustration of the slowing down of a single ion in a solid material. Credit: Kai Nordlund.]]
(contracted; show full)

Fourth right is an illustration of a ''Bragg'' curve. The '''stopping power''' and hence, the density of ionization, usually increases toward the end of range and reaches a maximum, the Bragg peak, shortly before the energy drops to zero.
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==
[[Neutrons==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Neutrons|Neutrons]]==⏎
}}
“Detection hardware refers to the kind of neutron detector used [such as] the [[w:Scintillation counter|scintillation detector]] and to the electronics used in the detection setup. Further, the hardware setup also defines key experimental parameters, such as source-detector distance, [[w:Solid angle|solid angle]] and detector shielding. Detection software consists of analysis tools that perform tasks such as graphical analysis to measure the number and energies of neutrons striking the detector.”<ref na(contracted; show full)ttering|elastic scattering]] reactions. Neutron collide with the nucleus of atoms in the detector, transferring energy to that nucleus and creating an ion, which is detected. Since the maximum transfer of energy occurs when the mass of the atom with which the neutron collides is comparable to the neutron mass, hydrogenous [materials with a high hydrogen content such as water or plastic] materials are often the preferred medium for such detectors.<ref name=Tsoul/>”<ref name=NeutronDetector/>

==
[[Protons==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Protons|Protons]]==}}
[[Image:MER APXS PIA05113.jpg|thumb|right|200px|This is an image of the alpha particle X-ray spectrometer (APXS). Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech.]]
[[Image:Stopping H in Al.png|thumb|right|200px|The stopping power of aluminum for protons is plotted versus proton energy. Credit: H.Paul.]]
(contracted; show full)|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1016/j.nima.2004.05.071
|pmid=
|accessdate=2013-05-24 }}</ref>
{{clear}}

==
[[Electrons==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Electrons|Electrons]]==}}
[[Image:Galileo Energetic Particles Detector.jpg|thumb|right|200px|This is an image of the Energetic Particles Detector (EPD) aboard the Galileo Orbiter. Credit: NASA.]]
(contracted; show full)|location=Greenbelt, Maryland USA
|month=May 14,
|year=2012
|url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/experimentDisplay.do?id=1989-084B-06
|accessdate=2012-08-11 }}</ref>
{{clear}}

==
[[Positrons==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Positrons|Positrons]]==⏎
}}
"In the first 18 months of operations, AMS-02 [image under Cherenkov detectors] recorded 6.8 million positron (an antimatter particle with the mass of an electron but a positive charge) and electron events produced from cosmic ray collisions with the interstellar medium in the energy range between 0.5 giga-electron volt (GeV) and 350 GeV. These events were used to determine the positron fraction, the ratio of positrons to the total number of electrons and positrons. Below 10 GeV, the positron fraction decreased with increasing energy, as expected. However, the positron fraction increased steadily from 10 GeV to 250 GeV. This increase, seen previously though less precisely by instruments such as the Payload for Matter/antimatter Exploration and Light-nuclei Astrophysics (PAMELA) and the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope, conflicts with the predicted decrease of the positron fraction and indicates the existence of a currently unidentified source of positrons, such as pulsars or the annihilation of dark matter particles. Furthermore, researchers observed an unexpected decrease in slope from 20 GeV to 250 GeV. The measured positron to electron ratio is isotropic, the same in all directions."<ref name=Ting/>

==[[Muons==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Muons|Muons]]==}}
[[Image:CMScollaborationPoster1.gif|thumb|200px|right|The [[w:Compact Muon Solenoid|Compact Muon Solenoid]] (CMS) is an example of a large particle detector. Notice the person for scale. Credit: CERN.]]
"With γ ray energy 50 times higher than the muon energy and a probability of muon production by the γ's of about 1%, muon detectors can match the detection efficiency of a GeV satellite detector if their effective area is larger by 10<sup>4</sup>."<ref name=Halzen>{{ cite journal
|author=Francis Halzen, Todor Stanev, Gaurang B. Yodh
|title=γ ray astronomy with muons
|journal=Physical Review D Particles, Fields, Gravitation, and Cosmology
|month=April 1,
|year=1997
|volume=55
|issue=7
|pages=4475-9
|url=http://prd.aps.org/abstract/PRD/v55/i7/p4475_1
|arxiv=astro-ph/9608201
|bibcode=1997PhRvD..55.4475H
|doi=10.1103/PhysRevD.55.4475
|pmid=
|accessdate=2013-01-18 }}</ref>
{{clear}}

==[[Neutrinos==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Neutrinos|Neutrinos]]==}}
[[Image:Sudbury neutrino observatory.png|thumb|right|200px|The Sudbury Neutrino Observatory, a 12-meter sphere filled with heavy water surrounded by light detectors located 2000 meters below the ground in Sudbury, Ontario, Canada. Credit: NASA.]]
(contracted; show full)|location=San Francisco, California
|month=May 23,
|year=2012
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrino_detector
|accessdate=2012-06-19 }}</ref>
{{clear}}

==
[[Gamma rays==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Gamma rays|Gamma rays]]==}}
[[Image:HPGe detector90.jpg|thumb|center|250px|High-purity germanium detector (disconnected from liquid nitrogen dewar) is imaged. Credit: [[w:User:Sergio.ballestrero|Sergio.ballestrero]].]]
[[Image:Annihilation Radiation.JPG|thumb|right|200px|A Germanium detector spectrum shows the electron-positron annihilation radiation peak (under the arrow). Note the width of the peak compared to the other gamma rays visible in the spectrum. Credit: Hidesert.]]
(contracted; show full)
|title=Semiconductor detector, In: ''Wikipedia''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=
February 26June 19,
|year=20132
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor_detector
|accessdate=20132-056-179 }}</ref>
{{clear}}

==[[X-rays==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/X-rays|X-rays]]==}}
[[Image:Proportional Counter Array RXTE.jpg|thumb|right|200px|This is an image of a real X-ray detector. The instrument is called the Proportional Counter Array and it is on the [[w:Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer|Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer]] (RXTE) satellite. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:Suzaku HXD.jpg|thumb|left|200px|The Suzaku Hard X-ray Detector is imaged before installation to the satellite. Credit: NASA.]]
(contracted; show full)

"Aluminum nitride has the widest band-gap of any compound semiconductor and offers the potential of making ‘‘solar-blind’’ X-ray detectors, i.e., detectors insensitive to the solar visible and ultraviolet (UV) radiation."<ref name=Owens/>
{{clear}}

==
[[Ultraviolets==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Ultraviolets|Ultraviolets]]==⏎
}}
"The dispersed ultraviolet light [from the [[w:Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer|FUSE]] telescope] is detected by two [[w:microchannel plate detector|microchannel plate]] intensified double delay-line detectors, whose surfaces are curved to match the curvature of the focal plane.<ref name=Sahnow>{{ cite web
|url=http://fuse.pha.jhu.edu/papers/technical/aas95/aas95.html
|title=The Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer Mission
|work=JHU.edu
|author=D.J. Sahnow, et al.
|date=1995-07-03
(contracted; show full)|month=May 14,
|year=2013
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photomultiplier
|accessdate=2013-05-24 }}</ref>

"Magnesium fluoride transmits ultraviolet down to 115 nm. [But, it is] [h]ygroscopic, though less than other alkali halides usable for UV windows."<ref name=Photomultiplier/>

==
[[Opticals==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Opticals|Opticals]]==⏎
}}
"'''Transition radiation''' (TR) is a form of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]] emitted when a [[w:charged particle|charged particle]] passes through [[w:Homogeneity and heterogeneity#Heterogeneity|inhomogeneous]] media, such as a boundary between two different media. This is in contrast to [[w:Cherenkov radiation|Cherenkov radiation]], which occurs when a charged particle passes through a [[w:Homogeneity and heterogeneity#Homogeneity|homogeneous]](contracted; show full)
|accessdate=2013-05-20 }}</ref>

"Multialkali (Na-K-Sb-Cs) [photocathode materials have a] wide spectral response from ultraviolet to near-infrared [where] special cathode processing can extend range to 930 nm. [These are] [u]sed in broadband spectrophotometers."<ref name=Photomultiplier/>

"Borosilicate glass [window material] is commonly used for near-infrared to about 300 nm."<ref name=Photomultiplier/>

==
[[Visuals==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Visuals|Visuals]]==⏎
}}
"[T]he wide-gap II-VI semiconductor ZnO doped with Co<sup>2+</sup> (Zn<sub>1-x</sub>Co<sub>x</sub>O) ... responds to visible light ... Excitation into the intense <sup>4</sup>T<sub>1</sub>(P) ''d-d'' band at ∼2.0 eV (620 nm) leads to Co<sup>2+/3+</sup> ionization [with an] experimental maximum in the external photon-to-current conversion efficiencies at values well below the solid solubility of Co<sup>2+</sup> in ZnO."<ref name=Johnson>{{ cite journal
|author=Claire A. Johnson, Alicia Cohn, Tiffany Kaspar, Scott A. Chambers, G. Mackay Salley, and Daniel R. Gamelin
|title=Visible-light photoconductivity of Zn<sub>1-x</sub>Co<sub>x</sub>O and its dependence on Co<sup>2+</sup> concentration
|journal=Physical Review B
|month=September 6,
|year=2011
|volume=84
|issue=12
|pages=8
|url=http://prb.aps.org/abstract/PRB/v84/i12/e125203
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1103/PhysRevB.84.125203
|pmid=
|accessdate=2013-05-24 }}</ref>

==[[Violets==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Violets|Violets]]==}}
[[Image:Voyager - Filters - Violet.png|thumb|right|200px|The image shows the spectral range for the violet filter of Voyager 1 and Voyager 2. Credit: [[commons:User:Xession|Xession]].]]
Most spacecraft designed for [[optical astronomy]] or [[visual astronomy]] carry aboard a violet or blue filter covering the wavelength range from 350-430 nm. The Solid State Imaging camera of the Galileo spacecraft uses a broad-band filter centered at 404 nm for [[violet astronomy]].

(contracted; show full)|location=Washington, DC USA
|month=August 6,
|year=1984
|url=http://history.nasa.gov/SP-474/appa.htm
|accessdate=2013-04-01 }}</ref> on the Imaging Science System aboard the Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 Spacecraft, as defined by the instrument descriptions of the Narrow Angle Camera and Wide Angle Camera.
{{clear}}

==
[[Blues==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Blues|Blues]]==⏎
}}
In about 1981 "an efficient blue- and violet-sensitive RCA CCD did appear on the market."<ref name=Oke>{{ cite journal
|author=J. B. Oke and J. E. Gunn
|title=An Efficient Low Resolution and Moderate Resolution Spectrograph for the Hale Telescope
|journal=Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific
|month=June
|year=1982
|volume=94
(contracted; show full)|arxiv=
|bibcode=1997hst..prop.7393M
|doi=
|pmid=
|isbn=
|accessdate=2013-05-24 }}</ref>

==
[[Cyans==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Cyans|Cyans]]==⏎
}}
The Wide Field/Planetary Camera (PC-1) had an F469N, F487N, and F492M cyan filters in the filter wheel.<ref name=Krist/>

The Wide Field Planetary Camera (PC-2) replaced PC-1 on the Hubble Space Telescope and carried the following cyan filters on the same filter wheels: F467M, F469N, F487N.<ref name=Krist>{{ cite web
|author=John Krist and Richard Hook
|title=The Tiny Tim User’s Guide, Version 6.3
|publisher=Space Telescope Science Institute
|location=
|month=June
|year=2004
|url=http://www.stsci.edu/software/tinytim
|pdf=http://tinytim.stsci.edu/static/tinytim.pdf⏎
|accessdate=2013-01-22 }}</ref>

The Advanced Camera for Surveys carried an F475W broadband cyan filter.<ref name=Krist/>

The Faint Object Camera (FOC) carries F470M, F480LP, and F486N cyan filters.<ref name=Krist/>

==[[Greens==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Greens|Greens]]==⏎
}}
The Wide Field Planetary Camera (PC-1) of the Hubble Space Telescope was in use from about 1990 through 1993. It carried 48 filters on 12 filter wheels of four each. For the green band, these were the F492M, F502N, F517N, F547M, and the F555W. Those ending in 'N' are narrow-band filters.<ref name=Krist>{{ cite web
|author=John Krist and Richard Hook
|title=The Tiny Tim User’s Guide, Version 6.3
|publisher=Space Telescope Science Institute
|location=
|month=June
|year=2004
|url=http://www.stsci.edu/software/tinytim
|pdf=http://tinytim.stsci.edu/static/tinytim.pdf
|accessdate=2013-01-22 }}</ref/>

One of these filters is F492M which allows imaging with the [O III]λλ4959,5007 and its adjacent green continuum. The filter band pass is centered at 490.6 nm with a full-width at half maximum (FWHM) of 36.4 nm.<ref name=Wilson>{{ cite journal
|author=A. S. Wilson, J. A. Braatz, T. M. Heckman, J. H. Krolik, and G. K. Miley
|title=The Ionization Cones in the Seyfert Galaxy NGC 5728
|journal=The Astrophysical Journal Letters
|month=December 20,
|year=1993
(contracted; show full)|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=January 15,
|year=2013
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wide_Field_Camera_3
|accessdate=2013-01-22 }}</ref>

==
[[Yellows==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Yellows|Yellows]]==⏎
}}
"[T]he #8 yellow filter is used to show [[w:Classical albedo features on Mars|Mars's maria]] and [[w:Atmosphere of Jupiter#Zones, belts and jets|Jupiter's belts]].<ref name="lumicon">{{ cite web
|url=http://www.lumicon.com/astronomy-accessories.php?cid=1&cn=Filters⏎
|title=filters - popular and hot telescope filters
|publisher=Lumicon international
|date=
|accessdate=2010-11-22
|url= http://web.archive.org/web/20101125034023/http://lumicon.com/astronomy-accessories.php?cid=1&cn=Filters
| archivedate= 25 November 2010 
| deadurl= no}}</ref>"<ref name=AstronomicalFilter>{{ cite web
|title=Astronomical filter, In: ''Wikipedia''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=25 January
|year=2013
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_filter
|accessdate=2013-01-25 }}</ref>

Initially the Hubble Space Telescope had the Wide Field/Planetary Camera (WF/PC-1) aboard where the F555W, F569W, F588N, and F606W cover the entire yellow portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.

The Hubble's Faint Object Camera (FOC) uses F550M and F600M which cover from either side.

The Wide Field and Planetary Camera (WFPC2) replaced PC-1 and used F555W, F569W, F588N and F606W filters.

==[[Oranges==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Oranges|Oranges]]==⏎
}}
The WF/PC-1 filters available for [[orange astronomy]] are the F588N, F606W, and F622W. The FOC uses the F600M and F630M. The WFPC2 uses the F588N, F606W, and F622W.

==[[Reds==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Reds|Reds]]==⏎
}}
The following WF/PC-1 filters are available for [[red astronomy]]: F606W, F622W, F631N, F648M, F656N, F658N, F664N, F673N, F675W, F702W, F718M, and F725LP.

The FOC uses the F630M for the shorter wavelength red rays.

The Hubble WFPC2 uses F606W, F622W, F631N, F656N, F658N, F673N, F675W, F702W, and F775W.

==[[Infrareds==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Infrareds|Infrareds]]==⏎
}}
"An '''infrared detector''' is [usually one of] two main types ... thermal and photonic ([[w:photodetector|photodetector]]s). The thermal effects of the incident IR radiation can be followed through many temperature dependent phenomena. [[w:Bolometer|Bolometer]]s and  [[w:microbolometer|microbolometer]]s are based on changes in resistance. [[w:Thermocouple|Thermocouple]]s and [[w:thermopile|thermopile]]s use the [[w:thermoelectric effect|thermoelectric effect]]. Golay cel(contracted; show full)|month=April 8,
|year=2012
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared_detector
|accessdate=2012-06-19 }}</ref>

The Hubble PC-1 used the F785LP, F791W, F814W, F850LP, F875M, F889N, F1042M, and F1083N filters for [[infrared astronomy]]. The PC-2 used F785LP, F791W, F814W, F850LP, F953N, and F1042M.

==
[[Submillimeters==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Submillimeters|Submillimeters]]==⏎
 astronomy|Submillimeters}}
"Metal-mesh filters have many applications for use in the far infrared (FIR)<ref name=melo08>{{ cite journal
|doi = 10.1364/AO.47.006064
|author = Arline M. Melo, Mariano A. Kornberg, Pierre Kaufmann, Maria H. Piazzetta,
Emílio C. Bortolucci, Maria B. Zakia, Otto H. Bauer, Albrecht Poglitsch,
and Alexandre M. P. Alves da Silva
|title = Metal mesh resonant filters for terahertz frequencies
|journal = Applied Optics
(contracted; show full)|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=February 20,
|year=2013
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal-mesh_optical_filters
|accessdate=2013-05-25 }}</ref>

==
[[Radios==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Radios|Radios]]== astronomy|Radios}}
[[Image:Coherer.jpg|right|thumb|A metal filings coherer is imaged. Credit: [[w:User:JA.Davidson|JA.Davidson]].]]
"The '''coherer''' ... consists of a tube or capsule containing two [[w:electrode|electrode]]s spaced a small distance apart, with metal filings in the space between them. When a [[w:radio frequency|radio frequency]] signal is applied to the device, the initial high [[w:resistance (electricity)|resistance]] of the filings reduces, allowing an electric current to flow through it."<ref name=Coherer>{{ cite web
|title=Coherer, In: ''Wikipedia''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=April 22,
|year=2013
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coherer
|accessdate=2013-05-25 }}</ref>
{{clear}}

==[[Superluminals==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Superluminals|Superluminals]]==}}
[[Image:Lhcbview.jpg|thumb|left|200px|LHCb detector is diagrammed. Credit: [[w:User:Oswald_le_fort|Oswald_le_fort]].]]
[[Image:Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer - 02.jpg|thumb|right|200px|AMS-02 is a RICH detector for analyzing cosmic rays. Credit: NASA.]]
(contracted; show full)
|title=Performance of the LHCb RICH detector at the LHC
|journal=http://arxiv.org/abs/arXiv:1211.6759
|year=2012 }}</ref>"<ref name=RingImagingCherekovDetector/>

"The [[w:Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer|Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer]] device AMS-02, recently mounted on the [[w:International Space Station|International Space Station]] uses a RICH detector in combination with other devices to analyze cosmic rays."<ref name=RingImagingCherekovDetector/>
{{clear}}

==
[[Plasma objects==
{{main|Plasmas/Plasma objects|Plasma objects]]==}}
[[Image:faraday cup.jpg|thumb|right|200px|This is a Faraday cup with an electron-suppressor plate in front. Credit: [[commons:User:Angelpeream|Angelpeream]].]]
"A '''Faraday cup''' is a metal (conductive) cup designed to catch [[w:charged particle|charged particle]]s in vacuum. The resulting current can be measured and used to determine the number of ions or electrons hitting the cup.<ref name=Brown>{{ cite journal
(contracted; show full)|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=May 16,
|year=2013
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faraday_cup
|accessdate=2013-05-25 }}</ref>

==
[[Gaseous objects==
{{main|Gases/Gaseous objects|Gaseous objects]]==⏎
}}
"A '''gas detector''' is a device which detects the presence of various gases within an area"<ref name=GasDetector>{{ cite web
|title=Gas detector, In: ''Wikipedia''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=May 17,
|year=2013
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_detector
(contracted; show full)|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=March 16,
|year=2013
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_sensor
|accessdate=2013-05-26 }}</ref>

==
[[Liquid objects==
{{main|Liquids/Liquid objects|Liquid objects]]==}}
[[Image:Hot and cold water immiscibility thermal image.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Thermal image of a sink full of hot water with cold water being added shows the hot and the cold water flowing into each other. Credit: [[commons:User:Zaereth|Zaereth]].]]
(contracted; show full)|location=San Francisco, California
|month=October 18,
|year=2012
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geophysics
|accessdate=2012-11-16 }}</ref>
{{clear}}

==
[[Rocky objects==
{{main|Rocks/Rocky objects|Rocky objects]]==}}
[[Image:Venus globe.jpg|thumb|left|200px|This is a false color image of Venus produced from a global [[w:Radar|radar]] view of the surface by the [[w:Magellan probe|Magellan probe]] while radar imaging between 1990-1994. Credit: NASA.]]
Often a rocky object is detected by the observation of impact craters usually using [[visual astronomy]] as part of [[crater astronomy]].

(contracted; show full)|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1103/RevModPhys.65.1235
|pmid=
|accessdate=2012-02-09 }}</ref>

==Astrochemistry==

{{main|Astrochemistry}}⏎
[[Image:XRFScan.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Typical energy dispersive XRF spectrum for a number of elements is shown. Credit: [[w:User:LinguisticDemographer|LinguisticDemographer]].]]
"Each element has electronic orbitals of characteristic energy. Following removal of an inner electron by an energetic photon provided by a primary radiation source, an electron from an outer shell drops into its place. There are a limited number of ways in which this can happen ... The main transitions are given names: an L→K transition is traditionally called Kα, an M→K transition is called Kβ, an M→L transition is called Lα, and so on. Each of these transitions yields a fluorescent photon with a characteristic energy equal to the difference in energy of the initial and final orbital."<ref name=XRayFluorescence>{{ cite web
|title=X-ray fluorescence, In: ''Wikipedia''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=March 20,
|year=2013
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_fluorescence
|accessdate=2013-05-12 }}</ref>
{{clear}}

==Compounds==
{{main|Chemicals/Compounds|Compounds}}
"[T]he detection of absorption by interstellar hydrogen fluoride (HF) [in the submillimeter band occurs] along the sight line to the submillimeter continuum sources W49N and W51."<ref name=Sonnentrucker>{{ cite journal
(contracted; show full)|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=2012-08-04 }}</ref>

==Alloys==

{{main|Chemicals/Alloys|Alloys}}
"A metal detector is a device which responds to metal that may not be readily apparent. The simplest form of a metal detector consists of an oscillator producing an alternating current that passes through a coil producing an alternating magnetic field. If a piece of electrically conductive metal is close to the coil, eddy currents will be induced in the metal, and this produces a magnetic field of its own. If another coil is used to measure the magnetic field (acting as a magnetometer), the change in (contracted; show full)ent would flow in the metal, and the time for the voltage to drop to zero would be increased. These time differences were minute, but the improvement in electronics made it possible to measure them accurately and identify the presence of metal at a reasonable distance. These new machines had one major advantage: they were completely impervious to the effects of mineralization, and rings and other jewelry could now be located even under highly-mineralized black sand."<ref name=MetalDetector/>

==
[[Sun (star)==
{{main|Stars/Sun|Sun]]==⏎
 (star)}}
"A ''sun sensor'' is a device that senses the direction to the [[Sun (star)|Sun]]. This can be as simple as some [[w:solar cell|solar cell]]s and shades, or as complex as a steerable [[w:telescope|telescope]], depending on mission requirements."<ref name=AttitudeControl/>

==[[Earth]]==
{{main|Earth}}
"An ''earth sensor'' is a device that senses the direction to the [[Earth]]. It is usually an infrared camera; now the main method to detect attitude is the star tracker, but earth sensors are still integrated in satellites for their low cost and reliability."<ref name=AttitudeControl/>

==[[Stars]]==
{{main|Stars}}
"A ''star tracker'' is an optical device that measures the position(s) of [[w:star|star]](s) using [[w:photocell|photocell]](s) or a camera.<ref>{{cite web|title=Star Camera|url=http://nmp.nasa.gov/st6/TECHNOLOGY/star_camera.html|publisher=NASA|accessdate=25 May 2012|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110721054014/http://nmp.nasa.gov/st6/TECHNOLOGY/star_camera.html|archivedate=July 21, 2011|date=05/04}}</ref>"<ref name=AttitudeControl/>

(contracted; show full) and then filtered to remove problematic stars, for example due to [[w:apparent magnitude|apparent magnitude]] variability, [[w:color index|color index]] uncertainty, or a location within the [[w:Hertzsprung-Russell diagram|Hertzsprung-Russell diagram]] implying unreliability. These types of star catalogs can have thousands of stars stored in memory on board the spacecraft, or else processed using tools at the [[w:ground station|ground station]] and then uploaded."<ref name=AttitudeControl/>

==
[[Geography]]==
{{main|Geography}}
Occasionally, a detector needs a specific geographic property for optimal function.

===Large surface area===
[[Image:PierreAugerObservatory DetectorComponents.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Surface detector station and AERA radio antenna is in the foreground, one of the four fluorescence detector buildings and the three HEAT telescopes is in the background. Credit: [[commons:User:Tobias Winchen|Tobias Winchen]].]]
(contracted; show full)|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=July 4,
|year=2012
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ANTARES_(telescope)
|accessdate=2012-08-23 }}</ref>

==
[[History]]==⏎
{{main|History}}
[[Image:Oso5 wheel.gif|thumb|left|200px|The figure of the OSO 5 wheel contains detectors for gamma-rays, X-rays, ultraviolet, and visible (Zodiacal light). Credit: HEASARC, NASA.]]
[[Image:Oso5 NRLxrd.gif|thumb|right|The diagram of the Naval Research Laboratory Solar X-ray Radiation Ion Chamber Photometer shows the location of the center crystal. Credit: NASA.]]
(contracted; show full)|location=Greenbelt, Maryland USA
|month=June 26,
|year=2003
|url=http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/heasarc/missions/oso5.html
|accessdate=2013-05-18 }}</ref>
{{clear}}

==
[[Mathematics]]==
{{main|Mathematics}}
"The energy differences between levels in the Bohr model, and hence the wavelengths of emitted/absorbed photons, is given by the Rydberg formula<ref name=Bohr>{{ citation
|author=Niels Bohr
|chapter=Rydberg's discovery of the spectral laws
|editor=J. Kalckar
|title=N. Bohr: Collected Works
|publisher=North-Holland Publ.
|location=Amsterdam
|year=1985
|volume=10
|pages=373–9 }}</ref>:

:<math> {1 \over \lambda} = R \left( {1 \over (n^\prime)^2} - {1 \over n^2} \right) \qquad \left( R = 1.097373 \times 10^7 \ \mathrm{m}^{-1} \right)</math>
where ''n'' is the initial energy level, ''n&prime;'' is the final energy level, and ''R'' is the [[w:Rydberg constant|Rydberg constant]]. Meaningful values are returned only when ''n'' is greater than ''n&prime;'' and the limit of one over infinity is taken to be zero."<ref name=Hydrogenspectral>{{ cite web
|title=Hydrogen spectral series, In: ''Wikipedia''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=May 2,
|year=2012
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_spectral_series
|accessdate=2012-05-14 }}</ref>

==[[Physics]]==⏎
{{main|Physics}}
"A [[w:relativistic jet|relativistic jet]] coming out of the center of an [[w:active galactic nucleus|active galactic nucleus]] is moving along AB with a velocity v. We are observing the jet from the point O. At time <math>t_1</math> a light ray leaves the jet from point A and another ray leaves at time <math>t_2</math> from point B. Observer at O receives the rays at time <math>t_1^\prime</math> and <math>t_2^\prime</math> respectively."<ref nam(contracted; show full);math>\gamma \gg 1</math> (i.e. when velocity of jet is close to the velocity of light) then <math>\beta_T^{max} > 1</math> despite the fact that <math>\beta < 1</math>. And of course <math>\beta_T > 1</math> means apparent transverse velocity along CB, the only velocity on sky that we can measure, is larger than the velocity of light in vacuum, i.e. the motion is apparently superluminal."<ref name=SuperluminalMotion/>

==Gas-chamber detector
s==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Detectors/Gas chambers|Gas-chamber detectors}}⏎
[[Image:Detector regions.gif|thumb|right|200px|This is a plot of ion current as function of applied voltage for a wire cylinder gaseous radiation detector. Credit: [[commons:User:Dougsim|Doug Sim]].]]
(contracted; show full)

"Gas detectors are usually single pixel detectors measuring only the average dose rate over the gas volume or the number of interacting photons ..., but they can be made spatially resolving by having many crossed wires in a [[w:wire chamber|wire chamber]]."<ref name=XRayDetector/>

==Lithium-drifted silicon detectors==

{{main|Radiation astronomy/Detectors/Lithium-drifted silicons|Lithium-drifted silicon detectors}}
"Since the 1970s, new semiconductor detectors have been developed (silicon or germanium doped with lithium: Si(Li) or Ge(Li)). X-ray photons are converted to electron-hole pairs in the semiconductor and are collected to detect the X-rays. When the temperature is low enough (the detector is cooled by Peltier effect or even cooler liquid nitrogen), it is possible to directly determine the X-ray energy spectrum; this method is called energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX or EDS); it is often used in small X-ray fluorescence spectrometers. These detectors are sometimes called "solid state detectors". Detectors based on cadmium telluride (CdTe) and its alloy with zinc, cadmium zinc telluride, have an increased sensitivity, which allows lower doses of X-rays to be used."<ref name=XRayDetector/>

==Scintillation detectors==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Detectors/Scintillations|Scintillation detectors}}⏎
[[Image:Scintillation Counter Schematic.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Schematic showing incident particles hitting a scintillating crystal, triggering the release of photons which are then converted into [[w:photoelectrons|photoelectrons]] and multiplied in the [[w:photomultiplier|photomultiplier]]. Credit: [[commons:User:Manticorp|Manticorp]].]]
[[Image:Scintillation Detector.gif|thumb|right|200px|This is an animation of a radiation scintillation counter. Credit: [[b:User:KieranMaher|KieranMaher]].]]
(contracted; show full)   | last = Miyanaga  | first = N.  | authorlink =   | coauthors = Ohba, N.; Fujimoto, K.  | title = Fiber scintillator/streak camera detector for burn history measurement in inertial confinement fusion experiment  | journal = Review of Scientific Instruments  | volume = 68  | issue = 1  | pages = 621–623   | publisher =   | location =   | year = 1997  | url =   | doi = 10.1063/1.1147667  | id =    |bibcode = 1997RScI...68..621M }}</ref>”<ref name=NeutronDetector/>

==Semiconductor detectors==

{{main|Radiation astronomy/Detectors/Semiconductors|Semiconductor detectors}}
"A '''semiconductor detector''' is a device that uses a semiconductor (usually [[w:silicon|silicon]] or [[w:germanium|germanium]]) to detect traversing charged particles or the absorption of photons. In the field of particle physics, these detectors are usually known as ''silicon detectors.'' When their sensitive structures are based on a single [[w:diode|diode]], they are called '''semiconductor diode detectors'''. When they contain many diodes with different functions, the more general term semiconductor detector is used. Semiconductor detectors have found broad application during recent decades, in particular for [[w:gamma ray|gamma]] and [[w:X-ray|X-ray]] [[w:spectrometry|spectrometry]] and as [[w:particle detector|particle detector]]s."<ref name=SemiconductorDetector>{{ cite web
|title=Semiconductor detector, In: ''Wikipedia''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=June 19,
|year=2012
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor_detector
|accessdate=2012-06-19 }}</ref/>

"[[Radiation|[R]adiation]] is measured by means of the number of [[w:charge carrier|charge carrier]]s set free in the detector, which is arranged between two [[w:electrode|electrode]]s. Ionizing radiation produces free [[electron]]s and [[w:Electron hole|holes]]. The number of electron-hole pairs is proportional to the [[w:energy|energy]] transmitted by the radiation to the semiconductor.  As a result, a number of electrons are transferred from the [[w:valence band|valence band]] to the [[w:condu(contracted; show full)  | location = 
  | year = 1994
  | url = 
  | doi = 10.1109/23.322831
  | id =  |bibcode = 1994ITNS...41..915M }}</ref>”<ref name=NeutronDetector/>

==Silicon drift detectors==

{{main|Radiation astronomy/Detectors/Silicon drifts|Silicon drift detectors}}
"Silicon drift detectors (SDDs), produced by conventional semiconductor fabrication, now provide a cost-effective and high resolving power radiation measurement. Unlike conventional X-ray detectors, such as Si(Li)s, they do not need to be cooled with liquid nitrogen."<ref name=XRayDetector/>

==Scintillator plus semiconductor detectors==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Detectors/Scintillator plus semiconductors|Scintillator plus semiconductor detectors}}
"With the advent of large semiconductor array detectors it has become possible to design detector systems using a scintillator screen to convert from X-rays to visible light which is then converted to electrical signals in an array detector. ... The array consists of a sheet of glass covered with a thin layer of silicon that is in an amorphous or disordered state. At a microscopic scale, the silicon has been imprinted with millions of transistors arranged in a highly ordered array, like the grid on a sheet of graph paper. Each of these thin film transistors (TFTs) is attached to a light-absorbing photodiode making up an individual pixel (picture element). Photons striking the photodiode are converted into two carriers of electrical charge, called electron-hole pairs. Since the number of charge carriers produced will vary with the intensity of incoming light photons, an electrical pattern is created that can be swiftly converted to a voltage and then a digital signal, which is interpreted by a computer to produce a digital image. Although silicon has outstanding electronic properties, it is not a particularly good absorber of X-ray photons. For this reason, X-rays first impinge upon scintillators made from such materials as gadolinium oxysulfide or caesium iodide. The scintillator absorbs the X-rays and converts them into visible light photons that then pass onto the photodiode array."<ref name=XRayDetector/>

==[[Research]]==
{{main|Research}}
Hypothesis:
# Radiation detectors can be built to differentiate between superluminal, luminal, and subluminal radiations.

===[[Proof of concept]]===

'''Def.''' a “short and/or incomplete [[wikt:realization|realization]] of a certain [[wikt:method|method]] or idea to demonstrate its feasibility"<ref name=ProofofConceptWikt>{{ cite web
|title=proof of concept, In: ''Wiktionary''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=November 10,
|year=2012
|url=http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/proof_of_concept
|accessdate=2013-01-13 }}</ref> is called a '''proof of concept'''.

'''Def.''' evidence that demonstrates that a concept is possible is called '''proof of concept'''.

The proof-of-concept structure consists of
# background,
# procedures,
# findings, and
# interpretation.<ref name=Lehrman>{{ cite journal
|author=Ginger Lehrman and Ian B Hogue, Sarah Palmer, Cheryl Jennings, Celsa A Spina, Ann Wiegand, Alan L Landay, Robert W Coombs, Douglas D Richman, John W Mellors, John M Coffin, Ronald J Bosch, David M Margolis
|title=Depletion of latent HIV-1 infection in vivo: a proof-of-concept study
|journal=Lancet
|month=August 13,
|year=2005
|volume=366
|issue=9485
|pages=549-55
|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1894952/
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(05)67098-5
|pmid=
|accessdate=2012-05-09 }}</ref>

Proof of concept for a radiation detector is that the radiation characteristics are accurately reported. This requires standards of performance and standard radiation sources.

===[[Control groups]]===
[[Image:Lewis rat.jpg|thumb|right|200px|This is an image of a Lewis rat. Credit: Charles River Laboratories.]]
The findings demonstrate a statistically systematic change from the status quo or the [[control group]].

“In the design of experiments, treatments [or special properties or characteristics] are applied to [or observed in] experimental units in the '''treatment group'''(s).<ref name=Hinkelmann>{{ cite book
|author=Klaus Hinkelmann, Oscar Kempthorne
|year=2008
|title=Design and Analysis of Experiments, Volume I: Introduction to Experimental Design
|url=http://books.google.com/?id=T3wWj2kVYZgC&printsec=frontcover
|edition=2nd
|publisher=Wiley
|isbn=978-0-471-72756-9
|mr=2363107 }}</ref> In ''comparative'' experiments, members of the complementary group, the '''control group''',  receive either ''no''&nbsp;treatment or a ''standard'' treatment.<ref name="Bailey">{{ cite book
|author=R. A. Bailey
|title=Design of comparative experiments
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
|url=http://www.cambridge.org/uk/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=9780521683579
|year=2008 
|mr=2422352
|isbn=978-0-521-68357-9
|url1=http://www.maths.qmul.ac.uk/~rab/DOEbook/ }}</ref>"<ref name=ControlGroup>{{ cite web
|title=Treatment and control groups, In: ''Wikipedia''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=May 18,
|year=2012
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_group
|accessdate=2012-05-31 }}</ref>
{{clear}}Control groups==
{{main|Control groups}}
[[Image:Lewis rat.jpg|thumb|right|200px|This is an image of a Lewis rat. Credit: Charles River Laboratories.]]
The findings demonstrate a statistically systematic change from the ''status quo'' or the control group.

“In the design of experiments, treatments [or special properties or characteristics] are applied to [or observed in] experimental units in the '''treatment group'''(s).<ref name=Hinkelmann>{{ cite book
|author=Klaus Hinkelmann, Oscar Kempthorne
|year=2008
|title=Design and Analysis of Experiments, Volume I: Introduction to Experimental Design
|url=http://books.google.com/?id=T3wWj2kVYZgC&printsec=frontcover
|edition=2nd
|publisher=Wiley
|isbn=978-0-471-72756-9
|mr=2363107 }}</ref> In ''comparative'' experiments, members of the complementary group, the '''control group''',  receive either ''no''&nbsp;treatment or a ''standard'' treatment.<ref name="Bailey">{{ cite book
|author=R. A. Bailey
|title=Design of comparative experiments
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
|url=http://www.cambridge.org/uk/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=9780521683579
|year=2008 
|mr=2422352
|isbn=978-0-521-68357-9
|url1=http://www.maths.qmul.ac.uk/~rab/DOEbook/ }}</ref>"<ref name=ControlGroup>{{ cite web
|title=Treatment and control groups, In: ''Wikipedia''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=May 18,
|year=2012
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_group
|accessdate=2012-05-31 }}</ref>
{{clear}}

==Proof of concept==
{{main|Proof of concept}}
'''Def.''' a “short and/or incomplete realization of a certain method or idea to demonstrate its feasibility"<ref name=ProofofConceptWikt>{{ cite web
|title=proof of concept, In: ''Wiktionary''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=November 10,
|year=2012
|url=http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/proof_of_concept
|accessdate=2013-01-13 }}</ref> is called a '''proof of concept'''.

'''Def.''' evidence that demonstrates that a concept is possible is called '''proof of concept'''.

The proof-of-concept structure consists of
# background,
# procedures,
# findings, and
# interpretation.<ref name=Lehrman>{{ cite journal
|author=Ginger Lehrman and Ian B Hogue, Sarah Palmer, Cheryl Jennings, Celsa A Spina, Ann Wiegand, Alan L Landay, Robert W Coombs, Douglas D Richman, John W Mellors, John M Coffin, Ronald J Bosch, David M Margolis
|title=Depletion of latent HIV-1 infection in vivo: a proof-of-concept study
|journal=Lancet
|month=August 13,
|year=2005
|volume=366
|issue=9485
|pages=549-55
|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1894952/
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(05)67098-5
|pmid=
|accessdate=2012-05-09 }}</ref>

==Proof of technology==
{{main|Proof of technology}}
"[T]he objective of a proof of technology is to determine the solution to some technical problem, such as how two systems might be integrated or that a certain throughput can be achieved with a given configuration."<ref name=ProofofConcept>{{ cite web
|title=Proof of concept, In: ''Wikipedia''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=December 27,
|year=2012
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proof_of_concept
|accessdate=2013-01-13 }}</ref>

'''Def.'''
# "[a]n original object or form which is a basis for other objects, forms, or for its models and generalizations",<ref name=PrototypeWikt>{{ cite web
|title=prototype, In: ''Wiktionary''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=December 8,
|year=2013
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/prototype
|accessdate=2014-01-03 }}</ref>
# "[a]n early sample or model built to test a concept or process",<ref name=PrototypeWikt/> or
# "[a]n instance of a [[wikt:category|category]] or a [[wikt:concept|concept]] that combines its most representative attributes"<ref name=PrototypeWikt/> is called a '''prototype'''.

'''Def.''' "[t]o test something using the conditions that it was designed to operate under, especially out in the real world instead of in a laboratory or workshop"<ref name=FieldTestWikt>{{ cite web
|title=field-test, In: ''Wiktionary''
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=August 5,
|year=2012
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/field-test
|accessdate=2013-01-13 }}</ref> is called "field-test", or a '''field test'''.

A "proof-of-technology prototype ... typically implements one critical scenario to exercise or stress the highest-priority requirements."<ref name=Liu>{{ cite journal
|author=A. Liu; I. Gorton
|title=Accelerating COTS middleware acquisition: the i-Mate process
|journal=Software, IEEE
|month=March/April
|year=2003
|volume=20
|issue=2
|pages=72-9
|url=http://cin.ufpe.br/~redis/intranet/bibliography/middleware/liu-cots03.pdf
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1109/MS.2003.1184171
|pmid=
|accessdate=2012-02-15 }}</ref>

"[A] proof-of-technology test demonstrates the system can be used"<ref name=Wessel>{{ cite journal
|author=Rhea Wessel
|title=Cargo-Tracking System Combines RFID, Sensors, GSM and Satellite
|journal=RFID Journal
|month=January 25,
|year=2008
|volume=
|issue=
|pages=1-2
|url=http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/pdf/3870/1/1/rfidjournal-article3870.PDF
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=2012-02-15 }}</ref>.

"The strongest proof of technology performance is based on consistency among multiple lines of evidence, all pointing to similar levels of risk reduction."<ref name=Rao>{{ cite book
|author=P. Suresh, C. Rao, M.D. Annable and J.W. Jawitz
|title=''In Situ'' Flushing for Enhanced  NAPL Site Remediation: 
Metrics for Performance Assessment, In: ''Abiotic ''In Situ'' Technologies for Groundwater Remediation Conference''
|publisher=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
|location=Cincinnati, Ohio
|month=August
|year=2000
|editor=E. Timothy Oppelt
|pages=105
|url=http://www.afcee.af.mil/shared/media/document/AFD-071003-081.pdf#page=108
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=2012-02-15 }}</ref>

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=12em}}
* [[Principles of Radiation Astronomy]]
* [[Radiation]]
* [[Radiation astronomy]]
{{Div col end}}
(contracted; show full)
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[[Category:Radiation astronomy]]
[[Category:Materials science]]
[[Category:Original research]]
[[Category:Physics]]
[[Category:Research]]

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