Difference between revisions 2279512 and 2279521 on mswiki

{{proses|BukanTeamBiasa}}
{{about|sejarah sains dalam tamadun Islam di antara abad ke-8 dan ke-16|maklumat pada sains dalam konteks Islam|Islam dan sains}}
{{History of science sidebar}}
(contracted; show full)g di dalam kitab itu merupakan penemuan nya sendiri. Karya Ibn Al-Baitar berpengaruh di Eropah selepas terjemahnya ke dalam [[Latin]] dalam tahun 1758 M.<ref>Diane Boulanger (2002), "The Islamic Contribution to Science, Mathematics and Technology", ''OISE Papers'', in ''STSE Education'', Vol. 3.</ref><ref name=McNeil>Russell McNeil, [http://www.mala.bc.ca/~mcneil/baitart.htm Ibn al-Baitar], [[Malaspina University-College]].</ref>

==
= Perubatan ===

''Maklumat lanjut: [[Perubatan Islam]] dan [[Bimaristan]]'' 

[[Image:Albucasis.gif|thumb|right|[[Abu Al-Qasim Al-Zahrawi|al-Zahrawi]] (''Abulcasis''), seorang peneroka [[pembedahan]] moden.]] 

Para pakar [[perubatan]] Islam membuat banyak kemajuan serta sumbangan dalam bidang-bidang [[perubatan]], termasuk [[anatomi]], [patologi]], [[oftalmologi]], sains-sains [[farmaseutik]] termasuk [[farmasi]] dan [[pharmacology]], [[fisiologi]] dan [[pembedahan]].  Doktor-doktor Islam menubuhkan [[hospital]] khusus yang terawal sewaktu terjadinya [[Perang Salib]], yang mengilhamkan pembinaan hospital yang sama di Eropah.<ref name=Sarton>[[George Sarton]], ''Introduction to the History of Science''.<br />([[cf.]] Dr. A. Zahoor and Dr. Z. Haq (1997), [http://www.cyberistan.org/islamic/Introl1.html Quotations From Famous Historians of Science], Cyberistan.</ref>

[[Al-Kindi]] menulis ''De Gradibus'', di mana beliau buat pertama kalinya menunjukkan penggunaan [[pengkuantitian]] dan [[matematik]] dalam perubatan, khususnya dalam bidang [[farmakologi]]. Ini termasuk pembangunan skala matematik bagi pengkuantitian kekuatan ubat, dan satu aturcara yang dapat membolehkan para doktor menentukan dari awal hari-hari kritikal sesuatu penyakit.<ref>Felix Klein-Frank (2001), ''Al-Kindi'', in [[Oliver Leaman]] and [[Hossein Nasr]], ''History of Islamic Philosophy'', p. 172. [[Routledge]], London.</ref> [[Al-Razi|al-Razi]] (''Rhazes'') (865-925 M), seorang pelopor [[pediatrik]],<ref>David W. Tschanz, PhD (2003), "Arab Roots of European Medicine", ''Heart Views'' '''4''' (2).</ref> mencatatkan kes-kes [[klinikal]] yang ditemukan dan memberikan catatan yang amat berguna tentang pelbagai [[penyakit]]. Bukunya  ''Kitab Menyeluruh berkaitan Perubatan'' (''al-Hawi الحاوي'') yang memperkenalkan [[campak]] dan [[cacar]], sangat berpengaruh di Eropah. Dalam kitab ''Syak terhadap [[Galen]]'' (''Shukuk 'ala alinusor'', al-Razi juga yang pertama membuktikan teori [[humor]] Galen dan teori [[unsur klasik]] [[Aristotle]] silap melalui penggunaan [[eksperimen|ujikaji]].<ref name=Stolyarov>G. Stolyarov II (2002), "Rhazes: The Thinking Western Physician", ''The Rational Argumentator'', Issue VI.</ref> Beliau juga memperkenalkan [[urinalisis]] dan [[ujian najis]].<ref>Rafik Berjak and Muzaffar Iqbal, "Ibn Sina—Al-Biruni correspondence", ''Islam & Science'',  December 2003.</ref>

[[Abu Al-Qasim Al-Zahrawi|al-Zahrawi]] (''Abulcasis''), yang dianggap pelopor [[pembedahan]] moden,<ref>A. Martin-Araguz, C. Bustamante-Martinez, Ajo V. Fernandez-Armayor, J. M. Moreno-Martinez (2002). "Neuroscience in al-Andalus and its influence on medieval scholastic medicine", ''Revista de neurología'' '''34''' (9), p. 877-892.</ref> menulis ''[[Al-Tasrif]]'' (''Kaedah Perubatan'')(c. 1000 M), [[ensiklopedia]] sebesar 30 jilid yang diajarkan di sekolah-sekolah perubatan Islam dan Eropah sehingga kurun ke-17. Beliau mencipta pelbagai [[peralatan pembedahan]], termasuk alat pertama yang khusus bagi wanita,<ref name=Saad>Bashar Saad, Hassan Azaizeh, Omar Said (October 2005). "Tradition and Perspectives of Arab Herbal Medicine: A Review", ''Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine'' '''2''' (4), p. 475-479 [476]. [[Oxford University Press]].</ref> disamping kegunaan [[catgut]] dan [[forceps]] dalam pembedahan, [[Ligatur (perubatan)|ligatur]], [[jarum bedah]], [[skalpel]], [[kuret]], [[Retraktor (perubatan)|retraktor]], [[sudu]] bedah, [[Sound (perubatan)|sound]], [[cangkuk]] bedah, [[rod]] bedah, dan [[Spekulum (perubatan)|spekula]],<ref>Khaled al-Hadidi (1978), "The Role of Muslim Scholars in Oto-rhino-Laryngology", ''The Egyptian Journal of O.R.L.'' '''4''' (1), p. 1-15. ([[cf.]] [http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=674 Ear, Nose and Throat Medical Practice in Muslim Heritage], Foundation for Science Technology and Civilization.)</ref> [[gergaji]] tulang,<ref name=Vallely/> dan [[plaster]].<ref>Zafarul-Islam Khan, [http://milligazette.com/Archives/15-1-2000/Art5.htm At The Threshhold Of A New Millennium – II], ''The Milli Gazette''.</ref> Pada tahun 1021 M, [[Abu Ali Hasan Ibn Al-Haitham|Ibn al-Haitham]] (''Alhazen'') membuat kemajuan penting dalam [[pembedahan mata]], semasa beliau mengkaji dan dengan tepatnya menjelaskan jujukan [[penglihatan]] dan [[persepsi penglihatan]] buat kali pertamanya dalam buku beliau, ''[[Kitab Optik (Kitab al-Manazir)|Kitab Optik]]'' (c. 1021 M).<ref name=Saad/>

[[Avicenna]], who was a pioneer of [[experimental medicine]] and was also an influential thinker and medical scholar,<ref name=Sarton/> wrote ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'' (1025) and ''[[The Book of Healing]]'' (1027), which remained standard textbooks in both Muslim and European [[University|universities]] until at least the 17th century. Avicenna's contributions include the introduction of systematic [[experiment]]ation and [[quantification]] into the study of [[physiology]],<ref>Katharine Park (March 1990). "''Avicenna in Renaissance Italy: The Canon and Medical Teaching in Italian Universities after 1500'' by Nancy G. Siraisi", ''The Journal of Modern History'' '''62''' (1), p. 169-170.</ref> the discovery of the contagious nature of [[infectious disease]]s, the introduction of [[quarantine]] to limit the spread of contagious diseases, the introduction of [[experimental medicine]],<ref>{{citation|journal=European Review|year=2008|volume=16|pages=219–27|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|title=Islamic Pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Theories and Substances|first=Danielle|last=Jacquart|doi=10.1017/S1062798708000215}}</ref> [[evidence-based medicine]], [[clinical trial]]s,<ref>David W. Tschanz, MSPH, PhD (August 2003). "Arab Roots of European Medicine", ''Heart Views'' '''4''' (2).</ref>
[[randomized controlled trial]]s,<ref>Jonathan D. Eldredge (2003), "The Randomised Controlled Trial design: unrecognized opportunities for health sciences librarianship", ''Health Information and Libraries Journal'' '''20''', p. 34–44 [36].</ref><ref>Bernard S. Bloom, Aurelia Retbi, Sandrine Dahan, Egon Jonsson (2000), "Evaluation Of Randomized Controlled Trials On Complementary And Alternative Medicine", ''International Journal of Technology Assessment in Health Care'' '''16''' (1), p. 13–21 [19].</ref>
[[efficacy]] tests,<ref>D. Craig Brater and Walter J. Daly (2000), "Clinical pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Principles that presage the 21st century", ''Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics'' '''67''' (5), p. 447-450 [449].</ref><ref>Walter J. Daly and D. Craig Brater (2000), "Medieval contributions to the search for truth in clinical medicine", ''Perspectives in Biology and Medicine'' '''43''' (4), p. 530–540 [536], [[Johns Hopkins University Press]].</ref>
and [[clinical pharmacology]],<ref>D. Craig Brater and Walter J. Daly (2000), "Clinical pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Principles that presage the 21st century", ''Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics'' '''67''' (5), p. 447-450 [448].</ref>
the importance of dietetics and the influence of climate and environment on health,<ref>[http://www.unani.com/avicenna%20story%203.htm The Canon of Medicine], The American Institute of Unani Medicine, 2003.</ref> the distinction of [[mediastinitis]] from [[pleurisy]], the contagious nature of [[phthisis]] and [[tuberculosis]], the distribution of [[disease]]s by [[water]] and [[soil]], and the first careful descriptions of [[skin]] troubles, [[sexually transmitted disease]]s, [[perversion]]s, and [[Nervous system|nervous]] [[ailment]]s,<ref name=Sarton/> as well the use of [[ice]] to treat [[fever]]s, and the separation of [[medicine]] from [[pharmacology]], which was important to the development of the [[pharmaceutical sciences]][patologi]], [[oftalmologi]], sains-sains [[farmaseutik]] termasuk [[farmasi]] dan [[farmakologi]], [[fisiologi]] dan [[pembedahan]].  Doktor-doktor Islam menubuhkan [[hospital]] khusus yang terawal sewaktu terjadinya [[Perang Salib]], yang mengilhamkan pembinaan hospital yang sama di Eropah.<ref name=Sarton>[[George Sarton]], ''Introduction to the History of Science''.<br />([[cf.]] Dr. A. Zahoor and Dr. Z. Haq (1997), [http://www.cyberistan.org/islamic/Introl1.html Quotations From Famous Historians of Science], Cyberistan.</ref>

[[Al-Kindi]] menulis ''[[De gradibus (karya)|De Gradibus]]'', di mana beliau buat pertama kalinya menunjukkan penggunaan [[pengkuantitian]] dan [[matematik]] dalam perubatan, khususnya dalam bidang farmakologi. Ini termasuk pembangunan skala matematik bagi pengkuantitian kekuatan ubat, serta satu aturcara yang dapat membolehkan para doktor menentukan hari-hari kritikal sesuatu penyakit dari awal.<ref>Felix Klein-Frank (2001), ''Al-Kindi'', in [[Oliver Leaman]] and [[Hossein Nasr]], ''History of Islamic Philosophy'', p. 172. [[Routledge]], London.</ref> [[Al-Razi|al-Razi]] (''Rhazes'') (865-925 M), seorang pelopor [[pediatrik]],<ref>David W. Tschanz, PhD (2003), "Arab Roots of European Medicine", ''Heart Views'' '''4''' (2).</ref> mencatatkan kes-kes [[klinikal]] yang ditemukan dan memberikan catatan yang amat berguna tentang pelbagai [[penyakit]]. Bukunya  ''Kitab Menyeluruh berkaitan Perubatan'' (''al-Hawi الحاوي'') yang memperkenalkan [[campak]] dan [[cacar]], sangat berpengaruh di Eropah. Dalam kitab ''Syak terhadap [[Galen]]'' (''Shukuk 'ala alinusor''), al-Razi juga yang pertama membuktikan, melalui penggunaan [[eksperimen|ujikaji]], bahawa teori [[humor]] Galen dan teori [[unsur klasik]] [[Aristotle]] silap.<ref name=Stolyarov>G. Stolyarov II (2002), "Rhazes: The Thinking Western Physician", ''The Rational Argumentator'', Issue VI.</ref> Beliau juga memperkenalkan [[urinalisis]] dan [[ujian najis]].<ref>Rafik Berjak and Muzaffar Iqbal, "Ibn Sina—Al-Biruni correspondence", ''Islam & Science'',  December 2003.</ref>

[[Abu Al-Qasim Al-Zahrawi|al-Zahrawi]] (''Abulcasis''), yang dianggap pelopor [[pembedahan]] moden,<ref>A. Martin-Araguz, C. Bustamante-Martinez, Ajo V. Fernandez-Armayor, J. M. Moreno-Martinez (2002). "Neuroscience in al-Andalus and its influence on medieval scholastic medicine", ''Revista de neurología'' '''34''' (9), p. 877-892.</ref> menulis ''[[Al-Tasrif]]'' (''Kaedah Perubatan'') (c. 1000 M), [[ensiklopedia]] sebesar 30 jilid yang diajarkan di sekolah-sekolah perubatan Islam dan Eropah sehingga kurun ke-17. Beliau mencipta pelbagai [[peralatan pembedahan]], termasuk alat pertama yang khusus bagi wanita,<ref name=Saad>Bashar Saad, Hassan Azaizeh, Omar Said (October 2005). "Tradition and Perspectives of Arab Herbal Medicine: A Review", ''Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine'' '''2''' (4), p. 475-479 [476]. [[Oxford University Press]].</ref> disamping kegunaan [[catgut]] dan [[forceps]] dalam pembedahan, [[Ligatur (perubatan)|ligatur]], [[jarum bedah]], [[skalpel]], [[kuret]], [[Retraktor (perubatan)|retraktor]], [[sudu]] bedah, [[Sound (perubatan)|sound]], [[cangkuk]] bedah, [[rod]] bedah, dan [[Spekulum (perubatan)|spekula]],<ref>Khaled al-Hadidi (1978), "The Role of Muslim Scholars in Oto-rhino-Laryngology", ''The Egyptian Journal of O.R.L.'' '''4''' (1), p. 1-15. ([[cf.]] [http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=674 Ear, Nose and Throat Medical Practice in Muslim Heritage], Foundation for Science Technology and Civilization.)</ref> [[gergaji]] tulang,<ref name=Vallely/> dan [[plaster]].<ref>Zafarul-Islam Khan, [http://milligazette.com/Archives/15-1-2000/Art5.htm At The Threshhold Of A New Millennium – II], ''The Milli Gazette''.</ref> 

Pada tahun 1021 M, [[Abu Ali Hasan Ibn Al-Haitham|Ibn al-Haitham]] (''Alhazen'') membuat kemajuan penting dalam [[pembedahan mata]], semasa beliau mengkaji dan dengan tepatnya menjelaskan jujukan [[penglihatan]] dan [[persepsi penglihatan]] buat kali pertamanya dalam buku beliau, ''[[Kitab Optik (Kitab al-Manazir)|Kitab Optik]]'' (c. 1021 M).<ref name=Saad/>

[[Abu Marwan Ibn Zuhr|Ibn Zuhr]] (''Avenzoar'') dianggap pelopor pembedahan bereksperimen, <ref>Rabie E. Abdel-Halim (2006), "Contributions of Muhadhdhab Al-Deen Al-Baghdadi to the progress of medicine and urology", ''Saudi Medical Journal'' '''27''' (11): 1631-1641.</ref> oleh sebab memperkenalkan kaedah ujikaji ke dalam pemebedahan pada kurun ke-12 &ndash; beliau yang pertama menggunaka(contracted; show full)amping perekaan [[picagari]] [[Suntikan (perubatan)]] oleh Ammar ibn Ali al-Mawsili di [[Iraq} dalam abad kesembilan, [[farmasi]] di [[Baghdad]] (754 M), perbezaan antara perubatan dengan farmasi pada kurun ke-12, dan penemuan sekurang-kurangnya 2,000 bahan perubatan dan kimia.<ref>S. Hadzovic (1997). "Pharmacy and the great contribution of Arab-Islamic science to its development", ''Medicinski Arhiv'' '''51''' (1-2), p. 47-50.</ref>


[[Avicenna]], who was a pioneer of [[experimental medicine]] and was also an influential thinker and medical scholar,<ref name=Sarton/> wrote ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'' (1025) and ''[[The Book of Healing]]'' (1027), which remained standard textbooks in both Muslim and European [[University|universities]] until at least the 17th century. Avicenna's contributions include the introduction of systematic [[experiment]]ation and [[quantification]] into the study of [[physiology]],<ref>Katharine Park (March 1990). "''Avicenna in Renaissance Italy: The Canon and Medical Teaching in Italian Universities after 1500'' by Nancy G. Siraisi", ''The Journal of Modern History'' '''62''' (1), p. 169-170.</ref> the discovery of the contagious nature of [[infectious disease]]s, the introduction of [[quarantine]] to limit the spread of contagious diseases, the introduction of [[experimental medicine]],<ref>{{citation|journal=European Review|year=2008|volume=16|pages=219–27|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|title=Islamic Pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Theories and Substances|first=Danielle|last=Jacquart|doi=10.1017/S1062798708000215}}</ref> [[evidence-based medicine]], [[clinical trial]]s,<ref>David W. Tschanz, MSPH, PhD (August 2003). "Arab Roots of European Medicine", ''Heart Views'' '''4''' (2).</ref>
[[randomized controlled trial]]s,<ref>Jonathan D. Eldredge (2003), "The Randomised Controlled Trial design: unrecognized opportunities for health sciences librarianship", ''Health Information and Libraries Journal'' '''20''', p. 34–44 [36].</ref><ref>Bernard S. Bloom, Aurelia Retbi, Sandrine Dahan, Egon Jonsson (2000), "Evaluation Of Randomized Controlled Trials On Complementary And Alternative Medicine", ''International Journal of Technology Assessment in Health Care'' '''16''' (1), p. 13–21 [19].</ref>
[[efficacy]] tests,<ref>D. Craig Brater and Walter J. Daly (2000), "Clinical pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Principles that presage the 21st century", ''Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics'' '''67''' (5), p. 447-450 [449].</ref><ref>Walter J. Daly and D. Craig Brater (2000), "Medieval contributions to the search for truth in clinical medicine", ''Perspectives in Biology and Medicine'' '''43''' (4), p. 530–540 [536], [[Johns Hopkins University Press]].</ref>
and [[clinical pharmacology]],<ref>D. Craig Brater and Walter J. Daly (2000), "Clinical pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Principles that presage the 21st century", ''Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics'' '''67''' (5), p. 447-450 [448].</ref>
the importance of dietetics and the influence of climate and environment on health,<ref>[http://www.unani.com/avicenna%20story%203.htm The Canon of Medicine], The American Institute of Unani Medicine, 2003.</ref> the distinction of [[mediastinitis]] from [[pleurisy]], the contagious nature of [[phthisis]] and [[tuberculosis]], the distribution of [[disease]]s by [[water]] and [[soil]], and the first careful descriptions of [[skin]] troubles, [[sexually transmitted disease]]s, [[perversion]]s, and [[Nervous system|nervous]] [[ailment]]s,<ref name=Sarton/> as well the use of [[ice]] to treat [[fever]]s, and the separation of [[medicine]] from [[pharmacology]], which was important to the development of the [[pharmaceutical sciences]].<ref name=Saad/>
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== Formal sciences ==

=== Logic ===
{{Main|Logic in Islamic philosophy}}

Early [[Islamic law]] placed importance on formulating standards of [[argument]], which gave rise to a novel approach to [[logic]] in [[Kalam]], but this approach was later influenced by ideas from [[Greek philosophy]] and [[Hellenistic philosophy]] with the rise of the [[Mu'tazili]] theologians, who highly valued [[Aristotle]]'s ''[[Organon]]''. The works of Hellenistic-influenced [[Early Islamic philo(contracted; show full)[[nl:Wetenschap in de middeleeuwse islamitische wereld]]
[[ja:イスラム科学]]
[[pt:Ciência islâmica]]
[[sq:Shkenca në mesjetën Islame]]
[[sr:Наука у средњовековном исламском свету]]
[[sh:Islamska nauka]]
[[sv:Islamisk vetenskap]]
[[ur:مسلم سائنس]]