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{{about|sejarah sains dalam tamadun Islam di antara abad ke-8 dan ke-16|maklumat pada sains dalam konteks Islam|Islam dan sains}}
{{History of science sidebar}}
(contracted; show full)di dalam kitab itu merupakan penemuan nya sendiri. Karya Ibn Al-Baitar berpengaruh di Eropah selepas terjemahnya ke dalam [[Latin]] dalam tahun 1758 M.<ref>Diane Boulanger (2002), "The Islamic Contribution to Science, Mathematics and Technology", ''OISE Papers'', in ''STSE Education'', Vol. 3.</ref><ref name=McNeil>Russell McNeil, [http://www.mala.bc.ca/~mcneil/baitart.htm Ibn al-Baitar], [[Malaspina University-College]].</ref>

=== 
Medicine ===
{{main|Islamic medicine}} {{see|Ophthalmology in medieval Islam|Bimaristan}}
[[Image:Albucasis.gif|thumb|right|[[Abu al-Qasim]] (Abulcasis), seorang peneroka [[pembedahan]] moden.]] 

Muslim [[physician]]s made many significant advances and contributions to [[medicine]], including [[anatomy]], [[ophthalmology]], [[pathology]], the [[pharmaceutical sciences]] (including [[pharmacy]] and [[pharmacology]]), [[physiology]], and [[surgery]]. Muslim physicians set up some of the earliest dedicated [[hospital]]s, which later spread to Europe during the [[Crusade]]s, inspired by the hospitals in the Middle East.<ref name=Sarton>[[George Sarton]], ''Introduction to the History of Science''.<br />([[cf.]] Dr. A. Zahoor and Dr. Z. Haq (1997), [http://www.cyberistan.org/islamic/Introl1.html Quotations From Famous Historians of Science], Cyberistan.</ref>

[[Al-Kindi]] wrote ''[[De Gradibus]]'', in which he first demonstrated the application of [[quantification]] and mathematics to medicine, particularly in the field of pharmacology. This includes the development of a mathematical scale to quantify the strength of [[drug]]s, and a system that would allow a doctor to determine in advance the most critical days of a patient's illness.<ref>Felix Klein-Frank (2001), ''Al-Kindi'', in [[Oliver Leaman]] and [[Hossein Nasr]], ''History of Islamic Philosophy'', p. 172. [[Routledge]], London.</ref> [[Rhazes|Razi]] (Rhazes) (865-925), a pioneer of [[pediatrics]],<ref>David W. Tschanz, PhD (2003), "Arab Roots of European Medicine", ''Heart Views'' '''4''' (2).</ref> recorded [[clinical]] cases of his own experience and provided very useful recordings of various [[disease]]s. His ''Comprehensive Book of Medicine'', which introduced [[measles]] and [[smallpox]], was very influential in Europe. In his ''Doubts about Galen'', al-Razi was also the first to prove both [[Galen]]'s theory of [[humorism]] and [[Aristotle]]'s theory of [[classical element]]s false using experimentation.<ref name=Stolyarov>G. Stolyarov II (2002), "Rhazes: The Thinking Western Physician", ''The Rational Argumentator'', Issue VI.</ref> He also introduced [[urinalysis]] and [[stool test]]s.<ref>Rafik Berjak and Muzaffar Iqbal, "Ibn Sina—Al-Biruni correspondence", ''Islam & Science'',  December 2003.</ref>

[[Abu al-Qasim]] (Abulcasis), considered a pioneer of modern [[surgery]],<ref>A. Martin-Araguz, C. Bustamante-Martinez, Ajo V. Fernandez-Armayor, J. M. Moreno-Martinez (2002). "Neuroscience in al-Andalus and its influence on medieval scholastic medicine", ''Revista de neurología'' '''34''' (9), p. 877-892.</ref> wrote the ''[[Al-Tasrif]]'' ([[1000]]), a 30-volume medical [[encyclopedia]] which was taught at Muslim and European [[medical school]]s until the 17th century. He invented numerous [[surgical instruments]], including the first instruments unique to women,<ref name=Saad>Bashar Saad, Hassan Azaizeh, Omar Said (October 2005). "Tradition and Perspectives of Arab Herbal Medicine: A Review", ''Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine'' '''2''' (4), p. 475-479 [476]. [[Oxford University Press]].</ref> as well as the surgical uses of [[catgut]] and [[forceps]], the [[Ligature (medicine)|ligature]], [[surgical needle]], [[scalpel]], [[curette]], [[Retractor (medical)|retractor]], surgical [[spoon]], [[Sound (medical instrument)|sound]], surgical [[hook]], surgical [[rod]], and [[Speculum (medical)|specula]],<ref>Khaled al-Hadidi (1978), "The Role of Muslim Scholars in Oto-rhino-Laryngology", ''The Egyptian Journal of O.R.L.'' '''4''' (1), p. 1-15. ([[cf.]] [http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=674 Ear, Nose and Throat Medical Practice in Muslim Heritage], Foundation for Science Technology and Civilization.)</ref> bone [[saw]],<ref name=Vallely/> and [[plaster]].<ref>Zafarul-Islam Khan, [http://milligazette.com/Archives/15-1-2000/Art5.htm At The Threshhold Of A New Millennium – II], ''The Milli Gazette''.</ref> In 1021, [[Ibn al-Haytham]] (Alhacen) made important advances in [[eye surgery]], as he studied and correctly explained the process of [[sight]] and [[visual perception]] for the first time in his ''[[Book of Optics]]'' (1021).<ref name=Saad/>

[[Avicenna]], who was a pioneer of [[experimental medicine]] and was also an influential thinker and medical scholar,<ref name=Sarton/> wrote ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'' (1025) and ''[[The Book of Healing]]'' (1027), which remained standard textbooks in both Muslim and European [[University|universities]] until at least the 17th century. Avicenna's contributions include the introduction of systematic [[experiment]]ation and [[quantification]] into the study of [[physiology]],<ref>Katharine Park (March 1990). "''Avicenna in Renaissance Italy: The Canon and Medical Teaching in Italian Universities after 1500'' by Nancy G. Siraisi", ''The Journal of Modern History'' '''62''' (1), p. 169-170.</ref> the discovery of the contagious nature of [[infectious disease]]s, the introduction of [[quarantine]] to limit the spread of contagious diseases, the introduction of [[experimental medicine]],<ref>{{citation|journal=European Review|year=2008|volume=16|pages=219–27|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|title=Islamic Pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Theories and Substances|first=Danielle|last=Jacquart|doi=10.1017/S1062798708000215}}</ref> [[evidence-based medicine]], [[clinical trial]]s,<ref>David W. Tschanz, MSPH, PhD (August 2003). "Arab Roots of European Medicine", ''Heart Views'' '''4''' (2).</ref>
[[randomized controlled trial]]s,<ref>Jonathan D. Eldredge (2003), "The Randomised Controlled Trial design: unrecognized opportunities for health sciences librarianship", ''Health Information and Libraries Journal'' '''20''', p. 34–44 [36].</ref><ref>Bernard S. Bloom, Aurelia Retbi, Sandrine Dahan, Egon Jonsson (2000), "Evaluation Of Randomized Controlled Trials On Complementary And Alternative Medicine", ''International Journal of Technology Assessment in Health Care'' '''16''' (1), p. 13–21 [19].</ref>
[[efficacy]] tests,<ref>D. Craig Brater and Walter J. Daly (2000), "Clinical pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Principles that presage the 21st century", ''Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics'' '''67''' (5), p. 447-450 [449].</ref><ref>Walter J. Daly and D. Craig Brater (2000), "Medieval contributions to the search for truth in clinical medicine", ''Perspectives in Biology and Medicine'' '''43''' (4), p. 530–540 [536], [[Johns Hopkins University Press]].</ref>
and [[clinical pharmacology]],<ref>D. Craig Brater and Walter J. Daly (2000), "Clinical pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Principles that presage the 21st century", ''Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics'' '''67''' (5), p. 447-450 [448].</ref>
the importance of dietetics and the influence of climate and environment on health,<ref>[http://www.unani.com/avicenna%20story%203.htm The Canon of Medicine], The American Institute of Unani Medicine, 2003.</ref> the distinction of [[mediastinitis]] from [[pleurisy]], the contagious nature of [[phthisis]] and [[tuberculosis]], the distribution of [[disease]]s by [[water]] and [[soil]], and the first careful descriptions of [[skin]] troubles, [[sexually transmitted disease]]s, [[perversion]]s, and [[Nervous system|nervous]] [[ailment]]s,<ref name=Sarton/> as well the use of [[ice]] to treat [[fever]]s, and the separation of [[medicine]] from [[pharmacology]], which was important to the development of the [[pharmaceutical sciences]].<ref name=Saad/>

[[Ibn Zuhr]] (Avenzoar) is considered a pioneer of [[experiment]]al surgery,<ref>Rabie E. Abdel-Halim (2006), "Contributions of Muhadhdhab Al-Deen Al-Baghdadi to the progress of medicine and urology", ''Saudi Medical Journal'' '''27''' (11): 1631-1641.</ref> for introducing the experimental method into surgery in the 12th century, as he was the first to employ [[animal testing]] in order to experiment with surgical procedures before applying them to human patients.<ref name=Rabie>Rabie E. Abdel-Halim (2005), "Contributions of Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) to the progress of surgery: A study and translations from his book Al-Taisir", ''Saudi Medical Journal 2005; Vol. 26 (9): 1333-1339''.</ref> He also performed the first [[dissection]]s and postmortem [[Autopsy|autopsies]] on both humans as well as animals.<ref>[http://encyclopedia.farlex.com/Islamic+medicine Islamic medicine], ''[[Hutchinson Encyclopedia]]''.</ref>

In 1242, [[Ibn al-Nafis]], considered a pioneer of [[Cardiovascular physiology|circulatory physiology]],<ref>Chairman's Reflections (2004), "Traditional Medicine Among Gulf Arabs, Part II: Blood-letting", ''Heart Views'' '''5''' (2), p. 74-85 [80].</ref> was the first to describe [[pulmonary circulation]] and [[coronary circulation]],<ref>Husain F. Nagamia (2003), "Ibn al-Nafīs: A Biographical Sketch of the Discoverer of Pulmonary and Coronary Circulation", ''Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine'' '''1''', p. 22–28.</ref> which form the basis of the [[circulatory system]], for which he is considered one of the greatest [[physiologists]] in history.<ref>[[George Sarton]] ([[cf.]] Dr. Paul Ghalioungui (1982), "The West denies Ibn Al Nafis's contribution to the discovery of the circulation", ''Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis'', Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait) <br /> ([[cf.]] [http://www.islamset.com/isc/nafis/drpaul.html The West denies Ibn Al Nafis's contribution to the discovery of the circulation], ''Encyclopedia of Islamic World'')</ref> He also described the earliest concept of [[metabolism]],<ref>Dr. Abu Shadi Al-Roubi (1982), "Ibn Al-Nafis as a philosopher", ''Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis'', Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait ([[cf.]] [http://www.islamset.com/isc/nafis/drroubi.html Ibn al-Nafis As a Philosopher], ''Encyclopedia of Islamic World'').</ref> and developed new systems of [[physiology]] and [[psychology]] to replace the [[Avicenna|Avicennian]] and [[Galen]]ic systems, while discrediting many of their erroneous theories on the [[humorism|four humours]], [[Pulse|pulsation]],<ref>Nahyan A. G. Fancy (2006), "Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (d. 1288)", p. 3 & 6, ''Electronic Theses and Dissertations'', [[University of Notre Dame]].[http://etd.nd.edu/ETD-db/theses/available/etd-11292006-152615]</ref> [[bone]]s, [[muscle]]s, [[intestine]]s, [[Sensory system|sensory organs]], [[Bile|bilious]] [[Canal (anatomy)|canals]], [[esophagus]], [[stomach]], etc.<ref>Dr. Sulaiman Oataya (1982), "Ibn ul Nafis has dissected the human body", ''Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis'', Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait ([[cf.]] [http://www.islamset.com/isc/nafis/index.html Ibn ul-Nafis has Dissected the Human Body], ''Encyclopedia of Islamic World'').</ref> Ibn al-Lubudi (1210-1267) rejected the theory of four [[Humorism|humours]] supported by [[Galen]] and [[Hippocrates]], discovered that the [[body]] and its preservation depend exclusively upon [[blood]], rejected Galen's idea that women can produce [[sperm]], and discovered that the movement of [[arteries]] are not dependent upon the movement of the [[heart]], that the heart is the first organ to form in a [[fetus]]' body (rather than the [[brain]] as claimed by Hippocrates), and that the [[bone]]s forming the [[skull]] can grow into [[tumor]]s.<ref>L. Leclerc (1876), ''Histoire de la medecine Arabe'', vol. 2, p. 161, [[Paris]]. <br /> ([[cf.]] Salah Zaimeche, [http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=497 The Scholars of Aleppo: Al Mahassin, Al Urdi, Al-Lubudi, Al-Halabi], Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation)</ref>

The ''Tashrih al-badan'' (''Anatomy of the body'') of [[Mansur ibn Ilyas]] (c. 1390) contained comprehensive diagrams of the body's structural, [[Nervous system|nervous]] and [[circulatory system]]s.<ref>{{Harv|Turner|1997|pp=136—138}}</ref> During the [[Black Death]] [[bubonic plague]] in 14th century [[al-Andalus]], Ibn Khatima and Ibn al-Khatib hypothesized that infectious diseases are caused by "contagious entities" which enter the human body.<ref>Ibrahim B. Syed, Ph.D. (2002). "Islamic Medicine: 1000 years ahead of its times", ''Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine'' '''2''', p. 2-9.</ref> Other medical innovations first introduced by Muslim physicians include the discovery of the [[immune system]], the use of [[animal testing]], and the combination of medicine with other [[science]]s (including [[agriculture]], [[botany]], [[chemistry]], and [[pharmacology]]),<ref name=Saad/> as well as the invention of the [[Injection (medicine)|injection]] [[syringe]] by Ammar ibn Ali al-Mawsili in 9th century [[Iraq]], the first [[drugstore]]s in [[Baghdad]] (754), the distinction between medicine and pharmacy by the 12th century, and the discovery of at least 2,000 medicinal and [[chemical substance]]s.<ref>S. Hadzovic (1997). "Pharmacy and the great contribution of Arab-Islamic science to its development", ''Medicinski Arhiv'' '''51''' (1-2), p. 47-50.</ref>

== Formal sciences ==Perubatan ===

''Maklumat lanjut: [[Perubatan Islam]] dan [[Bimaristan]]'' 

[[Image:Albucasis.gif|thumb|right|[[Abu Al-Qasim Al-Zahrawi|al-Zahrawi]] (''Abulcasis''), seorang peneroka [[pembedahan]] moden.]] 

Para pakar [[perubatan]] Islam membuat banyak kemajuan serta sumbangan dalam bidang-bidang [[perubatan]], termasuk [[anatomi]], [patologi]], [[oftalmologi]], sains-sains [[farmaseutik]] termasuk [[farmasi]] dan [[pharmacology]], [[fisiologi]] dan [[pembedahan]].  Doktor-doktor Islam menubuhkan [[hospital]] khusus yang terawal sewaktu terjadinya [[Perang Salib]], yang mengilhamkan pembinaan hospital yang sama di Eropah.<ref name=Sarton>[[George Sarton]], ''Introduction to the History of Science''.<br />([[cf.]] Dr. A. Zahoor and Dr. Z. Haq (1997), [http://www.cyberistan.org/islamic/Introl1.html Quotations From Famous Historians of Science], Cyberistan.</ref>

[[Al-Kindi]] menulis ''De Gradibus'', di mana beliau buat pertama kalinya menunjukkan penggunaan [[pengkuantitian]] dan [[matematik]] dalam perubatan, khususnya dalam bidang [[farmakologi]]. Ini termasuk pembangunan skala matematik bagi pengkuantitian kekuatan ubat, dan satu aturcara yang dapat membolehkan para doktor menentukan dari awal hari-hari kritikal sesuatu penyakit.<ref>Felix Klein-Frank (2001), ''Al-Kindi'', in [[Oliver Leaman]] and [[Hossein Nasr]], ''History of Islamic Philosophy'', p. 172. [[Routledge]], London.</ref> [[Al-Razi|al-Razi]] (''Rhazes'') (865-925 M), seorang pelopor [[pediatrik]],<ref>David W. Tschanz, PhD (2003), "Arab Roots of European Medicine", ''Heart Views'' '''4''' (2).</ref> mencatatkan kes-kes [[klinikal]] yang ditemukan dan memberikan catatan yang amat berguna tentang pelbagai [[penyakit]]. Bukunya  ''Kitab Menyeluruh berkaitan Perubatan'' (''al-Hawi الحاوي'') yang memperkenalkan [[campak]] dan [[cacar]], sangat berpengaruh di Eropah. Dalam kitab ''Syak terhadap [[Galen]]'' (''Shukuk 'ala alinusor'', al-Razi juga yang pertama membuktikan teori [[humor]] Galen dan teori [[unsur klasik]] [[Aristotle]] silap melalui penggunaan [[eksperimen|ujikaji]].<ref name=Stolyarov>G. Stolyarov II (2002), "Rhazes: The Thinking Western Physician", ''The Rational Argumentator'', Issue VI.</ref> Beliau juga memperkenalkan [[urinalisis]] dan [[ujian najis]].<ref>Rafik Berjak and Muzaffar Iqbal, "Ibn Sina—Al-Biruni correspondence", ''Islam & Science'',  December 2003.</ref>

[[Abu Al-Qasim Al-Zahrawi|al-Zahrawi]] (''Abulcasis''), yang dianggap pelopor [[pembedahan]] moden,<ref>A. Martin-Araguz, C. Bustamante-Martinez, Ajo V. Fernandez-Armayor, J. M. Moreno-Martinez (2002). "Neuroscience in al-Andalus and its influence on medieval scholastic medicine", ''Revista de neurología'' '''34''' (9), p. 877-892.</ref> menulis ''[[Al-Tasrif]]'' (''Kaedah Perubatan'')(c. 1000 M), [[ensiklopedia]] sebesar 30 jilid yang diajarkan di sekolah-sekolah perubatan Islam dan Eropah sehingga kurun ke-17. Beliau mencipta pelbagai [[peralatan pembedahan]], termasuk alat pertama yang khusus bagi wanita,<ref name=Saad>Bashar Saad, Hassan Azaizeh, Omar Said (October 2005). "Tradition and Perspectives of Arab Herbal Medicine: A Review", ''Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine'' '''2''' (4), p. 475-479 [476]. [[Oxford University Press]].</ref> disamping kegunaan [[catgut]] dan [[forceps]] dalam pembedahan, [[Ligatur (perubatan)|ligatur]], [[jarum bedah]], [[skalpel]], [[kuret]], [[Retraktor (perubatan)|retraktor]], [[sudu]] bedah, [[Sound (perubatan)|sound]], [[cangkuk]] bedah, [[rod]] bedah, dan [[Spekulum (perubatan)|spekula]],<ref>Khaled al-Hadidi (1978), "The Role of Muslim Scholars in Oto-rhino-Laryngology", ''The Egyptian Journal of O.R.L.'' '''4''' (1), p. 1-15. ([[cf.]] [http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=674 Ear, Nose and Throat Medical Practice in Muslim Heritage], Foundation for Science Technology and Civilization.)</ref> [[gergaji]] tulang,<ref name=Vallely/> dan [[plaster]].<ref>Zafarul-Islam Khan, [http://milligazette.com/Archives/15-1-2000/Art5.htm At The Threshhold Of A New Millennium – II], ''The Milli Gazette''.</ref> Pada tahun 1021 M, [[Abu Ali Hasan Ibn Al-Haitham|Ibn al-Haitham]] (''Alhazen'') membuat kemajuan penting dalam [[pembedahan mata]], semasa beliau mengkaji dan dengan tepatnya menjelaskan jujukan [[penglihatan]] dan [[persepsi penglihatan]] buat kali pertamanya dalam buku beliau, ''[[Kitab Optik (Kitab al-Manazir)|Kitab Optik]]'' (c. 1021 M).<ref name=Saad/>

[[Avicenna]], who was a pioneer of [[experimental medicine]] and was also an influential thinker and medical scholar,<ref name=Sarton/> wrote ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'' (1025) and ''[[The Book of Healing]]'' (1027), which remained standard textbooks in both Muslim and European [[University|universities]] until at least the 17th century. Avicenna's contributions include the introduction of systematic [[experiment]]ation and [[quantification]] into the study of [[physiology]],<ref>Katharine Park (March 1990). "''Avicenna in Renaissance Italy: The Canon and Medical Teaching in Italian Universities after 1500'' by Nancy G. Siraisi", ''The Journal of Modern History'' '''62''' (1), p. 169-170.</ref> the discovery of the contagious nature of [[infectious disease]]s, the introduction of [[quarantine]] to limit the spread of contagious diseases, the introduction of [[experimental medicine]],<ref>{{citation|journal=European Review|year=2008|volume=16|pages=219–27|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|title=Islamic Pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Theories and Substances|first=Danielle|last=Jacquart|doi=10.1017/S1062798708000215}}</ref> [[evidence-based medicine]], [[clinical trial]]s,<ref>David W. Tschanz, MSPH, PhD (August 2003). "Arab Roots of European Medicine", ''Heart Views'' '''4''' (2).</ref>
[[randomized controlled trial]]s,<ref>Jonathan D. Eldredge (2003), "The Randomised Controlled Trial design: unrecognized opportunities for health sciences librarianship", ''Health Information and Libraries Journal'' '''20''', p. 34–44 [36].</ref><ref>Bernard S. Bloom, Aurelia Retbi, Sandrine Dahan, Egon Jonsson (2000), "Evaluation Of Randomized Controlled Trials On Complementary And Alternative Medicine", ''International Journal of Technology Assessment in Health Care'' '''16''' (1), p. 13–21 [19].</ref>
[[efficacy]] tests,<ref>D. Craig Brater and Walter J. Daly (2000), "Clinical pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Principles that presage the 21st century", ''Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics'' '''67''' (5), p. 447-450 [449].</ref><ref>Walter J. Daly and D. Craig Brater (2000), "Medieval contributions to the search for truth in clinical medicine", ''Perspectives in Biology and Medicine'' '''43''' (4), p. 530–540 [536], [[Johns Hopkins University Press]].</ref>
and [[clinical pharmacology]],<ref>D. Craig Brater and Walter J. Daly (2000), "Clinical pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Principles that presage the 21st century", ''Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics'' '''67''' (5), p. 447-450 [448].</ref>
the importance of dietetics and the influence of climate and environment on health,<ref>[http://www.unani.com/avicenna%20story%203.htm The Canon of Medicine], The American Institute of Unani Medicine, 2003.</ref> the distinction of [[mediastinitis]] from [[pleurisy]], the contagious nature of [[phthisis]] and [[tuberculosis]], the distribution of [[disease]]s by [[water]] and [[soil]], and the first careful descriptions of [[skin]] troubles, [[sexually transmitted disease]]s, [[perversion]]s, and [[Nervous system|nervous]] [[ailment]]s,<ref name=Sarton/> as well the use of [[ice]] to treat [[fever]]s, and the separation of [[medicine]] from [[pharmacology]], which was important to the development of the [[pharmaceutical sciences]].<ref name=Saad/>

[[Abu Marwan Ibn Zuhr|Ibn Zuhr]] (''Avenzoar'') dianggap pelopor pembedahan bereksperimen, <ref>Rabie E. Abdel-Halim (2006), "Contributions of Muhadhdhab Al-Deen Al-Baghdadi to the progress of medicine and urology", ''Saudi Medical Journal'' '''27''' (11): 1631-1641.</ref> oleh sebab memperkenalkan kaedah ujikaji ke dalam pemebedahan pada kurun ke-12 &ndash; beliau yang pertama menggunakan ujian terhadap binatang bagi menguji tatacara pembedahan sebelum melakukannya ke atas manusia.<ref name=Rabie>Rabie E. Abdel-Halim (2005), "Contributions of Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) to the progress of surgery: A study and translations from his book Al-Taisir", ''Saudi Medical Journal 2005; Vol. 26 (9): 1333-1339''.</ref> He also performed the first [[dissection]]s and postmortem [[Autopsy|autopsies]] on both humans as well as animals.<ref>[http://encyclopedia.farlex.com/Islamic+medicine Islamic medicine], ''[[Hutchinson Encyclopedia]]''.</ref>

In 1242, [[Ibn Al-Nafis al-Dimashqi|Ibn al-Nafis]], yang dianggap pelopor [[Fisiologi kardiovaskular|fisiologi kardiovaskular]] <ref>Chairman's Reflections (2004), "Traditional Medicine Among Gulf Arabs, Part II: Blood-letting", ''Heart Views'' '''5''' (2), p. 74-85 [80].</ref> merupakan yang pertama menggambarkan sistem  [[edaran pulmonari]] dan [[edaran koronari]],<ref>Husain F. Nagamia (2003), "Ibn al-Nafīs: A Biographical Sketch of the Discoverer of Pulmonary and Coronary Circulation", ''Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine'' '''1''', p. 22–28.</ref> yang menjadi asas [[sistem peredaran]] (sistem darah, pembuluh darah, limfa, dan jantung yang berkaitan dengan peredaran darah dan limfa); kerana itu beliau dianggap seorang daripada ahli fisiologi terunggul dalam sejarah.<ref>[[George Sarton]] ([[cf.]] Dr. Paul Ghalioungui (1982), "The West denies Ibn Al Nafis's contribution to the discovery of the circulation", ''Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis'', Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait) <br /> ([[cf.]] [http://www.islamset.com/isc/nafis/drpaul.html The West denies Ibn Al Nafis's contribution to the discovery of the circulation], ''Encyclopedia of Islamic World'')</ref> Beliau juga menggambarkan konsep terawal berkaitan [[metabolisme]],<ref>Dr. Abu Shadi Al-Roubi (1982), "Ibn Al-Nafis as a philosopher", ''Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis'', Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait ([[cf.]] [http://www.islamset.com/isc/nafis/drroubi.html Ibn al-Nafis As a Philosopher], ''Encyclopedia of Islamic World'').</ref> dan membangunkan aturcara [[fisiologi]] dan [[psikologi]] baharu mbagi menggantikan sistem [[Ibnu Sina]] dan [[Galen]], disamping menyangkal teori mereka tentang [[humor], [[Denyutan]],<ref>Nahyan A. G. Fancy (2006), "Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (d. 1288)", p. 3 & 6, ''Electronic Theses and Dissertations'', [[University of Notre Dame]].[http://etd.nd.edu/ETD-db/theses/available/etd-11292006-152615]</ref> [[tulang]], [[otot]], [[usus]], organ [[deria]], [[hempedu]] [[Kanal (anatomi)|kanal]], [[esofagus]], [[perut]], dan lain-lain.<ref>Dr. Sulaiman Oataya (1982), "Ibn ul Nafis has dissected the human body", ''Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis'', Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait ([[cf.]] [http://www.islamset.com/isc/nafis/index.html Ibn ul-Nafis has Dissected the Human Body], ''Encyclopedia of Islamic World'').</ref> 

Ibn al-Lubudi (1210-1267 M) menolak teori Empat Humor yang disokong Galen dan [[Hippocrates]], menemukan hakikat bahawa [[tubuh]] dan pemeliharaannya bergantung secara ekslusif pada [[darah]], menolak idea Galen bahawa wanita dapat mengeluarkan [[sperma]], dan menemukan bahawa pergerakan [[arteri]] tidak bergantung pada pergerakan [[jantung]], bahawa jantung ialah oragn pertama yang terbentuk di dalam tubuh [[janin]] (dan bukannya [[otak]] seperti dikatakan Hippocrates), dan [[tulang]] yang membentuk [[tengkorak]] dapat menjadi [[tumor]].<ref>L. Leclerc (1876), ''Histoire de la medecine Arabe'', vol. 2, p. 161, [[Paris]]. <br /> ([[cf.]] Salah Zaimeche, [http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=497 The Scholars of Aleppo: Al Mahassin, Al Urdi, Al-Lubudi, Al-Halabi], Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation)</ref>

''Tashrih al-badan'' (''Anatomi tubuh badan'') karya [[Mansur ibn Ilyas]] (c. 1390 M) mengandungi rajah-rajah lengkap berkaitan sistem struktur tubuh, [[Sistem saraf|saraf]] dan peredaran darah.<ref>{{Harv|Turner|1997|pp=136—138}}</ref> Semasa berlakunya [[plag bubonik]] (''Black Death'') di [[Al-Andalus]] dalam kurun ke-14, Ibn Khatima and Ibn al-Khatib memberi hipotesis bahawa penyakit berjangkit disebabkan "entiti yang menular" yang memasuki tubuh badan manusia.<ref>Ibrahim B. Syed, Ph.D. (2002). "Islamic Medicine: 1000 years ahead of its times", ''Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine'' '''2''', p. 2-9.</ref> 

Pembaharuan-pembaharuan perubatan lain yang asalnya dengan ahli perubatan Islam termasuk penemuan [[sistem imun]], penggunaan ujian terhadap binatang, dan pemaduan perubatan dengan [[sains]]-sains lain ([[pertanian]], [[botani]], [[kimia]], dan [[farmakologi]]),<ref name=Saad/> disamping perekaan [[picagari]] [[Suntikan (perubatan)]] oleh Ammar ibn Ali al-Mawsili di [[Iraq} dalam abad kesembilan, [[farmasi]] di [[Baghdad]] (754 M), perbezaan antara perubatan dengan farmasi pada kurun ke-12, dan penemuan sekurang-kurangnya 2,000 bahan perubatan dan kimia.<ref>S. Hadzovic (1997). "Pharmacy and the great contribution of Arab-Islamic science to its development", ''Medicinski Arhiv'' '''51''' (1-2), p. 47-50.</ref>


== Formal sciences ==⏎

=== Logic ===
{{Main|Logic in Islamic philosophy}}

Early [[Islamic law]] placed importance on formulating standards of [[argument]], which gave rise to a novel approach to [[logic]] in [[Kalam]], but this approach was later influenced by ideas from [[Greek philosophy]] and [[Hellenistic philosophy]] with the rise of the [[Mu'tazili]] theologians, who highly valued [[Aristotle]]'s ''[[Organon]]''. The works of Hellenistic-influenced [[Early Islamic philosophy|Islamic philosoph(contracted; show full)[[nl:Wetenschap in de middeleeuwse islamitische wereld]]
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[[sv:Islamisk vetenskap]]
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