Difference between revisions 984523 and 984524 on enwikiversity

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Lofting technology
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Astronomy is performed by location and is subject to local conditions. The shapes and sizes of observatories have changed over time, as have their altitude. The motivations for putting an observatory manned or unmanned at different altitudes has led to a great variety in '''lofting technology'''.
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==Notation==

'''Notation''': let the symbol '''Def.''' indicate that a definition is following.

==Universals==

To help with definitions, their meanings and intents, there is  the learning resource [[theory of definition]].

'''Def.''' evidence that demonstrates that a concept is possible is called '''proof of concept'''.

'''Def.''' "[a] place where stars, planets and other [[wikt:celestial body|celestial bodies]] are observed", per Wiktionary [[wikt:observatory|observatory]], is called an '''observatory'''.

==Horizontal coordinate system==
[[Image:Horizontal coordinate system 2.png|thumb|right|200px|This diagram describes altitude and azimuth. Credit: Francisco Javier Blanco González.]]
The altitude of an entity in the sky is given by the angle of the arc from the local horizon to the entity.

“The horizontal coordinate system is a [[w:celestial coordinate system|celestial coordinate system]] that uses the observer's local [[w:horizon|horizon]] as the [[w:Fundamental plane (spherical coordinates)|fundamental plane]]. This coordinate system divides the sky into the upper [[w:sphere|hemisphere]] where objects are visible, and the lower hemisphere where objects cannot be seen since the earth is in the way. The [[w:Great circle|great circle]] separating hemispheres [is] called [the] celestial horizon or rational horizon. The pole of the upper hemisphere is called the [[w:Zenith|zenith]]. The pole of the lower hemisphere is called the [[w:Nadir|nadir]]. <ref name=Schombert>{{ cite web
|url=http://abyss.uoregon.edu/~js/ast121/lectures/lec03.html
|title=Earth Coordinate System
|author=James Schombert
|publisher=University of Oregon Department of Physics
|accessdate=19 March 2011 }}</ref>”<ref name=Horizontal>{{ cite journal
|title=Horizontal coordinate system
|journal=Wikipedia
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=April 20,
|year=2012
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horizontal_coordinate_system
|pdf=
|accessdate=2012-05-14 }}</ref>

“The horizontal coordinates are:
* '''Altitude (Alt)''', sometimes referred to as [[w:elevation (disambiguation) | elevation]],  is the angle between the object and the observer's local horizon. It is expressed as an angle between 0 degrees to 90 degrees.
* '''[[w:Azimuth|Azimuth]] (Az)''', that is the angle of the object around the horizon, usually measured from the north increasing towards the east. 
* '''Zenith distance''', the distance from directly overhead (i.e. the zenith) is sometimes used instead of altitude in some calculations using these coordinates.  The zenith distance is the [[w:complementary angles|complement]] of altitude (i.e. 90°-altitude).”<ref name=Horizontal/>

==Altitude==
[[Image:Vertical distances.svg|thumb|right|200px|This diagram shows the different types of vertical flight distances an aircraft may have. Credit: Dr. Wessmann and  [[w:User:AronRubin|AronRubin]].]]
Per the Wikipedia article on [[w:Altitude|altitude]], “As a general definition, altitude is a distance measurement, usually in the vertical or "up" direction, between a reference datum and a point or object. ... Although the term altitude is commonly used to mean the height above sea level of a location, in geography the term elevation is often preferred for this usage. Vertical distance measurements in the "down" direction are commonly referred to as depth.”

*”'''Indicated altitude''' -- the [[w:altimeter|altimeter]] reading
*'''Absolute altitude''' -- altitude in terms of the distance above the ground directly below it
*'''True altitude''' -- altitude in terms of elevation above sea level
*'''[[w:Height|Height]]''' -- altitude in terms of the distance above a certain point
*'''[[w:Pressure altitude|Pressure altitude]]''' -- altitude in terms of the [[w:air pressure|air pressure]]
*'''[[w:Density altitude|Density altitude]]''' -- altitude in terms of the density of the air”, from the Wikipedia article [[w:Altitude|altitude]].

==Altitude regions==

The [[w:Earth's atmosphere|Earth's atmosphere]] is divided into altitude regions:<ref name=NWS>{{ cite web
| title=Layers of the Atmosphere
|work=JetStream, the National Weather Service Online Weather School
| publisher=National Weather Service
| url=http://www.srh.noaa.gov/srh/jetstream/atmos/layers.htm
| accessdate=22 December 2005 }}</ref>
* [[w:Troposphere|Troposphere]] &mdash; surface to 8,000 m at the poles &ndash; 18,000 m at the [[w:equator|equator]], ending at the Tropopause.
* [[w:Stratosphere|Stratosphere]] &mdash; Troposphere to 50 km
* [[w:Mesosphere|Mesosphere]] &mdash; Stratosphere to 85 km
* [[w:Thermosphere|Thermosphere]] &mdash; Mesosphere to 675 km
* [[w:Exosphere|Exosphere]] &mdash; Thermosphere to 10,000 km, after [[w:Altitude#Altitude regions|altitude regions]].

==Earth radius==

From the Wikipedia article on the [[w:Earth radius|Earth’s radius]], “Because the Earth is not perfectly spherical, no single value serves as its natural radius. Distances from points on the surface to the center range from 6,353 km to 6,384 km ... ''Earth radius'' is also used as a unit of distance, especially in [[astronomy]] and [[geology]]. It is usually denoted by <math>R_\oplus</math>. ... Earth's rotation, internal density variations, and external tidal forces cause it to deviate systematically from a perfect sphere.<ref>For details see [[w:Figure of the Earth|Figure of the Earth]], [[w:Geoid|Geoid]], and [[w:Earth tide|Earth tide]].</ref> Local [[w:topography|topography]] increases the variance, resulting in a surface of unlimited complexity. ... [A]ny radius falls between the polar minimum of about 6,357&nbsp;km and the equatorial maximum of about 6,378&nbsp;km (≈3,950 – 3,963&nbsp;mi). ... [T]he bulge at the equator shows slow variations. The bulge had been declining, but since 1998 the bulge has increased, possibly due to redistribution of ocean mass via currents.<ref>[http://www.gsfc.nasa.gov/topstory/20020801gravityfield.html Satellites Reveal A Mystery Of Large Change In Earth's Gravity Field], Aug. 1, 2002, Goddard Space Flight Center.</ref>
[[Image:Lowresgh.jpg|thumb|right|400px|The diagram shows variation from the ellipsoid and sea level.]]
The variation in [[w:density|density]] and [[w:Crust (geology)|crustal]] thickness causes gravity to vary on the surface, so that the mean sea level will differ from the ellipsoid. This difference is the ''[[w:geoid|geoid]] height'', positive above or outside the ellipsoid, negative below or inside. The geoid height variation is under 110 m on Earth. The geoid height can change abruptly due to earthquakes (such as the [[w:2004 Indian Ocean earthquake|Sumatra-Andaman earthquake]]) or reduction in ice masses (such as [[Greenland]]).<ref>[http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewpr.html?pid=18567 NASA's Grace Finds Greenland Melting Faster, 'Sees' Sumatra Quake], December 20, 2005, Goddard Space Flight Center.</ref>”

The delta of the [[w:Mississippi river|Mississippi river]] is further from the center of the Earth than the river’s origin in the state of Minnesota. As the river flows uphill, how is this possible?

==Sea level==

“'''Mean sea level''' (MSL) is a measure of the average height of the ocean's surface (such as the halfway point between the mean high tide and the mean low tide); used as a standard in reckoning land elevation.<ref name=Proudman>{{ cite web
|url=http://www.straightdope.com/columns/read/148/what-is-sea-level#1
|title=''What is "Mean Sea Level"?''
|publisher=Proudman Oceanographic Laboratory }}</ref> MSL also plays an extremely important role in [[w:aviation|aviation]], where standard sea level pressure is used as the measurement datum of altitude at [[w:flight level|flight level]]s.”<ref name=SeaLevel>{{ cite journal
|title=Sea level
|journal=Wikipedia
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=September 1,
|year=2012
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_level
|pdf=
|accessdate=2012-09-09 }}</ref>

==Atmosphere==

'''Def.''' "a layer of [[w:Gas|gases]] that may surround a material body of sufficient [[w:Mass|mass]],<ref name=Ontario>{{ cite web
|url=
|title=Ontario Science Centre website }}</ref> and that is held in place by the [[w:gravity|gravity]] of the body", per the Wikipedia article [[w:Atmosphere|atmosphere]], is called an '''atmosphere'''.

'''Def.''' "[t]he [[wikt:gas|gases]] surrounding the [[Earth]] or any [[wikt:astronomical|astronomical]] body", per Wiktionary [[wikt:atmosphere|atmosphere]], is called an '''atmosphere'''.

To overcome the limitations of observing in portions on either side of the visual, telescopes and spectrometers are lofted above the atmosphere for short times on board [[w:sounding rocket|sounding rocket]]s and balloons. Longer observing times are available with satellites placed into orbit around the Earth, the Sun, or other [[w:solar system|solar system]] bodies.
[[Image:Atmospheric window EN.svg|thumb|450px|right|Absorption spectrum during atmospheric transition of electromagnetic radiation. An atmospheric transmission 'window' can be seen between 8-14 µm.]]
Absorption spectrum during atmospheric transition of electromagnetic radiation. An atmospheric transmission 'window' can be seen between 8-14 µm.

==Stonehenge==
[[Image:Stonehenge.jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[w:Stonehenge|Stonehenge]] is a [[w:Neolithic|Neolithic]] monument that may have functioned as a celestial observatory. 102.8 masl. Credit: .]]
From the Wikipedia article on [[w:Stonehenge|Stonehenge]], “Whatever religious, mystical or spiritual elements were central to Stonehenge, its design includes a celestial observatory function, which might have allowed prediction of eclipse, solstice, equinox and other celestial events important to a contemporary religion.<ref name=Hawkins>{{ cite book
| author=GS Hawkins
| year=1966
| title = Stonehenge Decoded
| isbn= 978-0880291477 }}</ref>”

“Stonehenge does not occupy a topographic high, but rather a site of intermediate elevation, such that the natural horizon, when viewed from the heel stone, is remarkably even and is sufficiently far away that its elevation above the astronomical horizon is a small angle.”<ref name=Robinson>{{ cite journal
|author=J. H. Robinson
|title=Evidence Concerning Stonehenge as an “Observatory”
|journal=Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society
|month=March
|year=1984
|volume=16
|issue=3
|pages=449
|url=
|arxiv=
|bibcode=1984BAAS...16..449R
|doi=
|pmid=
|pdf=
|accessdate=2012-02-07 }}</ref>

“All results were registered by Professor Gowland in relation to a datum line [102.8 m] 337.4 feet above sea level.”<ref name=Lockyer>{{ cite book
|author=Morman Lockyer
|title=Stonehenge and Other British Stone Monuments Astronomically Considered
|publisher=Kessinger Publishing
|location=
|month=
|year=2003
|editor=
|pages=516
|url=
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|isbn=
|pdf=
|accessdate=2012-02-07 }}</ref>

==The Giza Pyramids==
[[Image:All Gizah Pyramids.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The pyramids of [[Giza]]. Credit: [http://liberato.org Ricardo Liberato].]]
“The Great Pyramid stands on the northern edge of the Giza Plateau, [60.4 m] 198 feet above sea level”.<ref name=Thomsen>{{ cite book
|author=Petko Vidusa Nikolic, Petko Nikolic Vidusa
|title=The Great Pyramid and the Bible : Earth's Measurements
|publisher=Mystik Book
|location=Kitchener, Canada
|month=
|year=2005
|editor=
|pages=65
|url=
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|isbn=0973237147
|pdf=
|accessdate=2012-02-08 }}</ref>

From the Wikipedia article [[w:Archaeoastronomy|Archaeoastronomy]], “Since the first modern measurements of the precise cardinal orientations of the pyramids by [[w:Flinders Petrie|Flinders Petrie]], various astronomical methods have been proposed for the original establishment of these orientations.<ref>Belmonte 2001</ref><ref>Neugebauer 1980</ref> It was recently proposed that this was done by observing the positions of two stars in [[w:Ursa Major|the Plough / Big Dipper]] which was known to Egyptians as the thigh. It is thought that a vertical alignment between these two stars checked with a [[w:plumb bob|plumb bob]] was used to ascertain where North lay. The deviations from true North using this model reflect the accepted dates of construction.<ref>Spence 2000</ref> Some have argued that the pyramids were laid out as [[w:Graham Hancock#Orion Correlation Theory|a map of the three stars]]  in the belt of Orion,<ref>Hancock 1996:168</ref> although this theory has been criticized by reputable astronomers.<ref name="Fairall">Fairall 1999</ref><ref name="Krupp">Krupp 1997b</ref>”

==Aldershot Observatory==
[[Image:Aldershot observatory 01.JPG|thumb|right|200px|This is an external photograph of the telescope housing. Credit: [[commons:User:Gaius Cornelius|Gaius Cornelius]].]]
From the Wikipedia article [[w:Aldershot|Aldershot]], “The town is generally between 70 m and 100 m above sea level.”

“The location of the observatory can hardly be considered ideal for astronomical observations, even at the time of its construction. It is at a low elevation in an essentially urban setting of an army town with many nearby buildings that date from the time of its construction.[2] It is very near a road that is lit by streetlights, although this was somewhat ameliorated by a clockwork switch inside the observatory that would turn off the nearest streetlights for about 20 minutes. This clockwork system was upgraded in 1987. As the electricity supply has been removed in 2006, this facility is no longer available. ... In its current location, the observatory will be an island in a sea of houses and some people fear that it will be targeted by vandals or, perhaps, will have to be protected with high, unsightly fences.”, per Wikipedia [[w:Aldershot Observatory|Aldershot Observatory]].
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==Tuorla Observatory==
[[Image:Tuorla observatory tower.jpg|thumb|left|100px|This image shows the tower lofting technology of the Tuorla observatory. Credit: Xepheid.]]
From the Wikipedia article [[w:Tuorla Observatory|Tuorla Observatory]], Tuorla “is located about 12 kilometres from Turku in the direction of Helsinki.” The observatory is at an altitude of 60.6 m above sea level (asl).
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==National Observatory of Athens==
[[Image:Obser.jpg|thumb|right|200px|This image shows the setting for the National Observatory of Athens. Credit: [[w:User:Dimboukas|Dimboukas]].]]
The National Observatory of Athens is 107 m asl, per the Wikipedia article [[w:Athens|Athens]].
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==Mountain tops==
[[Image:Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope with moon.jpg|thumb|left|200px|The Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope is located at the Mauna Kea Observatory in Hawai'i. Credit: [[commons:User:Fabian_RRRR|Fabian_RRRR]].]]
[[Image:Kitt Peak McMath-Pierce Solar Telescope.jpg|thumb|right|200px|This view is of the McMath-Pierce Solar Telescope at Kitt Peak National Observatory, near Tucson, Arizona. Credit: [http://www.flickr.com/photos/oceanyamaha/ ocean yamaha].]]
"The Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope (CFHT) is a 3.6 m optical-infrared telescope located on 
the summit of Mauna Kea on the island of Hawaii."<ref name=Murdin>{{ cite book
|author=Paul Murdin
|title=Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope, In: ''Encyclopedia of Astronomy and Astrophysics''
|publisher=Institute of Physics 
|location=Bristol
|month=November
|year=2000
|editor=Paul Murdin
|pages=
|url=
|bibcode=2000eaa..bookE4166.
|doi=10.1888/0333750888/4166
|pmid=
|isbn=
|pdf=
|accessdate=2011-11-14 }}</ref> From the Wikipedia article [[w:Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope|Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope]]: the CFHT is "at an altitude of 4,204 meters". "[[w:Mauna Kea|Mauna Kea]] last erupted 4,000 to 6,000 years ago [~7,000 b2k].", from the Wikipedia article and "The Mauna Kea Observatories are used for scientific research across the electromagnetic spectrum from visible light to radio, and comprise the largest such facility in the world."
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==Balloons==
[[Image:Maxislaunch.jpg|thumb|right|150px|The MeV Auroral X-ray Imaging and Spectroscopy experiment (MAXIS) is carried aloft by a balloon. Credit: .]]
Balloons are used as a long-duration facility above 99 % of the Earth's atmosphere. The MeV Auroral X-ray Imaging and Spectroscopy experiment (MAXIS) is carried aloft by a balloon for a 450 h flight from McMurdo Station, Antarctica. The MAXIS flight detected an auroral X-ray event possibly associated with the solar wind as it interacted with the upper atmosphere between January 22nd and 26th, 2000.<ref name= Millan >{{ cite journal
|author=R. M. Millan, R. P. Lin, D. M. Smith, K. R. Lorentzen, and M. P. McCarthy
|title=X-ray observations of MeV electron precipitation with a balloon-borne germanium spectrometer
|journal=Geophysical Research Letters
|month=December
|year=2002
|volume=29
|issue=24
|pages=2194-7
|url=http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/2002.../2002GL015922.shtml
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1029/2002GL015922
|pmid=
|pdf=
|accessdate=2011-10-26 }}</ref>
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==Airborne observatory==
[[Image:NASA C-141A KAO.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The telescope is within the rectangular black hole on the side of the C-141A KAO aircraft. Credit: NASA.]]
From the Wikipedia article [[w:Airborne observatory|airborne observatory]], “An airborne observatory is an airplane or balloon with an astronomical telescope. By carrying the telescope high, the telescope can avoid cloud cover, pollution, and carry out observations in the infrared spectrum, above water vapor in the atmosphere which absorbs infrared radiation.”
[[Image:446826main ED10-0080-03c 946-710.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The SOFIA observatory is flying with 100% open telescope door. Credit: NASA.]]
“The Gerard P. Kuiper Airborne Observatory (KAO) was a national facility operated by NASA to support research in infrared astronomy. The observation platform was a highly modified C-141A jet transport aircraft with a range of 6,000 nautical miles (11,000 km), capable of conducting research operations up to 48,000 feet (14 km). The KAO was based at the Ames Research Center, NAS Moffett Field, in Sunnyvale, California. It began operation in 1974 as a replacement for an earlier aircraft, the Galileo Observatory, a converted Convair CV-990 (N711NA)”, per Wikipedia [[w:Kuiper Airborne Observatory|Kuiper Airborne Observatory]].

“The Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA) ... is based on a Boeing 747SP wide-body aircraft that has been modified to include a large door in the aft fuselage that can be opened in flight to allow a 2.5 meter diameter reflecting telescope access to the sky. This telescope is designed for infrared astronomy observations in the stratosphere at altitudes of about 41,000 feet (about 12 km). SOFIA's flight capability allows it to rise above almost all of the water vapor in the Earth's atmosphere, which blocks some infrared wavelengths from reaching the ground. At the aircraft's cruising altitude, 85% of the full infrared range will be available.<ref name=krabbe>{{ cite book
| author=Alfred Krabbe
| title=SOFIA telescope, In: ‘’Proceedings of SPIE: Astronomical Telescopes and Instrumentation’’
| pages=276–281
| date=March, 2007
| publisher=SPIE — The International Society for Optical Engineering
| location=Munich, Germany
| arxiv=astro-ph/0004253 }}</ref> The aircraft can also travel to almost any point on the Earth's surface, allowing observation from the northern and southern hemispheres.
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==Space cannon==
[[Image:Project Harp.jpg|thumb|right|200px|This image shows the High Altitude Research Project (HARP) 16 inch (406mm) gun. Credit: [[w:User:Noahcs|Noahcs]].]]
“Bull's ultimate goal was to fire a payload into space from a gun, and many have suggested that the ballistics study was offered simply to gain funding. While the speed was not nearly enough to reach orbit (less than half of the 9000 m/s delta-v required to reach Low Earth Orbit), it was a major achievement at much lower cost than most ballistic missile programs.”, from the Wikipedia article [[w:Project HARP]].

From the Wikipedia article [[w:Super High Altitude Research Project|Super High Altitude Research Project]], “The '''Super High Altitude Research Project''' (Super HARP, SHARP) was a U.S. government project conducting research into the firing of high-velocity projectiles high into the [[w:Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] using a two stage [[w:light gas gun|light gas gun]], with the ultimate goal of propelling satellites into [[w:Earth orbit|Earth orbit]]. Design work on the prototype [[w:space gun|space gun]] began as early as 1985 at the [[w:Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory|Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory]] in California and became operational in December 1992.<ref name="astronautix">{{ cite web
|url=http://www.astronautix.com/lvs/sharp.htm
|title=SHARP at Encyclopedia Astronautica
|author=Mark Wade
|accessdate=2009-09-03}}</ref> It is the largest gas gun in the world.<ref name=Gourley>{{ cite journal
|author=Scott R. Gourley
|title=The Jules Verne Gun
|journal=Popular Mechanics
|month=December
|year=1996
|volume=
|issue=
|pages=
|url=http://www.dodtechmatch.com/DOD/Opportunities/PrintSBIR.aspx?id=SB112-002
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|pdf=
|accessdate=2012-03-26 }}</ref>”

“The large g-force experienced by a ballistic projectile would likely mean that a space gun would be incapable of safely launching humans or delicate instruments, rather being restricted to freight or ruggedized satellites. Atmospheric drag also makes it more difficult to control the trajectory of any projectile launched, subjects the projectile to extremely high forces, and causes severe energy losses that may not be easily overcome. The lower troposphere is the densest layer of the atmosphere, and some of these issues may be mitigated by using a space gun with a "gun barrel" reaching above it (e.g. a gun emplacement on a mountaintop). A space gun, by itself, is generally not capable of placing objects into stable orbit around the planet, unless the objects are able to perform course corrections after launch.”, from Wikipedia [[w:Space gun|space gun]].
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==Sounding rockets==
[[Image:Nike-Black Brant VC XQC launch.gif|thumb|left|150px|Carried aloft on a Nike-Black Brant VC sounding rocket, the microcalorimeter arrays observed the diffuse soft X-ray emission from a large solid angle at high galactic latitude. Credit: NASA/Wallops.]]
Additional technology used to benefit astronomy includes [[w:Sounding rockets|sounding rockets]] which may carry gamma-ray, X-ray, ultraviolet, and infrared detectors to high altitude to view individual sources and the background for each wavelength band observed.
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==Aircraft assisted launches==
[[Image:Lockheed_TriStar_launches_Pegasus_with_Space_Technology_5.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Orbital Sciences' L-1011 jet aircraft releases the Pegasus rocket carrying the Space Technology 5 spacecraft with its trio of micro-satellites. Credit: NASA.]]
“The Pegasus is carried aloft below a carrier aircraft and launched at approximately 40,000 ft (12,000 m). The carrier aircraft provides flexibility to launch the rocket from anywhere rather than just a fixed pad. A high-altitude, winged flight launch also allows the rocket to avoid flight in the densest part of the atmosphere where a larger launch vehicle, carrying much more fuel, would be needed to overcome air friction and gravity.”, per the Wikipedia article [[w:Pegasus (rocket)|Pegasus]].
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==Orbital rocketry==
[[Image:TRACE in cleanroom during assembly.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The TRACE spacecraft is imaged in its cleanroom during assembly. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:Atlas IIAS launch with SOHO.jpg|thumb|left|200px|The Solar Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) is launched atop an ATLAS-IIAS expendable launch vehicle. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:Thor Able Star with Transit 4A, Solrad 3 and Injun 1 (Jun. 29, 1961).jpg|thumb|right|80px|Lift-off of the Thor Able Star launch vehicle. Credit: US Air Force/Navy.]]
[[Image:Transit-4A Injun-1 Solrad-3.jpg|thumb|left|100px|Pictured here is the Solrad 3 X-ray astronomy observatory atop the satellite stack being fitted with a nose cone. Credit: US Navy.]]
Additional technology used to benefit astronomy includes [[w:Sounding rockets|sounding rockets]] which may carry gamma-ray, X-ray, ultraviolet, and infrared detectors to high altitude to view individual sources and the background for each wavelength band observed.

With the advent of lofting technology comes the possibility of placing an observatory as a free floating yet when necessary either a geostationary, rotating, or fixed form in orbit. The TRACE spacecraft imaged at above right is in its cleanroom during assembly prior to launch.

The Solar Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) is launched at top left atop an ATLAS-IIAS expendable launch vehicle. The early Atlas is a development (an Intercontinental Ballistic Missile, ICBM) for defense as part of the mutual assured destruction (MAD) effort which helped to end the Cold War.

Lofting an observing system into an orbit around the Earth requires designing and testing for survival of the rocket trip upward and the orbiting technique (usually a second stage for orbital insertion). At left is an early X-ray observatory (Solrad 3), the spherical silver ball with antenna, atop a stack of satellites, being fitted with a nose cone to reduce atmospheric drag and to protect the satellites.

Once the satellite stack for Solrad 3 is securely aboard the second stage, the lofting rocket is fueled (when liquid fuel is used), and the launch commences. At right is the Thor Able Star rocket being launched by the US Air Force from Cape Canaveral, Florida, USA.

Solrad 3 is operated by the US Naval Research Laboratory beginning with its launch on June 29, 1961, through to the end of its mission on March 6, 1963. Although Solrad 3 did not successfully separate from the satellite immediately below it in the stack (Injun 1), it successfully returned solar X-ray data until late in 1961. It is not expected to re-enter the Earth's atmosphere for ~900 years.
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==Shuttle payloads==
[[Image:STS-103 Reflection on astronaut's visor.jpg|thumb|left|150px|The Space Shuttle Discovery's Cargo Bay and Crew Module, and the Earth's horizon are reflected in the helmet visor of one of the space walking astronauts on STS-103.]]
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==Orbital platform with observer==
[[Image:Salyut7 with docked spacecraft.jpg|thumb|right|200px|This view of the Soviet orbital station Salyut 7 follows the docking of a spacecraft to the space station. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:Skylab and Earth Limb - GPN-2000-001055.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Skylab is an example of a manned observatory in orbit. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:STS-134 International Space Station after undocking.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The [[w:International Space Station|International Space Station]] is featured in this image photographed by an STS-134 crew member on the space shuttle Endeavour after the station and shuttle began their post-undocking relative separation. Credit: .]]
“Skylab included an Apollo Telescope Mount (a multi-spectral solar observatory) ... Numerous scientific experiments were conducted aboard Skylab during its operational life, and crews were able to confirm the existence of coronal holes in the Sun. The Earth Resources Experiment Package (EREP), was used to view the Earth with sensors that recorded data in the visible, infrared, and microwave spectral regions.”, per Wikipedia article [[w:Skylab|Skylab]].
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==Exploratory rocketry==
[[Image:72410main ACD97-0036-2.jpg|thumb|right|200px|This diagram shows each of Pioneer 10's systems. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:Launch of Pioneer 10-2.jpg|thumb|left|200px|The launch of Pioneer 10 aboard an [[w:Atlas-Centaur|Atlas/Centaur]] vehicle. Credit: NASA Ames Resarch Center (NASA-ARC).]]
[[Image:Pioneer 10 mission jupiter.svg.png|thumb|right|200px|This diagram shows the interplanetary trajectory for Pioneer 10. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:ISEE3-ICE-trajectory.gif|thumb|left|200px|ISEE-3 is inserted into a "halo" orbit on June 10, 1982. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:Titan 3E with Voyager 1.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Voyager 1 lifts off on a [[w:Titan IIIE|Titan IIIE]]-[[w:Centaur (rocket stage)|Centaur]]. Credit: .]]
[[Image:Tour-v1-2.svg|thumb|left|200px|The primary mission trajectory of Voyager 1 is shown in the figure. Credit: .]]
"'''''Pioneer 10''''' is a 258-kilogram [[w:Robotic spacecraft|robotic]] [[w:space probe|space probe]] that completed the first mission to the planet [[Jupiter]]<ref name=Fimmel>{{ cite book |title=SP-349/396 PIONEER ODYSSEY |last=Fimmel |first=R. O. |coauthors=W. Swindell, and E. Burgess |year=1974 |publisher=NASA-Ames Research Center |isbn=SP-349 |url=http://history.nasa.gov/SP-349/ch8.htm |accessdate=2011-01-09}}</ref> and became the first spacecraft to achieve [[w:escape velocity|escape velocity]] from the [[w:Solar System|Solar System]]."<ref name=Pioneer10>{{ cite journal
|title=Pioneer 10
|journal=Wikipedia
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=December 3,
|year=2012
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pioneer_10
|pdf=
|accessdate=2012-12-05 }}</ref>

"Pioneer 10 was launched on March 2, 1972 by an [[w:Atlas-Centaur|Atlas-Centaur]] expendable vehicle from [[w:Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Space Launch Complex 36|Cape Canaveral]], [[w:Florida|Florida]]. Between July 15, 1972, and February 15, 1973, it became the first spacecraft to traverse the [[w:Asteroid belt#Exploration|asteroid belt]]."<ref name=Pioneer10/>

ISEE-3 was launched on August 12, 1978. It was inserted into a "halo" orbit about the libration point some 240 Earth radii upstream between the Earth and Sun. ISEE-3 was renamed ICE (International Cometary Explorer) when, after completing its original mission in 1982, it was gravitationally maneuvered to intercept the comet P/Giacobini-Zinner. On September 11, 1985, the veteran NASA spacecraft flew through the tail of the comet. The X-ray spectrometer aboard ISEE-3 was designed to study both solar flares and cosmic gamma-ray bursts over the energy range 5-228 keV.

"The ''Voyager 1'' probe was launched on September 5, 1977, from [[w:Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Space Launch Complex 41|Space Launch Complex 41]] at [[w:Cape Canaveral Air Force Station|Cape Canaveral, Florida]], aboard a [[w:Titan IIIE|Titan IIIE]]-[[w:Centaur (rocket stage)|Centaur]] [[w:carrier rocket|launch vehicle]]."<ref name=Voyager1>{{ cite journal
|title=Voyager 1
|journal=Wikipedia
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|month=December 4,
|year=2012
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voyager_1
|pdf=
|accessdate=2012-12-05 }}</ref>

"On November 17, 1998, ''Voyager 1'' overtook ''Pioneer 10'' as the most distant man-made object from Earth, at a distance of {{convert|69.419|AU|km|abbr=on}}. It is currently the most distant functioning space probe to receive commands and transmit information to Earth."<ref name=Voyager1/>
{{clear}}

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=12em}}
* [[Alignment telescope]]
* [[Astronomy]]
* [[Gamma-ray astronomy]]
* [[Light and optics]]
* [[Mathematical astronomy]]
* [[Orange astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy]]
* [[Strong gravitational constant]]
* [[Ultraviolet astronomy]]
* [[Visual astronomy]]
* [[X-ray astronomy]]
* [[Yellow astronomy]]
{{Div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==Further reading==

==External links==
* [http://www.ajol.info/ African Journals Online]
* [http://www.bing.com/search?q=&go=&qs=n&sk=&sc=8-15&qb=1&FORM=AXRE Bing Advanced search]
* [http://books.google.com/ Google Books]
* [http://scholar.google.com/advanced_scholar_search?hl=en&lr= Google scholar Advanced Scholar Search]
* [http://www.iau.org/ International Astronomical Union]
* [http://www.jstor.org/ JSTOR]
* [http://www.lycos.com/ Lycos search]
* [http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/ NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database - NED]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/ NASA's National Space Science Data Center]
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/gquery NCBI All Databases Search]
* [http://www.osti.gov/ Office of Scientific & Technical Information]
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pccompound PubChem Public Chemical Database]
* [http://www.questia.com/ Questia - The Online Library of Books and Journals]
* [http://online.sagepub.com/ SAGE journals online]
* [http://www.adsabs.harvard.edu/ The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System]
* [http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/advanced/index.jsp?q1= Scirus for scientific information only advanced search]
* [http://cas.sdss.org/astrodr6/en/tools/quicklook/quickobj.asp SDSS Quick Look tool: SkyServer]
* [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/ SIMBAD Astronomical Database]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/SpacecraftQuery.jsp Spacecraft Query at NASA.]
* [http://www.springerlink.com/ SpringerLink]
* [http://www.tandfonline.com/ Taylor & Francis Online]
* [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/Tools/convcoord/convcoord.pl  Universal coordinate converter]
* [http://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Main_Page WikiDoc The Living Textbook of Medicine]
* [http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/advanced/search Wiley Online Library Advanced Search]
* [http://search.yahoo.com/web/advanced Yahoo Advanced Web Search]

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