Difference between revisions 1832466 and 1896609 on enwikiversity

[[Image:Skylab-73-HC-440HR.jpg|thumb|right|2050px|The Saturn V SA-513 lifts off to boost the Skylab Orbital Workshop into Earth orbit on March 14, 1973. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Astronomy]] is performed by location and is subject to local conditions. The shapes and sizes of observatories have changed over time, as have their altitude. The motivations for putting an observatory manned or unmanned at different altitudes has led to a great variety in '''lofting technology'''.
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==Technology==
{{main|Technology}}
'''Def.''' an "organization of knowledge for practical purposes"<ref name=TechnologyWikt>{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:193.219.157.22|193.219.157.22]]
|title=technology
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|monthdate=5 December⏎
|year=  2014
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/technology
|accessdate=2015-01-01 }}</ref> is called a '''technology'''.

"Usage notes

* Adjectives often applied to "technology": assistive, automotive, biological, chemical, domestic, educational, environmental, geospatial, industrial, instructional, medical, microbial, military, nuclear, visual, advanced, sophisticated, high, modern, outdated, obsolete, simple, complex, medieval, ancient, safe, secure, effective, efficient, mechanical, electrical, electronic, emerging, alternative, appropriate, clean, disruptive."<ref name=TechnologyWikt/>

==Lofting==

'''Def.''' propelling "high into the air"<ref name=LoftWikt>{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:20.133.0.13|20.133.0.13]]
|title=loft
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|monthdate=16 May⏎
|year=  2005
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/loft
|accessdate=2015-01-01 }}</ref> is called '''lofting'''.

==Lofting technology theory==

Here's a [[Definitions/Theory#Theoretical definition|theoretical definition]]:

'''Def.''' an organization of knowledge for the practical purpose of propelling high into the air or above the air is called '''lofting technology'''.

==Observatories==
{{main|Astronomy/Observatories|Observatories}}
'''Def.''' "[a] place where stars, planets and other [[wikt:celestial body|celestial bodies]] are observed"<ref name=ObservatoryWikt>{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:Paul G|Paul G]]
|title=observatory
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|monthdate=19 March⏎
|year=  2004
|url=http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/observatory
|accessdate=2012-12-05 }}</ref> is called an '''observatory'''.

==Horizontal coordinate system==
{{main|Coordinates/Horizontals|Horizontal coordinate systems}}
[[Image:Horizontal coordinate system 2.svg|thumb|right|2050px|This diagram describes altitude and azimuth. Credit: Francisco Javier Blanco González.]]
The altitude of an entity in the sky is given by the angle of the arc from the local horizon to the entity.

(contracted; show full)
* '''Zenith distance''', the distance from directly overhead (i.e. the zenith) is sometimes used instead of altitude in some calculations using these coordinates. The zenith distance is the [[w:complementary angles|complement]] of altitude (i.e. 90°-altitude).
{{clear}}

==Altitudes==
{{main|Distances/Altitudes|Altitudes}}
[[Image:Vertical distances.svg|thumb|right|2
050px|This diagram shows the different types of vertical flight distances an aircraft may have. Credit: Dr. Wessmann and  [[w:User:AronRubin|AronRubin]].]]
(contracted; show full)|geoid]] height'', positive above or outside the ellipsoid, negative below or inside. The geoid height variation is under 110 m on Earth. The geoid height can change abruptly due to earthquakes (such as the [[w:2004 Indian Ocean earthquake|Sumatra-Andaman earthquake]]) or reduction in ice masses (such as [[Greenland]]).<ref name=Grace>{{ cite book
|url=http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewpr.html?pid=18567
|title=NASA's Grace Finds Greenland Melting Faster, 'Sees' Sumatra Quake
|
monthdate=20 December⏎
|year=  2005
|publisher=Goddard Space Flight Center }}</ref>

The delta of the [[w:Mississippi river|Mississippi river]] is further from the center of the Earth than the river’s origin in the state of Minnesota. As the river flows uphill, how is this possible?
{{clear}}

==Sea levels==
{{main|Distances/Sea levels|Sea levels}}
(contracted; show full)

'''Def.''' "[t]he [[wikt:gas|gases]] surrounding the [[Earth]] or any [[wikt:astronomical|astronomical]] body"<ref name=AtmosphereWikt>{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:212.159.113.112|212.159.113.112]]
|title=atmosphere
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|
monthdate=6 May⏎
|year=  2003
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/atmosphere
|accessdate=2016-02-06 }}</ref> is called an '''atmosphere'''.

(contracted; show full)

The Earth is negatively charged, carrying 500,000 Coulombs (C) of electric charge (500 kC), and is at 300,000 volts (V), 300 kV,<ref name=Polk>{{ cite book
|author=C. Polk
|title=Relation of ELF Noise and Schumann Resonances to Thunderstorm Activity, In: ''Planetary Electrodynamics''
|publisher=Gordon & Breach
|location=
|
month=
|yeardate=1969
|editor=Coroniti SC, Hughes J.
|pages=55-83
|url=https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=wDXzhyskXOgC&oi=fnd&pg=PA55&ots=WeVGMuJPyf&sig=oy6kFVKrttABgfZ99meyM6rbXgg
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
(contracted; show full)

The Earth-ionosphere system acts as a giant capacitor, of capacity 1.8 Farads.

The Earth's surface carries around -1 nC of electric charge per square meter.

==Stonehenge==
[[Image:Stonehenge.jpg|thumb|left|2
050px|[[w:Stonehenge|Stonehenge]] is a [[w:Neolithic|Neolithic]] monument that may have functioned as a celestial observatory. 102.8 masl. Credit: [[commons:User:Wigulf|Wigulf]].]]
Whatever religious, mystical or spiritual elements were central to Stonehenge, its design includes a celestial observatory function, which might have allowed prediction of eclipse, solstice, equinox and other celestial events important to a contemporary religion.<ref name=Hawkins>{{ cite book
| author=GS Hawkins
| yeardate=1966
| title = Stonehenge Decoded
|url=https://www.biblio.com/stonehenge-decoded-by-hawkins-gerald-s/work/59753
|publisher=Souvenir Press
|location=Cambridge
| isbn= 978-0880291477 }}</ref>

“Stonehenge does not occupy a topographic high, but rather a site of intermediate elevation, such that the natural horizon, when viewed from the heel stone, is remarkably even and is sufficiently far away that its elevation above the astronomical horizon is a small angle.”<ref name=Robinson>{{ cite journal
|author=J. H. Robinson
|title=Evidence Concerning Stonehenge as an “Observatory”
|journal=Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society
|month=March
|year=1984
|volume=16
|issue=3
|pages=449
|url=
|arxiv=
|bibcode=1984BAAS...16..449R
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=2012-02-07 }}</ref>

“All results were registered by Professor Gowland in relation to a datum line [102.8 m] 337.4 feet above sea level.”<ref name=Lockyer>{{ cite book
|author=Morman Lockyer
|title=Stonehenge and Other British Stone Monuments Astronomically Considered
|publisher=Kessinger Publishing
|location=
|month=
|yeardate=2003
|editor=
|pages=516
|url=https://archive.org/details/stonehengeandot00lockgoog
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|isbn=
|accessdate=2012-02-07 }}</ref>
{{clear}}

==Giza Pyramids==
[[Image:All Gizah Pyramids.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The pyramids of Giza. Credit: [http://liberato.org Ricardo Liberato].]]
“The Great Pyramid stands on the northern edge of the Giza Plateau, [60.4 m] 198 feet above sea level”.<ref name=Nikolic>{{ cite book
|author=Petko Vidusa Nikolic, Petko Nikolic Vidusa
|title=The Great Pyramid and the Bible : Earth's Measurements
|publisher=Mystik Book
|location=Kitchener, Canada
|month=
|yeardate=2005
|editor=
|pages=65
|url=https://www.amazon.com/Great-Pyramid-Bible-Earths-Measurements/dp/0973237147
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
(contracted; show full)
|title=Rambling Through the Skies: Pyramid Marketing Schemes |journal=Sky and Telescope |date=February 1997 |url=http://www.antiquityofman.com/Krupp_pyramid_marketing_schemes.html |volume=94 |issue=2 |pages=64}}</ref>
{{clear}}

==Aldershot Observatory==
[[Image:Aldershot observatory 01.JPG|thumb|right|2
050px|This is an external photograph of the telescope housing. Credit: [[commons:User:Gaius Cornelius|Gaius Cornelius]].]]
The town is generally between 70 m and 100 m above sea level.

The location of the observatory can hardly be considered ideal for astronomical observations, even at the time of its construction. It is at a low elevation in an essentially urban setting of an army town with many nearby buildings that date from the time of its construction.[2] It is very near a road that is lit by streetlights, although this was somewhat ameliorated by a clockwork switch inside the observatory that would turn off the nearest streetlights for about 20 minutes. This clockwork system was upgraded in 1987. As the electricity supply has been removed in 2006, this facility is no longer available. ... In its current location, the observatory will be an island in a sea of houses and some people fear that it will be targeted by vandals or, perhaps, will have to be protected with high, unsightly fences.
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==Tuorla Observatory==
[[Image:Tuorla observatory tower.jpg|thumb|left|10250px|This image shows the tower lofting technology of the Tuorla observatory. Credit: Xepheid.]]
Tuorla is located about 12 kilometres from Turku in the direction of Helsinki. The observatory is at an altitude of 60.6 m above sea level (asl).

(contracted; show full)s the telescope to observe any region of the sky within a forty-degree cone of visibility about the local zenith (between −1 and 38 degrees of declination). Puerto Rico's location near the equator allows Arecibo to view all of the planets in the Solar System, though the round trip light time to objects beyond [[Saturn]] is longer than the time the telescope can track it, preventing radar observations of more distant objects.
{{clear}}

==National Observatory of Athens==
[[Image:Obser.jpg|thumb|right|2
050px|This image shows the setting for the National Observatory of Athens. Credit: [[w:User:Dimboukas|Dimboukas]].]]
The National Observatory of Athens is 107 m asl.

The new 63 cm telescope in Penteli is used extensively by the astronomers of the Institute.

"Research areas of the [Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics] IAA range from Solar Physics to Cosmology. The IAA also runs the 2.3 m Aristarchos telescope at [[w:Chelmos Observatory|Helmos Observatory]] and the 1.2 m telescope at Kryoneri Observatory."<ref name=IAASARS>{{ cite book
|author=
|title=The Institute for Astronomy, Astrophysics, Space Applications and Remote Sensing
|publisher=
|location=
|month=
|yeardate=
|url=http://www.astro.noa.gr/
|accessdate=2012-12-05 }}</ref>
{{clear}}

==High altitude deserts==
{{main|Locations/Earth/Altitudes/Deserts/High altitude deserts|High altitude deserts}}
[[Image:Atacama Submillimeter Telescope Experiment 01.jpg|thumb|right|2050px|This image shows the Atacama submillimeter telescope experiment. Credit: [[commons:User:Denys|Denys]].]]
"Bolometers are currently the best choice for sensitive direct detection of radiation at wavelengths between 200 μm and 2 mm (e.g., Refs. 1 and 2). [...] a bolometer operates by measuring the heating due to absorbed energy [... It] is sensitive to any type of energy reaching the absorber. [... Filtering does] not prevent cosmic, gamma, and x rays from reaching a bolometer."<ref name=Wood(contracted; show full)|accessdate=2014-03-12 }}</ref> ASTE has a main reflector surface accuracy of 19 µm (RMS) and a pointing accuracy of 1.2" (RMS) [for both azimuth and elevation]."<ref name=Kohno/>

ASTE is located at Pampa la Bola (4860 masl) "in the Atacama desert of Northern Chile."<ref name=Kohno/>
{{clear}}

==Mountain tops==
{{main|Locations/Earth/Mountain tops|Mountain tops}}
[[Image:Grantelescopio.jpg|left|thumb|2
050px|The dome of the Grand Telescope is shown at sunset. Credit: [[commons:User:Pachango|Pachango]].]]
[[Image:Kitt Peak McMath-Pierce Solar Telescope.jpg|thumb|right|2050px|This view is of the McMath-Pierce Solar Telescope at Kitt Peak National Observatory, near Tucson, Arizona. Credit: [http://www.flickr.com/photos/oceanyamaha/ ocean yamaha].]]
[[Image:Gornergrat -Switzerland -observatories-29Dec2009b.jpg|thumb|right|2050px|The Kölner Observatorium für SubMillimeter Astronomie (KOSMA) is a 3-m radio telescope located at 3,135 m on Gornergrat near Zermatt (Switzerland) in the southern tower (nearest to the camera). Credit: [http://flickr.com/photos/52614599@N00 Doc Searls].]]
[[Image:Kosma 3m breithorn small.jpg|thumb|left|2050px|This is the KOSMA 3m submillimeter telescope on Gornergrat near Zermatt in Switzerland. Credit: Fachgruppe Physik.]]
[[Image:Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope with moon.jpg|thumb|left|2050px|The Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope is located at the Mauna Kea Observatory in Hawai'i. Credit: [[commons:User:Fabian_RRRR|Fabian_RRRR]].]]
The '''Gran Telescopio Canarias''' (meaning "Canaries Great Telescope"), also known as '''GranTeCan''' or '''GTC''', is a {{convert|10.4|m|in|abbr=on}} reflecting telescope at the Roque de los Muchachos Observatory on the island of La Palma, in the Canary Islands (contracted; show full)

"Because of the good climatic conditions at the altitude of 3135 m (10285 ft), astronomical observatories have been located in both towers of the “Kulmhotel” at Gornergrat since 1967. In 1985, the KOSMA telescope was installed in the southern tower by the Universität zu Köln and, in the course of 1995, replaced by a new dish and mount."<ref name=FachgruppePhysik>{{ cite book
|author=Fachgruppe Physik
|title=KOSMA
|publisher=Universität zu Köln
|location=Köln, Deutschland
|
monthdate=June 2,⏎
|year=  2010
|url=http://www.astro.uni-koeln.de/kosma/
|accessdate=2014-03-12 }}</ref>

"The KOSMA telescope with its receivers and spectrometers was dedicated to observe interstellar and atmospheric molecular lines in the millimeter and submillimeter wavelength range. After 25 years of a successful era came to an end (June 2nd, 2010). The 3m KOSMA Radio Telescope left the Gornergrat and joined his long journey to Yangbajing / Lhasa / Tibet."<ref name=FachgruppePhysik/>

"Chinese and German scientists are establishing an astronomical observatory in a Tibetan county 4,300 meters above sea level."<ref name=Junjie>{{ cite book
|author=Wang Junjie
|title=China, Germany Build Astronomical Observatory in Tibet
|publisher=Chinese Academy of Sciences
|location=People's Republic of China
|monthdate=October⏎
|year=  2010
|url=http://english.cas.cn/highlight/200910/t20091014_45147.shtml
|accessdate=2014-03-12 }}</ref>

"Tibet is an ideal location because the water deficit in its air ensures superb atmospheric transparency and creates a comparatively stable environment for research in the areas of astrophysics, high-energy and atmospheric physics."<ref name=Jun>{{ cite book
|author=Yan Jun
|title=China, Germany Build Astronomical Observatory in Tibet
|publisher=Chinese Academy of Sciences
|location=People's Republic of China
|monthdate=October⏎
|year=  2010
|url=http://english.cas.cn/highlight/200910/t20091014_45147.shtml
|accessdate=2014-03-12 }}</ref>

"The observatory would house a KOSMA 3-meter sub-millimeter-wave telescope, the first of its kind to be used in general astronomical observation in China."<ref name=Jun/>

"It will boost China's research capacity in sub-millimeter astronomy and will hopefully provide a platform for astronomical experiments and training on the plateau and in the polar regions."<ref name=Jun/>

"Sub-millimeter astronomy refers to astronomical observations carried out in the region of the electromagnetic spectrum with wavelengths from approximately 0.3 to 1 millimeter."<ref name=Junjie/>

The Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope (CFHT) is a 3.6 m optical-infrared telescope located on 
the summit of Mauna Kea on the island of Hawaii."<ref name=Murdin>{{ cite book
|author=Paul Murdin
|title=Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope, In: ''Encyclopedia of Astronomy and Astrophysics''
|publisher=Institute of Physics 
|location=Bristol
|month=November
|yeardate=2000
|editor=Paul Murdin
|pages=
|url=
|bibcode=2000eaa..bookE4166.
|doi=10.1888/0333750888/4166
|pmid=
|isbn=
|accessdate=2011-11-14 }}</ref> The CFHT is at an altitude of 4,204 meters [[w:Mauna Kea|Mauna Kea]] last erupted 4,000 to 6,000 years ago [~7,000 b2k]. The Mauna Kea Observatories are used for scientific research across the electromagnetic spectrum from visible light to radio, and comprise the largest such facility in the world.
{{clear}}

==Balloons==
{{main|Astronomy/Balloons|Balloons}}
[[Image:Wallops Balloon With BESS Payload DSC00088.JPG|thumb|left|2050px|A research balloon is readied for launch. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:Maxislaunch.jpg|thumb|right|150px|The MeV Auroral X-ray Imaging and Spectroscopy experiment (MAXIS) is carried aloft by a balloon. Credit: Michael McCarthy and NASA.]]
[[Image:BLAST on flightline kiruna 2005.jpeg|thumb|right|2050px|BLAST is hanging from the launch vehicle in [[w:Esrange|Esrange]] near [[w:Kiruna|Kiruna]], [[w:Sweden|Sweden]] before launch June 2005. Credit: [[commons:User:Mtruch|Mtruch]].]]
[[Image:NASA Launches Telescope-Toting Balloon from-c3425de80831dab2a243aae9e0372fe7.jpeg|thumb|left|2050px|NASA's balloon-carried BLAST sub-millimeter telescope is hoisted into launch position on Dec. 25, 2012, at McMurdo Station in Antarctica. Credit: NASA/Wallops Flight Facility.]]
Balloons provide a long-duration platform to study any atmosphere, the universe, the [[Sun (star)tars/Sun|Sun]], and the near-Earth and space environment above as much as 99.7 % of the Earth's atmosphere. Unlike a rocket where data are collected during a brief few minutes, balloons are able to stay aloft for much longer. Balloons offer a low-cost, quick-response method for conducting scientific investigations. They are mobile, meaning they can be launched where the scientist needs to conduct the experiment, in as little as six months.

(contracted; show full)

At second left "NASA's balloon-carried BLAST sub-millimeter telescope is hoisted into launch position on Dec. 25, 2012, at McMurdo Station in Antarctica on a mission to peer into the cosmos."<ref name=SpaceDotCom>{{ cite book
|author=SPACE.com
|title=NASA Launches Telescope-Toting Balloon from Antarctica on Christmas
|publisher=SPACE.com
|location=
|
monthdate=December 25,⏎
|year=  2012
|url=http://news.yahoo.com/photos/nasa-launches-telescope-toting-balloon-antarctica-christmas-photo-164200244.html;_ylt=AoHsK.HbhPGTU8L1bT1.REEbANEA;_ylu=X3oDMTRramh0MW1uBG1pdANBcnRpY2xlIFJlbGF0ZWQgQ2Fyb3VzZWwEcGtnA2IyNDU3MjZmLTQ0NjQtMzJjMC05NGY2LTM5MGUxYTdkMjhkMgRwb3MDMQRzZWMDTWVkaWFBcnRpY2xlUmVsYXRlZENhcm91c2VsBHZlcgMwNzE3Yjc3MC00ZjdjLTExZTItYWQ1ZC05ODBjY2Q0Njg5OGQ-;_ylg=X3oDMTNhNjM2ZDhuBGludGwDdXMEbGFuZwNlbi11cwRwc3RhaWQDOWMzMDIyNDctMWM5NS0zMGYwLWIzNGItNDZjMjJkMjY0MmUyBHBzdGNhdANzY2llbmNlfHNwYWNlLWF(contracted; show full)d from further contracting into a star: turbulence in the dust, or the collapse-impeding effects of magnetic fields. On its new mission, BLAST should find out which process is to blame. ... [The 1800-kilogram] stratospheric telescope will observe selected [[star-forming region]]s in the constellations Vela and Lupus."<ref name=Schilling>{{ cite book
|author=Govert Schilling
|title=NASA Launches Telescope-Toting Balloon from Antarctica on Christmas
|publisher=SPACE.com
|location=McMurdo Station
|
monthdate=December 26,⏎
|year=  2012
|url=http://news.yahoo.com/nasa-launches-telescope-toting-balloon-antarctica-christmas-164200686.html
|accessdate=2012-12-26 }}</ref>
{{clear}}

==Aircraft==
{{main|Astronomy/Airborne|Aircraft}}
[[Image:NASA C-141A KAO.jpg|thumb|right|2050px|The telescope is within the rectangular black hole on the side of the C-141A KAO aircraft. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:446826main ED10-0080-03c 946-710.jpg|thumb|right|2050px|The SOFIA observatory is flying with 100% open telescope door. Credit: NASA.]]
An airborne observatory is an airplane or balloon with an astronomical telescope. By carrying the telescope high, the telescope can avoid cloud cover, pollution, and carry out observations in the infrared spectrum, above water vapor in the atmosphere which absorbs infrared radiation.

(contracted; show full)
| author=Alfred Krabbe
| title=SOFIA telescope, In: ‘’Proceedings of SPIE: Astronomical Telescopes and Instrumentation’’
| pages=276–281
| date=March
, 2007
| publisher=SPIE — The International Society for Optical Engineering
| location=Munich, Germany
|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0004253
| arxiv=astro-ph/0004253 }}</ref> The aircraft can also travel to almost any point on the Earth's surface, allowing observation from the northern and southern hemispheres.
{{clear}}

==Space cannons==
{{main|Astronomy/Space cannons|Space cannons}}
[[Image:Project Harp.jpg|thumb|right|2050px|This image shows the High Altitude Research Project (HARP) 16 inch (406 mm) gun. Credit: [[w:User:Noahcs|Noahcs]].]]
Bull's ultimate goal was to fire a payload into space from a gun, and many have suggested that the ballistics study was offered simply to gain funding. While the speed was not nearly enough to reach orbit (less than half of the 9000 m/s delta-v required to reach Low Earth Orbit), it was a major achievement at much lower cost than most ballistic missile programs.

(contracted; show full)

A space gun, by itself, is generally not capable of placing objects into stable orbit around the planet, unless the objects are able to perform course corrections after launch.
{{clear}}

==Sounding rockets==
{{main|Astronomy/Sounding rockets|Sounding rockets}}
[[Image:Nike-Black Brant VC XQC launch.gif|thumb|left|
1250px|Carried aloft on a Nike-Black Brant VC sounding rocket, the microcalorimeter arrays observed the diffuse soft X-ray emission from a large solid angle at high galactic latitude. Credit: NASA/Wallops.]]
[[Image:V2Sep1949.jpg|thumb|right|2050px|The [[w:NRL|NRL]] Ionosphere 1 solar X-ray, ionosphere, and meteorite mission launches on a V-2 on September 29, 1949, from [[w:White Sands Proving Ground|White Sands]] at 16:58 GMT and reached 151.1 km. Credit: Naval Research Laboratory.]]
[[Image:VertikalNB-1.jpg|thumb|left|10250px|Vertikal 1 is launched on November 28, 1970, at about 06:30 local time from Kapustin Yar. Credit: Norbert Brügge.]]
Additional technology used to benefit astronomy includes [[w:Sounding rockets|sounding rockets]] which may carry gamma-ray, X-ray, ultraviolet, and infrared detectors to high altitude to view individual sources and the background for each wavelength band observed.

(contracted; show full)810/files/SRHB.pdf nasa.gov] NASA Sounding Rocket Program Handbook, June 2005, p. 1</ref> above the surface of the [[Earth]], the altitude generally between [[w:weather balloon|weather balloon]]s and [[w:satellite|satellite]]s (the maximum altitude for balloons is about {{convert|40|km}} and the minimum for satellites is approximately {{convert|120|km}}).<ref name=overview>{{ cite book
|date=24 July 2006
|url=http://rscience.gsfc.nasa.gov/srrov.html
|title=NASA Sounding Rocket Program Overview

|work=NASA Sounding Rocket Program⏎
|publisher=NASA
|accessdate=10 October 2006 }}</ref> Certain sounding rockets, such as the [[w:Black Brant rocket|Black Brant X and XII]], have an [[w:apogee|apogee]] between {{convert|1000|and|1500|km}}; the maximum apogee of their class. ... [[NASA]] routinely flies the [[w:RIM-2 Terrier|Terrier]] Mk 70 boosted [[w:Improved Orion|Improved Orion]] lifting {{convert|270|-|450|kg}} payloads into the [[wiktionary:exoatmospheric|exoatmospheric]] region between {{convert|100|and|200|km}}.<ref>'(contracted; show full)oons or satellites. They are also used as test beds for equipment that will be used in more expensive and risky [[w:orbital spaceflight|orbital spaceflight]] missions.<ref name=overview/> The smaller size of a sounding rocket also makes launching from temporary sites possible allowing for field studies at remote locations, even in the middle of the ocean, if fired from a ship.<ref>{{ cite book
|url=http://www.pha.jhu.edu/groups/rocket/general.html
|title=General Description of Sounding Rockets

|work=Johns Hopkins University Sounding Rocket Program⏎
|accessdate=10 October 2006 }}</ref>

The '''Vertikal''' sounding rocket is one of many sounding rockets used by Russia and formerly by the Soviet Union, in addition to satellites, as part of an extensive solar ultraviolet and X-ray astronomy research effort. Vertikal 1 carried a Polish instrument for X-ray examinations of the Sun.<ref name=Hlond>{{ cite journal
|author=M. Hlond
|title=Technical details of the Polish experiment with the geophysical rocket Vertikal-1 and Vertikal-2
|journal=Pomiary, Automat. Kontr. (Warsaw)
|month=May
|year=1973
|volume=19
|issue=5
|pages=205-6
|url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1974STIN...7513787H
|arxiv=
|bibcode=1974STIN...7513787H
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=2012-12-09 }}</ref> Vertikal 1 and 2 studied solar radiation in the wavelength range 0.1 nm to 150.0 nm with regard to X-ray emission of the quiet Sun and solar X-ray bursts.
{{clear}}

==Aircraft assisted launches==
{{main|Astronomy/Airborne/Launches|Aircraft assisted launches}}
[[Image:Lockheed_TriStar_launches_Pegasus_with_Space_Technology_5.jpg|thumb|right|2050px|Orbital Sciences' L-1011 jet aircraft releases the Pegasus rocket carrying the Space Technology 5 spacecraft with its trio of micro-satellites. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:Pegasus Carried by B-52 - GPN-2003-00044.jpg|thumb|left|2050px|This image shows a Pegasus being carried to altitude by B-52. Credit: NASA.]]
The Pegasus is carried aloft below a carrier aircraft and launched at approximately 40,000 ft (12,000 m). The carrier aircraft provides flexibility to launch the rocket from anywhere rather than just a fixed pad. A high-altitude, winged flight launch also allows the rocket to avoid flight in the densest part of the atmosphere where a larger launch vehicle, carrying much more fuel, would be needed to overcome air friction and g(contracted; show full)|accessdate=17 August 2011
|publisher=Los Alamos National Laboratory
|date=23 April 1998 }}</ref>
{{clear}}

==Orbital rocketry==
{{main|Astronomy/Rocketry/Orbitals|Orbital rocketry}}
[[Image:TRACE in cleanroom during assembly.jpg|thumb|right|2
050px|The TRACE spacecraft is imaged in its cleanroom during assembly. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:Atlas IIAS launch with SOHO.jpg|thumb|left|2050px|The Solar Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) is launched atop an ATLAS-IIAS expendable launch vehicle. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:Thor Able Star with Transit 4A, Solrad 3 and Injun 1 (Jun. 29, 1961).jpg|thumb|right|80px|Lift-off of the Thor Able Star launch vehicle. Credit: US Air Force/Navy.]]
[[Image:Transit-4A Injun-1 Solrad-3.jpg|thumb|left|10250px|Pictured here is the Solrad 3 X-ray astronomy observatory atop the satellite stack being fitted with a nose cone. Credit: US Navy.]]
[[Image:Explorer 11 ground.gif|thumb|right|2050px|This photograph shows Explorer 11 with its orbital rocket. Credit: HEASARC GSFC NASA.]]
[[Image:Juno II rocket.jpg|thumb|left|2050px|This image shows a Juno II launch vehicle like the one used to put Explorer 11 into Earth orbit. Credit: NASA.]]
With the advent of lofting technology comes the possibility of placing an observatory as a free floating yet when necessary either a geostationary, rotating, or fixed form in orbit. The TRACE spacecraft imaged at above right is in its cleanroom during assembly prior to launch.

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{{clear}}

==Sun-synchronous orbital rocketry==
{{main|Astronomy/Rocketry/Sun-synchronous|Sun-synchronous orbital rocketry}}
[[Image:Heliosynchronous Orbit.png|thumb|right|2
050px|Diagram shows the orientation of a Sun-synchronous orbit (green) in four points of the year. A non-sun-synchronous orbit (magenta) is also shown for reference. Credit: [[commons:User:Brandir|Brandir]].]]
[[Image:ERS 2.jpg|thumb|left|2050px|The photograph shows a full-size model of ERS-2. Credit:Poppy.]]
[[Image:Ariane42P rocket.gif|thumb|right|2050px|The ERS-2 is carried into a sun-synchronous polar orbit by an Ariane 4 similar to the one imaged. Credit: NASA.]]
A '''Sun-synchronous orbit''' (sometimes called a heliosynchronous orbit<ref name="shcherbakova">Shcherbakova, N. N.; Beletskij, V. V.; Sazonov, V. V. - Kosmicheskie Issledovaniia, Tom 37, No. 4, p. 417 - 427,
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* GOME (Global Ozone Monitoring Experiment) is a nadir scanning ultraviolet and visible spectrometer.
* ATSR-2 included 3 visible spectrum bands specialized for [[w:Chlorophyll|Chlorophyll]] and [[w:Vegetation|Vegetation]]

==Shuttle payloads==
{{main|Astronomy/Rocketry/Orbitals/Shuttles|Shuttle payloads}}
[[Image:Onboard_Photo_-_Astro-1_Ultraviolet_Telescope_in_Cargo_Bay.jpg|thumb|right|
1250px|The ASTRO-1 observatory's suite of four telescopes points skyward from the payload bay of Columbia, STS-35. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:STS-45 payload.jpg|thumb|right|2050px|The image provides a view of Atlantis's payload bay for the Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and Science (ATLAS-1). Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:STS-103 Reflection on astronaut's visor.jpg|thumb|left|1250px|The Space Shuttle Discovery's Cargo Bay and Crew Module, and the Earth's horizon are reflected in the helmet visor of one of the space walking astronauts on STS-103. Credit: NASA]]
[[Image:Srtm 1.jpg|thumb|left|200px|The SRTM is flown on an 11-day mission of the [[w:Space Shuttle Endeavour|Space Shuttle Endeavour]] in February 2000.<ref name="NASA SRTM site">{{ cite book
|url=http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/srtm/
|title=Shuttle Radar Topography Mission: Mission to Map the World
(contracted; show full)7;'') is an international research effort that obtained [[w:digital elevation model|digital elevation model]]s on a near-global scale from 56°&nbsp;S to 60°&nbsp;N,<ref name=NikP2>{{cite journal|last1=Nikolakopoulos |first1=K. G. |last2=Kamaratakis |first2=E. K |last3=Chrysoulakis |first3=N. |date=10 November 2006 |title=SRTM vs ASTER elevation products. Comparison for two regions in Crete, Greece |journal=International Journal of Remote Sensing |volume=27 |issue=21 |issn=0143-1161 
|url=http://www.iacm.forth.gr/_docs/pubs/4/Nikolakopoulos_et_al_2006.pdf |accessdate=March 10, 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721081314/http://www.iacm.forth.gr/_docs/pubs/4/Nikolakopoulos_et_al_2006.pdf |archivedate=July 21, 2011 }}</ref> to generate the most complete high-resolution digital topographic database of Earth prior to the release of the [[w:ASTER GDEM|ASTER GDEM]] in 2009. SRTM consisted of a specially modified radar system that flew on board the [[w:Space Shuttle|Space Shuttle]] [[w:Space Shuttle Endeavour|Endeavour]] during the 11-day [[w:STS-99|STS-99]] mission in February 2000, based on the older ''Spaceborne Imaging Radar-C/X-band Synthetic Aperture Radar'' (SIR-C/X-SAR), previously used on(contracted; show full)
{{clear}}

==Orbital platforms==
{{main|Astronomy/Rocketry/Orbitals/Platforms|Orbital platforms}}
[[Image:Salyut7 with docked spacecraft.jpg|thumb|right|2
050px|This view of the Soviet orbital station Salyut 7 follows the docking of a spacecraft to the space station. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:Skylab and Earth Limb - GPN-2000-001055.jpg|thumb|right|1250px|Skylab is an example of a manned observatory in orbit. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:STS-134 International Space Station after undocking.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The [[w:International Space Station|International Space Station]] is featured in this image photographed by an STS-134 crew member on the space shuttle Endeavour after the station and shuttle began their post-undocking relative separation. Credit: .]]
Skylab included an Apollo Telescope Mount, which was a multi-spectral solar observatory, ... Numerous scientific experiments were conducted aboard Skylab during its operational life, and crews were able to confirm the existence of coronal holes in the Sun. The Earth Resources Experiment Package (EREP), was used to view the Earth with sensors that recorded data in the visible, infrared, and microwave spectral regions.
{{clear}}

==Heliocentric rocketry==
{{main|Rocketry/Heliocentrics|Heliocentric rocketry}}
[[Image:Spitzer- Telescopio.jpg|thumb|right|2050px|The image shows the Spitzer Space Telescope prior to launch. Credit: NASA/JPL/Caltech.]]
[[Image:300th Delta launches with Spitzer.jpg|thumb|left|2050px|NASA's Space Infrared Telescope Facility (SIRTF, now Spitzer) lifts off from Launch Pad 17-B, Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, aboard a Delta rocket, on August 25, 2003 at 1:35:39 a.m. EDT. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:04-2530 ETSO Spitzer-3.png|thumb|right|200px|Spitzer's Earth-trailing solar orbit (ETSO) for a 62-month mission lifetime. Credit: Premkumar R. Menon, JPL/NASA.]]
[[Image:STS-41 Ulysses deployment.jpg|thumb|right|2050px|Ulysses is photographed after deployment from [[w:STS-41|STS-41]]. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:Ulysses 2 orbit.jpg|thumb|left|2050px|Ulysses' second orbit (1999–2004) included a swing-by Jupiter. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:Helios - testing.png|thumb|2050px|right|A technician stands next to one of the twin Helios spacecraft during testing. Credit: NASA/Max Planck.]]
[[Image:Titan 3E Centaur with Helios 1.jpg|2050px|thumb|left|Shown is Helios 1 sitting atop the [[w:Titan III|Titan IIIE]] / [[w:Centaur (rocket stage)|Centaur]] launch vehicle. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:Helios - Trajectory.png|2050px|thumb|left|Trajectory of the Helio space probes is diagrammed. Credit: NASA.]]
The '''Spitzer Space Telescope''' ('''SST'''), formerly the '''Space Infrared Telescope Facility''' ('''SIRTF''') is an infrared space observatory launched from [[w:Cape Canaveral Air Force Station|Cape Canaveral Air Force Station]],  on a [[w:Delta II rocket|Delta II]] 7920H ELV rocket,  Monday, 25 August 2(contracted; show full)

"An Earth Trailing Solar Orbit (ETSO)" causes Spitzer "to drift from Earth at a rate of about 0.1 AU per year."<ref name=Johnson>{{ cite book
|author=Wyatt R. Johnson
|title=SIM Trajectory Design
|publisher=NASA
|location=Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, California, USA
|
month=
|yeardate=
|url=http://trs-new.jpl.nasa.gov/dspace/bitstream/2014/38850/1/04-2535.pdf
|accessdate=2012-12-09 }}</ref>

The figure at right shows the Earth-trailing solar orbit (ETSO) for Spitzer with the Earth at the origin and the Sun at left in the rotating coordinate frame "for an 8/25/03 launch projected onto the Ecliptic plane during the 62-month mission lifetime".<ref name=Menon>{{ cite book
|author=Premkumar R. Menon
|title=Spitzer Orbit Determination during In-Orbit Checkout Phase
|publisher=NASA
|location=Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, California, USA
|month=
|yeardate=
|url=http://trs-new.jpl.nasa.gov/dspace/bitstream/2014/40027/1/04-2530.pdf
|accessdate=2012-12-09 }}</ref>

'''Ulysses''' is a robotic space probe designed to study the [[Sun (star)tars/Sun|Sun]] as a joint venture of NASA and the European Space Agency (ESA). To obtain an Out-Of-The-Ecliptic (OOE) heliocentric orbit Ulysses swung by Jupiter. Between 1994 and 1995 it explored both the southern (June - October 1994) and northern (June - September 1995) solar polar regions. Between 2000 and 2001 it explored the southern solar polar regions, which gave many unexpected results. In particular the southern magnetic pole was found to be much more dynamic than the north pole and without any fixed clea(contracted; show full)

'''Helios 1''' and '''Helios 2''' are a pair of probes launched into heliocentric orbit for the purpose of studying solar processes. ... The probes are notable for having set a maximum speed record among spacecraft at 252,792 km/h<ref name=wilkinson2012>{{ cite book
| author=John Wilkinson
| title=New Eyes on the Sun: A Guide to Satellite Images and Amateur Observation
| series=Astronomers' Universe Series
| publisher=Springer
| 
yeardate=2012
| isbn=3-642-22838-0
| page=37
| url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Ud2icgujz0wC&pg=PA37 }}</ref> (157,078 mi/h or 43.63 mi/s or 70.22 km/s or 0.000234c). Helios 2 flew three million kilometers closer to the Sun than Helios 1, achieving perihelion on 17 April 1976 at a record distance of 0.29 AU (or 43.432 million kilometers),<ref name=Helios>{{ cite book
|url=http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/profile.cfm?MCode=Helios_02&Display=ReadMore
|title=Solar System Exploration: Missions: By Target: Our Solar System: Past: Helios 2⏎
|date= }}</ref> slightly inside the orbit of [[Mercury]]. Helios 2 was sent into orbit 13 months after the launch of Helios 1. The probes are no longer functional but still remain in their elliptical orbit around the Sun." On board, each probe carried an instrument for cosmic radiation investigation (the CRI) for measuring protons, electrons, and X-rays "to determine the distribution of cosmic rays.
{{clear}}

==Exploratory rocketry==
{{main|Astronomy/Rocketry/Exploratory|Exploratory rocketry}}
[[Image:72410main ACD97-0036-2.jpg|thumb|right|2050px|This diagram shows each of Pioneer 10's systems. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:Launch of Pioneer 10-2.jpg|thumb|left|2050px|The launch of Pioneer 10 aboard an [[w:Atlas-Centaur|Atlas/Centaur]] vehicle. Credit: NASA Ames Resarch Center (NASA-ARC).]]
[[Image:Pioneer 10 mission jupiter.png|thumb|right|2050px|This diagram shows the interplanetary trajectory for Pioneer 10. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:ISEE3-ICE-trajectory.gif|thumb|left|2050px|ISEE-3 is inserted into a "halo" orbit on June 10, 1982. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:Titan 3E with Voyager 1.jpg|thumb|right|2050px|Voyager 1 lifts off on a [[w:Titan IIIE|Titan IIIE]]-[[w:Centaur (rocket stage)|Centaur]]. Credit: .]]
[[Image:Tour-v1-2.svg|thumb|left|2050px|The primary mission trajectory of Voyager 1 is shown in the figure. Credit: .]]
'''''Pioneer 10''''' is a 258-kilogram [[w:Robotic spacecraft|robotic]] [[w:space probe|space probe]] that completed the first mission to the planet [[Jupiter/Keynote lecture|Jupiter]]<ref name=Fimmel>{{ cite book |title=SP-349/396 PIONEER ODYSSEY |last=Fimmel |first=R. O. |coauthors=author=R. O. Fimmel, W. Swindell, and E. Burgess |yeardate=1974 |publisher=NASA-Ames Research Center |isbn=SP-349 |url=http://history.nasa.gov/SP-349/ch8.htm |accessdate=2011-01-09}}</ref> and became the first spacecraft to achieve [[w:escape velocity|escape velocity]] from the [[w:Solar System|Solar System]].

(contracted; show full)
# ground based solar studies with the Stanford ground-based solar telescope, and the comparison of these measurements with measurements of the interplanetary magnetic field and solar wind made by other experiments on this spacecraft,
# X- and gamma-ray bursts, 5-228 keV, and
# Gamma-ray bursts, 0.05-6.5 MeV direction, profile, spectrum.<ref name=Bell>{{ cite book
|author=E. Bell II
|title=ISEE 3
|publisher=National Aeronautics and Space Administration
|location=
|
month=0date=8 December⏎
|year=  2012
|url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1978-079A
|accessdate=2012-12-08 }}</ref>

The ''Voyager 1'' probe was launched on September 5, 1977, from [[w:Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Space Launch Complex 41|Space Launch Complex 41]] at [[w:Cape Canaveral Air Force Station|Cape Canaveral, Florida]], aboard a [[w:Titan IIIE|Titan IIIE]]-[[w:Centaur (rocket stage)|Centaur]] [[w:carrier rocket|launch vehicle]].

On November 17, 1998, ''Voyager 1'' overtook ''Pioneer 10'' as the most distant man-made object from Earth, at a distance of {{convert|69.419|AU|km|abbr=on}}. It is currently the most distant functioning space probe to receive commands and transmit information to Earth.
{{clear}}

==Rocky-object rocketry==
{{main|Astronomy/Rocketry/Rocky objects|Rocky-object rocketry}}
[[Image:Apollo 11 Saturn V lifting off on July 16, 1969.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|right|2050px|A [[w:Saturn V|Saturn V]] [[w:Saturn (rocket family)|rocket]] launches Apollo 11 in 1969. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:Missao Apollo.jpg|thumb|right|2050px|This diagram shows each of the rocketry steps needed for lunar orbit and landing. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:Delta II 7925 (2925) rocket with Deep Impact.jpg|thumb|left|2050px|The Sun rises behind Launch Pad 17-B, Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, Florida, USA, where the Boeing Delta II rocket carrying the Deep Impact spacecraft waits for launch. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:90855main dispcrft.jpg|thumb|right|2050px|This overview diagram indicates some of the components for [[visual astronomy]] aboard ''Deep Impact''. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:Deep Impact trajectory.jpg|thumb|left|2050px|The diagram describes the trajectory for ''Deep Impact''. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:Tempel Impactor 150Km.jpg|thumb|right|2050px|The impactor close-up image is taken shortly before impact. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:Titan4B on Launch Complex 40.jpg|thumb|right|2050px|At Launch Complex 40 on Cape Canaveral Air Station, the Mobile Service Tower has been retracted away from the Titan IVB/Centaur carrying the Cassini spacecraft. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:Cassini interplanet trajectory.svg|thumb|left|2050px|Cassini's Interplanetary trajectory is diagrammed. Credit: PD-USGOV.]]
[[Image:Cassini Tour (hypothetical).jpg|thumb|left|2050px|This simplified diagram shows, in two dimensions, the orbital motion of Cassini–Huygens on and after arrival at Saturn. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:Cassini Huygens Titan.jpg|thumb|left|2050px|This artist's conception of the Cassini orbiter shows the Huygens probe separating to enter Titan's atmosphere. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:Huygens surface color sr.jpg|thumb|right|2050px|The color x2 super-resolution image of the Titan's surface is as seen by the Huygens probe. Credit: Andrey Pivovarov, and NASA.]]
The '''Apollo program''' was the third [[w:human spaceflight|human spaceflight]] program carried out by the [[w:NASA|National Aeronautics and Space Administration]] (NASA), the United States' civilian space agency.

(contracted; show full)vert|7610000|lbf|kN|sigfig=3}}. The second and third stages burned liquid hydrogen, and the third stage was a modified version of the S-IVB, with thrust increased to {{convert|230000|lbf|kN|sigfig=3|abbr=on}} and capability to restart the engine for [[w:Trans lunar injection|translunar injection]] after reaching a parking orbit.<ref name=Orloff>{{ cite book
 |last = Orloff
 |first = Richard W.
 |title = Apollo By the Numbers: A Statistical Reference
 |publisher = NASA
 |series = SP
 |volume = 4029
 |
yeardate = 2004
 |location =
 |pages =
 |url = http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_18-11_Launch_Vehicle-Spacecraft_Key_Facts.htm
 |isbn =}}</ref>

'''''Deep Impact''''' is a NASA space probe launched on January 12, 2005. It was designed to study the composition of the comet interior of [[w:9P/Tempel|9P/Tempel]], by releasing an impactor into the comet. At 5:52 UTC on July 4, 2005, the impactor successfully collided with the comet's [[w:comet nucleus|nu(contracted; show full)
|publisher=Bloomberg
|url=http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=10000103&sid=a7aFRLrijlBM&refer=us
|date=July 3, 2005
|accessdate=May 11, 2009 }}</ref> The first images from the instrumented Impactor were seen two hours after separation.<ref name="DICE">{{ cite book
|title=Design, Development, and Operations of the Big Event at Tempel 1
|publisher=Deep Impact Comet Encounter
|url=http://trs-new.jpl.nasa.gov/dspace/bitstream/2014/38045/1/05-3268.pdf

|format=PDF⏎
|accessdate=May 11, 2009 }}</ref>

'''''Cassini–Huygens''''' is ... [[NASA]]-[[w:European Space Agency|ESA]]-[[w:Italian Space Agency|ASI]] robotic spacecraft sent to the [[Saturn]] system.<ref name=flagship>{{ cite book
|url=http://science.nasa.gov/about-us/smd-programs/outer-planets-flagship/
(contracted; show full)tended to rotate the probe for greater stability. It entered the atmosphere of Titan on January&nbsp;14, 2005, and after a two-and-a-half-hour descent landed on solid ground. Although Cassini successfully relayed 350 of the pictures that it received from Huygens of its descent and landing site, a software error failed to turn on one of the Cassini receivers and caused the loss of the other 350 pictures.
{{clear}}

==Hypotheses==
{{main|Hypotheses}}
# Being repelled by the Earth is a lofting technology.
⏎
{{seealso|Control groups|Proof of concept|Proof of technology}}

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=12em}}
* [[Alignment telescope]]
* [[Astronomy/Keynote lecture]]
* [[Gamma-ray astronomy]]
* [[Light and optics]]
* [[Mathematical astronomy]]
* [[Orange astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Keynote lecture]]
* [[Strong gravitational constant]]
* [[Ultraviolet astronomy]]
* [[Visual astronomy]]
* [[X-ray astronomy]]
* [[Yellow astronomy]]
{{Div col end}}

(contracted; show full)
* [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/Tools/convcoord/convcoord.pl Universal coordinate converter]
* [http://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Main_Page WikiDoc The Living Textbook of Medicine]
* [http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/advanced/search Wiley Online Library Advanced Search]
* [http://search.yahoo.com/web/advanced Yahoo Advanced Web Search]

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