Difference between revisions 316443 and 316444 on guwiki

{{pp-semi-vandalism|expiry=August 26, 2012|small=yes}}⏎
⏎
{{ભાષાંતર}}
⏎
⏎
{{Nanotech}}
⏎
⏎
'''નેનો ટેકનોલોજી''' એ પદાર્થ ને [[અણુઓ|અણુ]] અને [[પરમાણુઓ|પરમાણુ]] ના પ્રભાવક્શેત્ર મા રહી તેને ધાર્યા પ્રમાણે બદલવાનો કે ઉપયોગ કરવાનો અભ્યાસ છે. ક્યારેક નેનો ટેકનોલોજી ને ટૂંકમા '''નેનોટેક''' પણ કહેવામા આવે છે. સામાન્ય રીતે નેનો ટેકનોલોજી એવા ઉપકરણો, માળખાઓ અને પદાર્થો ને વિકસાવે છે કે જેમનો ઓછા મા ઓછો એક પરિમાણ ૧ થી ૧૦૦ [[નેનોમીટર]] જેટલો હોય. આટલા સુક્ષ્મ માપો પર [[ક્વોન્ટમ યાંત્રિક અસરો]] ([[Quantum mechanical effects]]) બહુ મહ્ત્વ ધરાવે છે.
(contracted; show full)rials,<ref>{{cite journal|author= Cristina Buzea, Ivan Pacheco, and Kevin Robbie|title=Nanomaterials and Nanoparticles: Sources and Toxicity|volume=2|year=2007|page=MR17|journal=Biointerphases|doi=10.1116/1.2815690|pmid=20419892}}</ref> and their potential effects on global economics, as well as speculation about various [[Grey goo|doomsday scenarios]]. These concerns have led to a debate among advocacy groups and governments on whether special [[regulation of nanotechnology]] is warranted.

==
  Origins  ==
⏎
⏎
[[Image:C60a.png|thumb|175px|left|Buckminsterfullerene C<sub>60</sub>, also known as the [[buckyball]], is a representative member of the [[Allotropes of carbon|carbon structures]] known as [[fullerene]]s. Members of the fullerene family are a major subject of research falling under the nanotechnology umbrella.]]  

{{Main|History of nanotechnology}}

Although nanotechnology is a relatively recent development in scientific research, the development of its central concepts happened over a longer period of time.  The emergence of nanotechnology in the 1980s was caused by the convergence of experimental advances such as the invention of the [[scanning tunneling microscope]] in 1981 and the discovery of [[fullerene]]s in 1985, with the elucidation and popularization of a conceptual framework for the goals of nanotechnolo(contracted; show full)perties, Applications, Research, and Safety Guidelines|url=http://www.americanelements.com/nanotech.htm|publisher=American Elements|accessdate=13 May 2011}}</ref><ref name="emergingnano">{{cite web |year=2008 |url=http://www.nanotechproject.org/inventories/consumer/analysis_draft/ |publisher=The Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies |title=Analysis: This is the first publicly available on-line inventory of nanotechnology-based consumer products |accessdate=13 May 2011}}</ref>

==
  Fundamental concepts  ==
⏎
⏎
Nanotechnology is the engineering of functional systems at the molecular scale. This covers both current work and concepts that are more advanced.  In its original sense, nanotechnology refers to the projected ability to construct items from the bottom up, using techniques and tools being developed today to make complete, high performance products.

(contracted; show full)

Areas of physics such as [[nanoelectronics]], [[nanomechanics]], [[nanophotonics]] and [[nanoionics]] have evolved during the last few decades to provide a basic scientific foundation of nanotechnology.

===
  Larger to smaller: a materials perspective  ===
⏎
⏎
[[Image:Atomic resolution Au100.JPG|right|thumb|Image of [[Surface reconstruction|reconstruction]] on a clean [[Gold]]([[Miller index|100]]) surface, as visualized using [[scanning tunneling microscopy]].  The positions of the individual [[atom]]s composing the surface are visible.]]

{{main|Nanomaterials}}

(contracted; show full) materials become soluble (gold). A material such as [[gold]], which is chemically inert at normal scales, can serve as a potent chemical [[catalyst]] at nanoscales. Much of the fascination with nanotechnology stems from these quantum and surface phenomena that matter exhibits at the nanoscale.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Lubick N | year = 2008 | title = Silver socks have cloudy lining | url = | journal = Environ Sci Technol | volume = 42 | issue = 11| page = 3910 | pmid=18589943}}</ref>

===
  Simple to complex: a molecular perspective  ===
{{Main|Molecular self-assembly}}

Modern [[chemical synthesis|synthetic chemistry]] has reached the point where it is possible to prepare small [[molecule]]s to almost any structure. These methods are used today to manufacture a wide variety of useful chemicals such as [[drug|pharmaceuticals]] or commercial [[polymer]]s. This ability raises the question of extending this kind of control to the next-larger level, seeking methods to assemble these single molecules into [[supramolecular assembly|supramolecular assemblies]] consisting of many molecules arranged in a well defined manner.

These approaches utilize the concepts of [[molecular self-assembly]] and/or [[supramolecular chemistry]] to automatically arrange themselves into some useful conformation through a [[bottom-up]] approach. The concept of [[molecular recognition]] is especially important: molecules can be designed so that a specific configuration or arrangement is favored due to [[Noncovalent bonding|non-covalent]] [[intermolecular force]]s. The Watson–Crick [[base pair|basepairing]] rules are a direct result of this, as is the specificity of an [[enzyme]] being targeted to a single [[substrate (biochemistry)|substrate]], or the specific [[protein folding|folding of the protein]] itself. Thus, two or more components can be designed to be complementary and mutually attractive so that they make a more complex and useful whole.  

Such bottom-up approaches should be capable of producing devices in parallel and be much cheaper than top-down methods, but could potentially be overwhelmed as the size and complexity of the desired assembly increases. Most useful structures require complex and thermodynamically unlikely arrangements of atoms. Nevertheless, there are many examples of self-assembly based on molecular recognition in [[biology]], most notably [[Base pair|Watson–Crick basepairing]] and [[enzyme]]-[[substrate (biochemistry)|substrate]] interactions. The challenge for nanotechnology is whether these principles can be used to engineer new constructs in addition to natural ones.

===  Molecular nanotechnology: a long-term view  ===
{{Main|Molecular nanotechnology}}

Molecular nanotechnology, sometimes called molecular manufacturing, describes engineered nanosystems (nanoscale machines) operating on the molecular scale. Molecular nanotechnology is especially associated with the [[molecular assembler]], a machine that can produce a desired structure or device atom-by-atom using the principles of [[mechanosynthesis]]. Manufacturing in the context of [[productive nanosystems]] is not related to, and should be clearly distinguished from, the conventional technologies used to manufacture nanomaterials such as carbon nanotubes and nanoparticles.  

When the term "nanotechnology" was independently coined and popularized by [[Eric Drexler]] (who at the time was unaware of an [[History of nanotechnology|earlier usage]] by [[Norio Taniguchi]]) it referred to a future manufacturing technology based on [[molecular machine]] systems. The premise was that molecular scale biological analogies of traditional machine components demonstrated molecular machines were possible: by the countless examples found in biology, it is known that sophisticated, [[stochastic]]ally optimised biological machines can be produced.

It is hoped that developments in nanotechnology will make possible their construction by some other means, perhaps using [[biomimetic]] principles. However, Drexler and other researchers<ref>[http://www.crnano.org/developing.htm Nanotechnology: Developing Molecular Manufacturing]</ref> have proposed that advanced nanotechnology, although perhaps initially implemented by biomimetic means, ultimately could be based on mechanical engineering principles, namely, a manufacturing technology based on the mechanical functionality of these components (such as gears, bearings, motors, and structural members) that would enable programmable, positional assembly to atomic specification.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.imm.org/PNAS.html|title=Some papers by K. Eric Drexler}}</ref> The physics and engineering performance of exemplar designs were analyzed in Drexler's book ''Nanosystems''.  

In general it is very difficult to assemble devices on the atomic scale, as all one has to position atoms on other atoms of comparable size and stickiness. Another view, put forth by Carlo Montemagno,<ref>[http://www.cnsi.ucla.edu/institution/personnel?personnel%5fid=105488 California NanoSystems Institute]</ref> is that future nanosystems will be hybrids of silicon technology and biological molecular machines. Yet another view, put forward by the late [[Richard Smalley]], is that mechanosynthesis is impossible due to the difficulties in mechanically manipulating individual molecules.  

This led to an exchange of letters in the [[American Chemical Society|ACS]] publication [[Chemical & Engineering News]] in 2003.<ref>[http://pubs.acs.org/cen/coverstory/8148/8148counterpoint.html C&En: Cover Story - Nanotechnology]</ref> Though biology clearly demonstrates that molecular machine systems are possible, non-biological molecular machines are today only in their infancy. Leaders in research on non-biological molecular machines are Dr. [[Alex Zettl]] and his colleagues at La(contracted; show full)

An experiment indicating that positional molecular assembly is possible was performed by Ho and Lee at [[Cornell University]] in 1999. They used a scanning tunneling microscope to move an individual carbon monoxide molecule (CO) to an individual iron atom (Fe) sitting on a flat silver crystal, and chemically bound the CO to the Fe by applying a voltage.

==
  Current research  ==
⏎
⏎
[[Image:Rotaxane cartoon.jpg|thumb|right|Graphical representation of a [[rotaxane]], useful as a molecular switch.]]
⏎
⏎
[[Image:DNA tetrahedron white.png|thumb|right|This [[DNA]] tetrahedron<ref name="Goodman05">{{cite journal |last=Goodman |first=R.P. |coauthors=Schaap, I.A.T.; Tardin, C.F.; Erben, C.M.; Berry, R.M.; Schmidt, C.F.; Turberfield, A.J. |authorlink= |year=2005 |month=9 December|title=Rapid chiral assembly of rigid DNA building blocks for molecular nanofabrication  |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=310 |issue=5754 |pages=1661–1665 |issn=0036-8075 |pmid=16339440|doi=10.1126/science.1120367|bibcode = 2005Sci...310.1661G }}</ref> is an artificially [[Nucleic acid design|designed]] nanostructure of the type made in the field of [[DNA nanotechnology]].  Each edge of the tetrahedron is a 20 [[base pair]] DNA [[Nucleic acid double helix|double helix]], and each vertex is a three-arm junction.]]
⏎
⏎
[[Image:Achermann7RED.jpg|thumb|right|This device transfers energy from nano-thin layers of [[quantum well]]s to [[nanocrystal]]s above them, causing the nanocrystals to emit visible light.<ref>[http://www.sandia.gov/news-center/news-releases/2004/micro-nano/well.html Wireless nanocrystals efficiently radiate visible light]</ref>]]

===  Nanomaterials  ===
⏎
⏎
The nanomaterials field includes subfields which develop or study materials having unique properties arising from their nanoscale dimensions.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Narayan RJ, Kumta PN, Sfeir C, Lee D-H, Olton D, Choi D. |title=Nanostructured Ceramics in Medical Devices: Applications and Prospects |journal=JOM |volume=56 |issue=10|pages=38–43 |year=2004|doi = 10.1007/s11837-004-0289-x |pmid=11196953 |last1=Clarkson |first1=AJ |last2=Buckingham |first2=DA |last3=Rogers |first3=AJ |last4=Blackman |first4=AG |last5=Clark |first5=CR|bibcode = 2004JOM....56j..38N }}</ref>
*⏎
* [[Interface and colloid science]] has given rise to many materials which may be useful in nanotechnology, such as [[carbon nanotube]]s and other [[fullerene]]s, and various [[nanoparticle]]s and [[nanorod]]s. Nanomaterials with fast ion transport are related also to [[nanoionics]] and [[nanoelectronics]].
*  [[Nanomaterials|Nanoscale materials]] can also be used for bulk applications; most present commercial applications of nanotechnology are of this flavor.
*  Progress has been made in using these materials for medical applications; see [[Nanomedicine]].
*  [[Nanomaterials|Nanoscale materials]] are sometimes used in [[solar cells]] which combats the cost of traditional [[Silicon]] solar cells
*  Development of applications incorporating semiconductor [[nanoparticles]] to be used in the next generation of products, such as display technology, lighting, solar cells and biological imaging; see [[quantum dots]].

===  Bottom-up approaches  ===
⏎
⏎
These seek to arrange smaller components into more complex assemblies.
*⏎
* [[DNA nanotechnology]] utilizes the specificity of [[Base pair|Watson–Crick basepairing]] to construct well-defined structures out of [[DNA]] and other [[nucleic acid]]s.
*  Approaches from the field of "classical" [[chemical synthesis]] ([[Inorganic synthesis|inorganic]] and [[organic synthesis]]) also aim at designing molecules with well-defined shape (e.g. [[bis-peptide]]s<ref name="Levins">{{cite journal|doi=10.1002/chin.200605222|title=The Synthesis of Curved and Linear Structures from a Minimal Set of Monomers|year=2006|last1=Levins|first1=Christopher G.|last2=Schafmeister|first2=Christian E.|journal=ChemInform|volume=37|issue=5}}</ref>).
*  More generally, [[molecular self-assembly]] seeks to use concepts of [[supramolecular chemistry]], and [[molecular recognition]] in particular, to cause single-molecule components to automatically arrange themselves into some useful conformation.
*  [[Atomic force microscope]] tips can be used as a nanoscale "write head" to deposit a chemical upon a surface in a desired pattern in a process called [[dip pen nanolithography]]. This technique fits into the larger subfield of [[nanolithography]].

===  Top-down approaches  ===
⏎
⏎
These seek to create smaller devices by using larger ones to direct their assembly.
*⏎
* Many technologies that descended from conventional [[Semiconductor fabrication|solid-state silicon methods]] for fabricating [[microprocessor]]s are now capable of creating features smaller than 100&nbsp;nm, falling under the definition of nanotechnology. [[Giant magnetoresistance]]-based hard drives already on the market fit this description,<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.nano.gov/html/facts/appsprod.html|title = Applications/Products|accessdate=2007-10-19 |publisher = National Nanotechnology Initiative}}</ref> as do [[atomic layer deposition]] (ALD) techniques. [[Peter Grünberg]] and [[Albert Fert]] received the [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] in 2007 for their discovery of Giant magnetoresistance and contributions to the field of spintronics.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/2007/index.html|title = The Nobel Prize in Physics 2007|accessdate = 2007-10-19|publisher = Nobelprize.org}}</ref>
*  Solid-state techniques can also be used to create devices known as [[nanoelectromechanical systems]] or NEMS, which are related to [[microelectromechanical systems]] or MEMS.
*  [[Focused ion beam]]s can directly remove material, or even deposit material when suitable pre-cursor gasses are applied at the same time. For example, this technique is used routinely to create sub-100&nbsp;nm sections of material for analysis in [[Transmission electron microscopy]].
*  [[Atomic force microscope]] tips can be used as a nanoscale "write head" to deposit a resist, which is then followed by an etching process to remove material in a top-down method.

===  Functional approaches  ===
⏎
⏎
These seek to develop components of a desired functionality without regard to how they might be assembled.
*⏎
* [[Molecular scale electronics]] seeks to develop molecules with useful electronic properties. These could then be used as single-molecule components in a nanoelectronic device.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Das S, Gates AJ, Abdu HA, Rose GS, Picconatto CA, Ellenbogen JC. |title=Designs for Ultra-Tiny, Special-Purpose Nanoelectronic Circuits |journal=IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems I |volume=54 |issue=11 |pages=2528–2540 |year=2007 |doi=10.1109/TCSI.2007.907864}}</ref> For an example see [[rotaxane]].
*  Synthetic chemical methods can also be used to create [[synthetic molecular motors]], such as in a so-called [[nanocar]].

===  Biomimetic approaches  ===

* [[Bionics]] or [[biomimicry]] seeks to apply biological methods and systems found in nature, to the study and design of engineering systems and modern technology.  [[Biomineralization]] is one example of the systems studied.

* [[Bionanotechnology]] is the use of [[biomolecules]] for applications in nanotechnology, including use of viruses.<ref>C.Michael Hogan. 2010. [http://www.eoearth.org/article/Virus?topic=49496 ''Virus''. Encyclopedia of Earth. National Council for Science and the Environment]. eds. S.Draggan and C.Cleveland</ref> [[Nanocellulose]] is a potential bulk-scale application.

===  Speculative  ===
⏎
⏎
These subfields seek to [[Futures studies|anticipate]] what inventions nanotechnology might yield, or attempt to propose an agenda along which inquiry might progress. These often take a big-picture view of nanotechnology, with more emphasis on its [[implications of nanotechnology|societal implications]] than the details of how such inventions could actually be created.
*⏎
* [[Molecular nanotechnology]] is a proposed approach which involves manipulating single molecules in finely controlled, deterministic ways. This is more theoretical than the other subfields and is beyond current capabilities.
*  [[Nanorobotics]] centers on self-sufficient machines of some functionality operating at the nanoscale. There are hopes for applying nanorobots in medicine,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Ghalanbor Z, Marashi SA, Ranjbar B |title=Nanotechnology helps medicine: nanoscale swimmers and their future applications |journal=Med Hypotheses |volume=65 |issue=1 |pages=198–199 |year=2005 |pmid=15893147|doi = 10.1016/j.mehy.2005.01.023}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Kubik T, Bogunia-Kubik K, Sugisaka M(contracted; show full) Architecture Based on Nanobioelectronics |journal=[http://bentham.org/nanotec/ Recent Patents on Nanotechnology]. |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=1–10 |year=2007 |doi= 10.2174/187221007779814745}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Boukallel M, Gauthier M, Dauge M, Piat E, Abadie J. |title= Smart microrobots for mechanical cell characterization and cell convoying |journal=IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng. |volume=54 |issue=8 |pages=1536–40 |year=2007|pmid=17694877|doi = 10.1109/TBME.2007.891171}}</ref>
*
  [[Productive nanosystems]] are "systems of nanosystems" which will be complex nanosystems that produce atomically precise parts for other nanosystems, not necessarily using novel nanoscale-emergent properties, but well-understood fundamentals of manufacturing.  Because of the discrete (i.e. atomic) nature of matter and the possibility of exponential growth, this stage is seen as the basis of another industrial revolution.  [[Mihail Roco]], one of the architects of the USA's National Nanotechnology Initiative, has proposed four states of nanotechnology that seem to parallel the technical progress of the Industrial Revolution, progressing from passive nanostructures to active nanodevices to complex [[nanomachine]]s and ultimately to productive nanosystems.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nsf.gov/crssprgm/nano/reports/mcr_05-0526_intpersp_nano.pdf |title=International Perspective on Government Nanotechnology Funding in 2005}}</ref>
*  [[Programmable matter]] seeks to design materials whose properties can be easily, reversibly and externally controlled though a fusion of [[information science]] and [[materials science]].
*  Due to the popularity and media exposure of the term nanotechnology, the words [[picotechnology]] and [[femtotechnology]] have been coined in analogy to it, although these are only used rarely and informally.

==  Tools and techniques  ==
⏎
⏎
[[Image:AFMsetup.jpg|thumb|right|296px|Typical [[Atomic force microscope|AFM]] setup. A [[microfabrication|microfabricated]] [[cantilever]] with a sharp tip is deflected by features on a sample surface, much like in a [[phonograph]] but on a much smaller scale. A [[laser]] beam reflects off the backside of the cantilever into a set of [[photodetector]]s, allowing the deflection to be measured and assembled into an image of the surface.]]  

There are several important modern developments. The [[atomic force microscope]] (AFM) and the [[Scanning Tunneling Microscope]] (STM) are two early versions of scanning probes that launched nanotechnology. There are other types of [[scanning probe microscopy]], all flowing from the ideas of the scanning [[confocal microscope]] developed by [[Marvin Minsky]] in 1961 and the [[scanning acoustic microscope]] (SAM) developed by [[Calvin Quate]] and coworkers in the 1970s, that made it possible to see structu(contracted; show full)atoms around. By designing different tips for these microscopes, they can be used for carving out structures on surfaces and to help guide self-assembling structures. By using, for example, [[feature-oriented scanning]]-[[Feature-oriented positioning|positioning]] approach, atoms can be moved around on a surface with scanning probe microscopy techniques.<ref name="FOS2004"/> At present, it is expensive and time-consuming for mass production but very suitable for laboratory experimentation.

  
In contrast, bottom-up techniques build or grow larger structures atom by atom or molecule by molecule. These techniques include [[chemical synthesis]], [[self-assembly]] and positional assembly. [[Dual polarisation interferometry]] is one tool suitable for characterisation of self assembled thin films. Another variation of the bottom-up approach is [[molecular beam epitaxy]] or MBE. Researchers at [[Bell Telephone Laboratories]] like John R. Arthur. Alfred Y. Cho, and Art C. Gossard developed and implemented MBE as a research tool in the late 1960s and 1970s. Samples made by MBE were key to the discovery of the fractional quantum Hall effect for which the 1998 [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] was awarded. MBE allows scientists to lay down atomically precise layers of atoms and, in the process, build up complex structures. Important for research on semiconductors, MBE is also widely used to make samples and devices for the newly emerging field of [[spintronics]].

However, new therapeutic products, based on responsive nanomaterials, such as the ultradeformable, stress-sensitive [[Transfersome]] vesicles, are under development and already approved for human use in some countries.{{Citation needed|date=August 2008}}

==  Applications  ==
⏎
⏎
[[File:Threshold formation nowatermark.gif|thumb|right|400px|One of the major applications of nanotechnology is in the area of nanoelectronics with [[MOSFET]]'s being made of small [[nanowire]]s ~10 nm in length. Here is a simulation of such a nanowire.]]

{{Main|List of nanotechnology applications}}

(contracted; show full) "nano bubble" will form, or is forming already, from the use of the term by scientists and entrepreneurs to garner funding, regardless of interest in the transformative possibilities of more ambitious and far-sighted work.<ref>{{cite book |last=Berube |first=David |title=Nano-Hype: The Truth Behind the Nanotechnology Buzz |location=Amherst, NY |publisher=Prometheus Books |year=2006 |url=http://www.prometheusbooks.com/index.php?main_page=product_info&products_id=1822/ }}</ref>

==
  Nanoproducts  ==
⏎
⏎
'''Nanoproduct'''s are considered to be [[consumer good]]s that have been enhanced by nanotechnology in some form.

The [[consumer]] world is seeing more products being released that have been enhanced with nanotechnology. Experts claim that the most immediate impact of nanotechnology is with everyday consumer products. There are numerous amount of products that have been enhanced with nanotechnology. [[Tennis ball]]s last longer, [[golf ball]]s fly straighter, even [[bowling b(contracted; show full)ain more memory thanks to nanotechnology.<ref>[http://www.nanoandme.org/nano-products/computing-and-electronics/ ''Nano in computing and electronics''] at NanoandMe.org</ref> Nanotechnology may have the ability to make existing medical applications cheaper and easier to use in places like the [[general practitioner]]'s office and at home.<ref>[http://www.nanoandme.org/nano-products/medical/ ''Nano in medicine''] at NanoandMe.org</ref>

==
  Implications  ==
{{Main|Implications of nanotechnology}}

Because of the far-ranging claims that have been made about potential applications of nanotechnology, a number of serious concerns have been raised about what effects these will have on our society if realized, and what action if any is appropriate to mitigate these risks.

(contracted; show full)008 considered enacting a similar law,<ref>[http://boston.com/business/technology/articles/2007/01/26/cambridge_considers_nanotech_curbs/ Cambridge considers nanotech curbs - City may mimic Berkeley bylaws (By Hiawatha Bray, Boston Globe Staff) January 26, 2007]</ref> but ultimately rejected this.<ref>[http://www.nanolawreport.com/Cambridge.pdf Recommendations for a Municipal Health & Safety Policy for Nanomaterials: A Report to the Cambridge City Manager. July 2008.]</ref>

===
  Health and environmental concerns  ===
{{Main|Health implications of nanotechnology|Environmental implications of nanotechnology}}
⏎
⏎
Some of the recently developed nanoparticle products may have [[unintended consequences]]. Researchers have discovered that silver nanoparticles used in socks only to reduce foot odor are being released in the wash with possible negative consequences.<ref>Lubick, N. (2008). [http://pubs.acs.org/subscribe/journals/esthag-w/2008/apr/science/nl_nanosocks.html Silver socks have cloudy lining.]</ref> Silver nanoparticles, which are [[bacteriostatic]], may then destroy beneficial bacteria which are im(contracted; show full)|volume=3|pages=3–22}}</ref> A newspaper article reports that workers in a paint factory developed serious lung disease and nanoparticles were found in their lungs.<ref>{{cite news|title=Nanoparticles used in paint could kill, research suggests |publisher=Telegraph |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/health/healthnews/6016639/Nanoparticles-used-in-paint-could-kill-research-suggests.html| location=London | first=Rebecca | last=Smith | date=August 19, 2009 | accessdate=May 19, 2010}}</ref>

===
  Regulation  ===
{{Main|Regulation of nanotechnology}}

Calls for tighter regulation of nanotechnology have occurred alongside a growing debate related to the human health and safety risks associated with nanotechnology.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nanolabweb.com/index.cfm/action/main.default.viewArticle/articleID/290/CFID/3564274/CFTOKEN/43473772/index.html |title=Nanobiotechnology Regulation: A Proposal for Self-Regulation with Limited Oversight
(contracted; show full)

The [[Center for Nanotechnology in Society]] at [[UCSB]] has found that people respond differently to nanotechnologies based upon application - with participants in [[deliberations|public deliberations]] more positive about nanotechnologies for energy than health applications - suggesting that any public calls for nano regulations may differ by technology sector.<ref name="harthorn"/>

==
  See also  ==
{{Main|Outline of nanotechnology}}
⏎
⏎
{{colbegin|3}}
*⏎
* [[Bionanoscience]]
*  [[Energy applications of nanotechnology]]
*  [[List of emerging technologies]]
*  [[List of software for nanostructures modeling]]
*  [[Materiomics]]
*  [[Molecular design software]]
*  [[Molecular mechanics]]
*  [[Nanoengineering]]
*  [[Nanobiotechnology]]
*  [[Nanofluidics]]
*  [[Nanohub]]
*  [[Nanometrology]]
*  [[Nanoscale networks]]
*  [[Nanotechnology education]]
*  [[Nanotechnology in water treatment]]
*  [[Metastable intermolecular composite|Nanothermite]]
*  [[Nanoweapons]]
*  [[Top-down and bottom-up#Nanotechnology|Top-down and bottom-up]]
*  [[Translational research]]
*  [[Wet nanotechnology]]
⏎
⏎
{{colend}}

==  References  ==
⏎
⏎
{{reflist|2}}

==  Further reading  ==
{{Refbegin|colwidth=30em}}
⏎
⏎
* "[http://www.inanot.com/ Basic Concepts of Nanotechnology]" History of Nano-Technology, News, Materials, Potential Risks and Important People.
* {{cite web|url=http://www.nanotechproject.org/topics/nano101/ |title=About Nanotechnology - An Introduction to Nanotech from The Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies |publisher=Nanotechproject.org |date= |accessdate=2009-11-24}}
⏎
⏎
* {{cite web|url=http://www.nanotech-now.com/nano_intro.htm |title=Nanotechnology Introduction Pages |publisher=Nanotech-now.com |date= |accessdate=2009-11-24}}
*⏎
* [http://www.medicalnanotec.com Medicalnanotec.com], Introduction to applications of Nanotechnology in Medicine.
*  Maynard, Andrew, {{cite web|url=http://www.nanotechproject.org/news/archive/the_twinkie_guide_to_nanotechnology/ |title=The Twinkie Guide to Nanotechnology • News Archive • Nanotechnology Project |publisher=Nanotechproject.org |date=2007-10-22 |accessdate=2009-11-24}} Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars. 2007. - "..a friendly, funny, 25-minute travel guide to the technology"
*  {{cite web |url= |title=Nanotechnology Basics: For Students and Other Learners |author= |date=11 November 2008  |work= |publisher= Center for Responsible Nanotechnology - World Care |accessdate= }}
*⏎
* Fritz Allhoff and Patrick Lin (eds.), [http://www.springer.com/philosophy/ethics/book/978-1-4020-6208-7 ''Nanotechnology & Society: Current and Emerging Ethical Issues''] (Dordrecht: Springer, 2008).
*  Fritz Allhoff, Patrick Lin, James Moor, and John Weckert (eds.) {{cite web |url=http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-0470084170.html |title=Nanoethics: The Ethical and Societal Implications of Nanotechnology  |author= |year=2007 |work= |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |location=Hoboken |accessdate= }} {{cite web |url=http://www.nanoethics.org/wiley.html |title=Wiley |author= |date= |work= |publisher= |accessdate= }}
⏎
⏎
*  J. Clarence Davies, [http://www.nanotechproject.org/publications/archive/epa_nanotechnology_oversight_for_21st/ EPA and Nanotechnology: Oversight for the 21st Century], ''Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies'', PEN 9, May 2007.
*  Carl Marziali, [http://www.usc.edu/uscnews/stories/13316.html "Little Big Science,"] USC Trojan Family Magazine, Winter 2007.
*  William Sims Bainbridge: ''Nanoconvergence: The Unity of Nanoscience, Biotechnology, Information Technology and Cognitive Science'', June 27, 2007, Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-13-244643-X
*  Lynn E. Foster: ''Nanotechnology: Science, Innovation, and Opportunity'', December 21, 2005, Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-13-192756-6
*  ''[http://www.azonano.com/details.asp?ArticleID=1242 Impact of Nanotechnology on Biomedical Sciences: Review of Current Concepts on Convergence of Nanotechnology With Biology]'' by Herbert Ernest and Rahul Shetty, from [[AZojono]], May 2005.
*  Hunt, G & Mehta, M (eds)(2008) Nanotechnology: Risk, Ethics & Law, Earthscan, London.
*  Andrew Schneider, [http://www.aolnews.com/category/nanotech/ The Nanotech Gamble], Growing Health Risks from Nanomaterials in Food and Medicine, First in a Three-Part Series, AOL News Special Report, March 24, 2010.
*  Hari Singh Nalwa (2004), Encyclopedia of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (10-Volume Set), American Scientific Publishers. ISBN 1-58883-001-2
*  Michael Rieth and Wolfram Schommers (2006), Handbook of Theoretical and Computational Nanotechnology (10-Volume Set), American Scientific Publishers. ISBN 1-58883-042-X
*  {{cite book|author=Akhlesh Lakhtakia (ed)|title=The Handbook of Nanotechnology. Nanometer Structures: Theory, Modeling, and Simulation|year=2004|
⏎
⏎
publisher=SPIE Press, Bellingham, WA, USA|isbn=0-8194-5186-X}}
⏎
⏎
*  {{cite book|author=Fei Wang & Akhlesh Lakhtakia (eds)|title=Selected Papers on Nanotechnology—Theory & Modeling (Milestone Volume 182)|
⏎
⏎
publisher=SPIE Press, Bellingham, WA, USA|year=2006|isbn=0-8194-6354-X}}
*⏎
* Jumana Boussey, Georges Kamarinos, Laurent Montès (editors) (2003), [http://www.lavoisier.fr/notice/fr2746208580.html Towards Nanotechnology], "Nano et Micro Technologies", Hermes Sciences Publ., Paris, ISBN 2-7462-0858-X.
*  The Silicon Valley Toxics Coalition (April, 2008), [http://www.svtc.org/svtc_nanotech Regulating Emerging Technologies in Silicon Valley and Beyond]
*  [http://www.genengnews.com Genetic Engineering & Biotechnology News] (January, 2008), [http://www.genengnews.com/articles/chitem.aspx?aid=2325 Getting a Handle on Nanobiotech Products] Regulators and Companies Are Laying the Groundwork for a Predicted Bright Future
*  {{cite journal |author=Suh WH, Suslick KS, Stucky GD, Suh YH |title=Nanotechnology, nanotoxicology, and neuroscience |journal=Progress in Neurobiology |volume=87 |issue=3 |page=133|year=2009|pmid=18926873 |doi=10.1016/j.pneurobio.2008.09.009 |pages=133–70 |pmc=2728462}}
⏎
⏎
*  RJ Aitken, SM Hankin, B Ross, CL Tran, V Stone, TF Fernandes, K Donaldson, R Duffin, Q Chaudhry, TA Wilkins, SA Wilkins, LS Levy, SA Rocks, A Maynard, [http://www.iom-world.org/pubs/IOM_TM0901.pdf ''EMERGNANO Report''], [[Institute of Occupational Medicine]], Report TM/09/01 March 2009.
⏎
⏎
{{Refend}}

==  External links  ==
{{Commons}}
⏎
⏎
{{wikibooks|Nanotechnology}}
*⏎
* {{dmoz|Science/Technology/Nanotechnology/|Nanotechnology}}
<!--========================({{No More Links}})============================
    | PLEASE BE CAUTIOUS IN ADDING MORE LINKS TO THIS ARTICLE. WIKIPEDIA  |
    | IS NOT A COLLECTION OF LINKS NOR SHOULD IT BE USED FOR ADVERTISING. |
    |                                                                     |
    |           Excessive or inappropriate links WILL BE DELETED.         |
    | See [[Wikipedia:External links]] & [[Wikipedia:Spam]] for details.  |
    |                                                                     |
    | If there are already plentiful links, please propose additions or   |
    | replacements on this article's discussion page, or submit your link |
    | to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org)   |
    | and link back to that category using the {{dmoz}} template.         |
    =======================({{No More Links}})=============================-->
<!-- -->
<!--| If you are adding a link to an individual institution or company, please add |-->
<!--| an entry to "List of nanotechnology organizations" instead of here. Thanks! |-->
<!-- -->
{{WVD}}
*⏎
{{WVD}}

* [http://www.vega.org.uk/video/programme/3 What is Nanotechnology?] (A Vega/BBC/OU Video Discussion).
*  [http://nanohub.org/resources/6583 Course on ''Introduction to Nanotechnology'']
*  [http://nanex-project.eu/index.php/home Nanex Project]
*  [http://www.safenano.org/ SAFENANO]  A nanotechnology initiative of the [[Institute of Occupational Medicine]]
⏎
⏎
{{Nanotech footer}}
⏎
⏎
{{Technology}}
⏎
⏎
{{Emerging technologies}}
⏎
⏎
{{Levels of technological manipulation of matter}}

[[Category:Nanotechnology| ]]
[[Category:Emerging technologies]]