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Pembunuhan beramai-ramai berlaku di bawah beberapa rejim Komunis pada abad kedua puluh dengan nombor angka kematian dianggarkan antara 85 dan 100 juta.<ref name="Courtois1999Introduction">[[#Courtois1999Introduction|Courtois (1999) "Pengenalan"]] ms. X: USSR: 20 juta kematian; China: 65 juta kematian; Vietnam: 1 juta kematian; Korea Utara: 2 juta kematian; Kemboja: 2 juta kematian; Eropah Timur: 1 juta kematian; Amerika Latin: 150,000 kematian; Afrika: 1.7 juta kematian; Afghanistan: 1.5 juta kematian; pergerakan antarabangsa Komunis dan pihak Komunis tidak berkuasa: kira-kira 10,000 kematian.</ref> Biasiswa memberi tumpuan kepada punca-punca pembunuhan beramai-ramai dalam masyarakat tunggal, walaupun beberapa tuntutan daripada sebab-sebab yang sama untuk pembunuhan beramai-ramai telah dibuat. Sesetengah anggaran lebih tinggi pembunuhan beramai-ramai termasuk pembunuhan beramai-ramai bukan sahaja atau hukuman yang berlaku semasa penghapusan lawan politik, [[perang saudara]], kempen [[keganasan]], dan [[reformasi tanah]], tetapi juga hidup hilang akibat peperangan, kebuluran, penyakit, dan keletihan di kem-kem buruh. Ada ulama yang percaya bahawa dasar dan kesilapan dalam pengurusan kerajaan menyumbang kepada bencana ini, dan, berdasarkan kesimpulan yang menggabungkan semua kematian ini di bawah kategori "pembunuhan beramai-ramai", democide, politicide, "classicide", atau pembunuhan beramai-ramai longgar ditakrifkan. Menurut ulama ini, jumlah angka kematian daripada pembunuhan beramai-ramai yang ditakrifkan dalam cara ini berjumlah banyak berpuluh-puluh juta; Walau bagaimanapun, kesahihan pendekatan ini telah dipersoalkan oleh ulama lain. Sehingga 2011, konsensus akademik belum mencapai kepada punca-punca pembunuhan besar-besaran oleh negeri-negeri, termasuk dengan negeri yang ditadbir oleh komunis. Khususnya, bilangan kajian perbandingan menunjukkan sebab-sebab adalah terhad. Tol kematian tertinggi yang telah didokumenkan dalam negara komunis berlaku di [[Kesatuan Soviet]] di bawah [[Joseph Stalin]], dalam [[Republik Rakyat China]] di bawah [[Mao Zedong]], dan dalam [[Kemboja]] di bawah [[Khmer Rouge]]. Anggaran bilangan bukan pejuang-dibunuh oleh ketiga-tiga rejim pelbagai sahaja daripada serendah 21 juta kepada setinggi 70 juta.<ref name="Valentino">[[#Valentino2005FinalSolutions|Valentino (2005) ''Final solutions'']] p. 91.</ref>{{Dubious|date=February 2011}} Terdapat juga pembunuhan pada skala yang lebih kecil dalam [[Korea Utara]], [[Vietnam]], dan beberapa negara-negara Eropah dan Afrika Timur.

== Istilah ==
{{Penindasan di Kesatuan Soviet}}
'''Rejim Komunis''' "Rejim Komunis" merujuk kepada negara-negara yang mengisytiharkan diri mereka sebagai negara sosialis di bawah Marxsis-Leninis, Stalinis, atau definisi Mao (dalam erti kata lain, "[[negara komunis]]") di satu ketika dalam sejarah mereka.

Ulama menggunakan beberapa istilah yang berbeza untuk menggambarkan pembunuhan sengaja nombor besar yang bukan askar.<ref>[[#Valentino2005FinalSolutions|Valentino (2005) ''Final solutions'']] ms. 9: "Pembunuhan beramai-ramai dan Genosid. Tiada istilah yang diterima umum wujud untuk menggambarkan pembunuhan sengaja nombor besar yang bukan askar."</ref><ref name="wheat_scale"/> Berikut telah digunakan untuk menggambarkan membunuh oleh kerajaan Komunis:
*'''Pembunuhan beramai-ramai''' — di bawah [[Konvensyen Pembunuhan]], [[Pembunuhan beramai-ramai#Pembunuhan beramai-ramai sebagai satu jenayah|jenayah pembunuhan beramai-ramai]] tidak terpakai kepada pembunuhan beramai-ramai kumpulan politik dan sosial. Perlindungan daripada kumpulan politik telah disingkirkan daripada resolusi PBB selepas undi kedua, kerana banyak negara, termasuk Kesatuan Soviet Stalin,<ref>[[#Jones2010Genocide|Jones (2010) ''Genocide'']] ms. 137.</ref> dijangka fasal yang memohon batasan yang tidak diperlukan untuk hak mereka untuk menyekat gangguan dalaman.<ref>Beth van Schaack. The Crime of Political Genocide: Repairing the Genocide Convention's Blind Spot. ''The Yale Law Journal'', Vol. 106, No. 7 (May 1997), pp. 2259–2291</ref>
*'''Politicide''' — istilah "[[politicide]]" digunakan untuk menggambarkan pembunuhan kumpulan politik atau ekonomi yang sebaliknya akan dilindungi oleh Konvensyen Genosid.<ref name="harffgurr">{{Cite journal|last=Harff|first=Barbara|first2=Ted R.|year=1988|title=Toward Empirical Theory of Genocides and Politicides: Identification and Measurement of Cases since 1945|volume=32|pages=359–371|journal=}}</ref> Manus I. Midlarsky menggunakan istilah "politicide" untuk menggambarkan lengkok pembunuhan beramai-ramai dari bahagian barat Kesatuan Soviet ke China dan Kemboja <ref>[[#Midlarsky2005Killingtrap|''Perangkap pembunuhan'' Midlarsky (2005)]]. ms. 310: "Sesungguhnya, lengkok politicide Komunis dapat dikesan dari bahagian barat Kesatuan Soviet ke China dan ke Kemboja."</ref> Dalam bukunya ''Perangkap pembunuhan: pembunuhan beramai-ramai pada abad kedua puluh '' Midlarsky menimbulkan persamaan antara pembunuhan Stalin dan [[Pol Pot]].<ref>[[#Midlarsky2005Killingtrap|Midlarsky (2005) ''Killing trap'']] ms.321.</ref>
*'''Democide''' — [[R. J. Rummel]] mencipta istilah "[[democide]]", termasuk pembunuhan beramai-ramai, politicide, dan [[pembunuhan beramai-ramai]].<ref name=Totten>{{cite book|last=Totten|first=Samuel|title=Dictionary of Genocide: A-L|year=2008|publisher=Greenwood|isbn=978-0-313-34642-2|pages=106}}</ref>  [[Helen Fein]] telah diistilahkan sebagai pembunuhan beramai-ramai di negara Kesatuan Soviet dan Kemboja sebagai "pembunuhan beramai-ramai dan democide."<ref>{{Cite book|title= Genocide: a sociological perspective; Contextual and Comparative Studies I: Ideological Genocides; |last=Fein |first=Helen |authorlink=Helen Fein |year=1993 |publisher=[[Sage Publications]] |location= |isbn=978-0-8039-8829-3 |page=75 |pages= |url= |chapter=Soviet and Communist genocides and 'Democide'|chapterurl=http://books.google.com/books?id=n4TaAAAAMAAJ&q=%22Soviet+and+Communist+Genocides%22&dq=%22Soviet+and+Communist+Genocides%22|accessdate=}}</ref> Frank Wayman dan Atsushi Tago telah menunjukkan kepentingan dalam istilah yang, bergantung kepada penggunaan [[democide]] (umum pembunuhan yang ditaja oleh kerajaan) atau [[politicide]] (menghapuskan kumpulan-kumpulan yang menentang politik) sebagai kriteria untuk dimasukkan dalam data-set, analisis statistik yang mahu mewujudkan sambungan antara pembunuhan beramai-ramai boleh menghasilkan keputusan yang sangat berbeza, termasuk kepentingan atau sebaliknya jenis rejim.{{Page needed|date=July 2010}}<ref name="Tago">{{Cite journal|first1=FW|last1=Wayman|first2=A|last2=Tago|title=Explaining the onset of mass killing, 1949–87|journal=Journal of Peace Research Online|year=2009|pages=1–17}}</ref>
*'''Crime against humanity''' — Jacques Semelin dan [[Michael Mann (pakar sosiologi)|Michael Mann]]<ref>[[#Semelin2009PurifyandDestroy|Semelin (2009) ''Purify and Destroy'']] p. 344.</ref> percaya bahawa "[[jenayah terhadap kemanusiaan]]" adalah lebih sesuai daripada "pembunuhan beramai-ramai" atau "politicide" apabila bercakap mengenai keganasan oleh rejim Komunis.<ref>[[#Semelin2009PurifyandDestroy|Semelin (2009) ''Purify and Destroy'']] p. 318.</ref>
*'''Classicide''' — Michael Mann telah mencadangkan "classicide" jangka bermaksud "bertujuan pembunuhan besar-besaran seluruh kelas sosial".<ref>[[#Mann2005DarkSideofDemocracy|Mann (2005) ''Dark Side of Democracy'']] ms. 17.</ref>
*'''Terror''' — Stephen Wheatcroft mencatatkan bahawa, dalam kes Kesatuan Soviet, istilah seperti "keganasan", "yang melakukan pembersihan dalaman", dan "penindasan" (kedua kebanyakannya bersama-sama Rusia) colloquially merujuk kepada peristiwa yang sama dan dia percaya yang paling neutral syarat-syaratnya "penindasan" dan "pembunuhan beramai-ramai".<ref name="wheat_scale">Stephen Wheatcroft. The Scale and Nature of German and Soviet Repression and Mass Killings, 1930–45. ''Europe-Asia Studies'', Vol. 48, No. 8 (Dec. 1996), pp. 1319–1353</ref>
*'''Mass killing''' — stilah ini telah ditakrifkan oleh Benjamin Valentino sebagai "pembunuhan yang sengaja beberapa besar yang bukan askar", di mana "nombor besar" ditakrifkan sebagai sekurang-kurangnya 50,000 kematian sengaja sepanjang lima tahun atau kurang.<ref>Benjamin Valentino, Paul Huth, Dylan Bach-Lindsay, (2004), "Draining the Sea: mass killing and guerrilla warfare," ''International Organization'' 58,2 (375–407): p. 387.</ref> Dia memohon definisi ini kepada kes USSR Stalin, yang [[Republik Rakyat China | China]] di bawah Mao, dan Kemboja di bawah pemerintahan Khmer Rouge, sementara mengakui bahawa pembunuhan beramai-ramai pada skala yang lebih kecil juga nampaknya telah dilakukan oleh rejim dalam [[Korea Utara]], [[Vietnam]], [[Eropah Timur]], dan [[Afrika]].<ref>[[#Valentino2005FinalSolutions|Valentino (2005) ''Final solutions'']] p. 91</ref>
[[File:Red Holocaust (Jimmy Fell).JPG|thumb|''Holokus Merah'' − longgokan kecil batu padat, memperingati mangsa komunisme, seperti peringatan pertama di Jerman (Jimmy Fell, 2011)]]
*'''Holokus Komunis''' —  [[Amerika Syarikat Kongres]] telah merujuk kepada pembunuhan beramai-ramai secara kolektif sebagai "empayar holocaust komunis belum pernah terjadi sebelumnya"<ref>Congress (US), (1993), [http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/BILLS-103hr3000enr/pdf/BILLS-103hr3000enr.pdf ''Friendship Act'' (HR3000)] p. 15, s. 905a1.</ref><ref name="Rauch">{{Cite news| last1 = Rauch | first1 = Jonathan | title = The Forgotten Millions: Communism is the deadliest fantasy in human history (but does anyone care?) | newspaper = The Atlantic Monthly |date = December 2003| url = http://www.theatlantic.com/past/issues/2003/12/rauch.htm | accessdate = April 24, 2010 | postscript = <!--None--> }}</ref> manakala [[Mangsa Komunisme Memorial Foundation]] yang ditubuhkan oleh Kongres Amerika Syarikat untuk merujuk perkara ini sebagai "holocaust Komunis".<ref>Victims of Communism Memorial Foundation, (n.d.), "[http://www.victimsofcommunism.org/history_communism.php History of Communism]," online: Victims of Communism Memorial Foundation, §"A Moral Blind Spot".</ref> Istilah "Holokus Merah" telah digunakan oleh ahli sejarah Jerman [[Horst Möller]]; [[Steven Rosefielde]] telah menerbitkan sebuah buku mengenai subjek ini berjudul ''[[Holokus Merah (buku tahun 2009)|Holokus Merah]] ''.<ref name="Rosefielde">[[#Rosefielde2009RedHolocaust|Rosefielde (2009) ''Red Holocaust'']]</ref><ref name="Moeller">{{Cite book|title= Der rote Holocaust und die Deutschen. Die Debatte um das 'Schwarzbuch des Kommunismus' |trans_title = The red Holocaust and the Germans. The debates on the 'Black Book of Communism' |last= Möller |first= Horst |authorlink= Horst Möller |year= 1999 |publisher= [[Piper Verlag]] |location= |isbn= 978-3-492-04119-5 |page= |pages= |url= |accessdate=}}</ref>

==Cadangan punca== 

===Ideologi=== 
Teori, seperti yang terdapat di RJ Rummel, yang mencadangkan komunisme sebagai faktor penyebab penting dalam pembunuhan beramai-ramai telah menarik pertikaian ilmiah;<ref name="harff">
{{Cite journal
 |first=Barbara
 |last=Harff
 |title=Death by Government
 |publisher=MIT Press Journals
 |journal=The Journal of Interdisciplinary History
 |date=Summer 1996
}}
</ref> rencana ini tidak membincangkan penerimaan akademik teori tersebut.

Klas-Göran Karlsson menulis bahawa "Ideologi-ideologi adalah sistem idea, yang tidak boleh melakukan jenayah secara bebas. Walau bagaimanapun, individu, kolektif dan negeri-negeri yang telah ditakrifkan diri mereka sebagai komunis telah melakukan jenayah atas nama ideologi komunis, atau tanpa menamakan komunisme sebagai sumber langsung motivasi bagi jenayah mereka."<ref>{{Cite book
  | last =Karlsson  | first =Klas-Göran | authorlink =
  | author2 =Schoenhals, Michael 
  | title =Crimes against humanity under communist regimes – Research review
  | publisher =Forum for Living History
  | year =2008  | location =  | pages =111
  | url =http://www.levandehistoria.se/files/forskningsinventering_EN.pdf
  | doi =   | isbn =978-91-977487-2-8}}</ref>

Menurut [[Rudolph Yusuf Rummel]], pembunuhan dilakukan oleh rejim komunis dapat dijelaskan dengan perkahwinan di antara kuasa mutlak dan ideologi mutlak - [[Marxsisme]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Pioneers of genocide studies |last=Totten |first=Samuel |authorlink= |author2=Steven L. Jacobs |year=2002 |publisher=Transaction Publishers |location= |isbn=0-7658-0151-5 |page=168 |pages= |url=http://books.google.com/?id=g26NmNNWK1QC&pg=PA168&dq |accessdate=}}</ref>

"Daripada semua agama, sekular dan sebaliknya," Rummel kedudukan Marxsisme sebagai "setakat ini yang paling berdarah - lebih bertumpahan darah daripada [[Pasitan Katolik]], pelbagai Perang Salib Katolik, dan [[Perang Tiga Puluh Tahun]] antara Katolik dan Protestan.  Dalam amalan, Marxsisme bermakna keganasan berdarah, melakukan pembersihan dalaman yang boleh membawa maut, kem penjara maut dan kerja paksa pembunuhan, pengusiran maut, kebuluran buatan manusia, hukuman luar undang-undang dan ujian menunjukkan penipuan, pembunuhan beramai-ramai secara terang-terangan dan pembunuhan beramai-ramai."<ref name = "Killing Machine">{{Cite web|last1=Rummel|first1=RJ|url=http://www.wnd.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=41944|title=The killing machine that is Marxism|publisher=[[WorldNetDaily]]|date=December 15, 2004|accessdate=May 19, 2010}}</ref> Beliau menulis bahawa dalam amalan Marxsis melihat pembinaan utopia mereka sebagai "perang terhadap kemiskinan, eksploitasi, imperialisme dan ketidaksamaan - dan, seperti dalam perang sebenar, bukan askar akan malangnya terperangkap dalam pertempuran Tidak akan korban musuh yang diperlukan:. golongan ulama, borjuasi, kapitalis, 'Wreckers', intelektual, counterrevolutionaries, golongan kanan, zalim, yang kaya dan tuan-tuan tanah. seperti dalam peperangan, berjuta-juta akan mati, tetapi kematian ini akan dibenarkan oleh akhirnya, seperti dalam kekalahan Hitler dalam Perang dunia II. untuk Marxsis memerintah, matlamat utopia komunis sudah cukup untuk mewajarkan sebarang kematian."<ref name = "Killing Machine"/>

Dalam bukunya [[Holokus Merah (buku tahun 2009)|''Holokus Merah'']], [[Steven Rosefielde]] berhujah bahawa percanggahan dalaman komunisme "disebabkan untuk dibunuh" kira-kira 60 juta orang dan mungkin puluhan juta lebih, dan yang ini "Red Holocaust" - pembunuhan beramai-ramai masa aman dan jenayah lain yang berkaitan terhadap kemanusiaan yang dilakukan oleh pemimpin-pemimpin Komunis seperti [[Joseph Stalin]], [[Kim Il Sung]], [[Mao Zedong]], [[Ho Chi Minh ]] dan [[Pol Pot]] - perlu menjadi pusat dari mana-mana penilaian bersih komunisme. Dia menyatakan bahawa pemimpin yang dinyatakan di atas adalah "secara kolektif melakukan berskala holocaust kes pembunuhan kejam."<ref>[[#Rosefielde2009RedHolocaust|Rosefielde (2009) ''Red Holocaust'']] pp. 1, 7.</ref>

[[Robert Penaklukan]] menegaskan bahawa Stalin melakukan pembersihan dalaman tidak bertentangan dengan prinsip-prinsip [[Leninisme]], tetapi sebaliknya lahir dari sistem yang ditubuhkan oleh [[Vladimir] Lenin], yang secara peribadi mengarahkan pembunuhan kumpulan tempatan kelas tebusan musuh.<ref>[[#Conquest2007GreatTerror|Conquest (2007) ''Great Terror'']] p. xxiii.</ref> [[Alexander Nikolaevich Yakovlev | Alexander Yakovlev]], arkitek [[perestroika]] dan [[glasnost]] dan kepala kemudian Suruhanjaya Presiden bagi Mangsa Penindasan Politik, menjelaskan mengenai hal ini, yang menyatakan bahawa "Yang benar adalah bahawa dalam operasi punitif Stalin tidak memikirkan apa-apa yang tidak ada di bawah Lenin: hukuman mati, penyanderaan, kem-kem tahanan, dan semua yang lain."<ref>[[#Yakovlev2002CenturyofViolence|Yakovlev (2002) ''Century of Violence'']] p. 20.</ref> Sejarawan [[Robert Gellately]] bersetuju, berkata: "Dalam erti kata lain, Stalin dimulakan sangat kecil yang Lenin telah belum diperkenalkan atau dipratonton."<ref>{{Cite web|first1=Barry|last1=Ray|url=http://www.fsu.edu/news/2007/09/11/gellately.book/|title=FSU professor's 'Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler' sheds new light on three of the 20th century's bloodiest rulers|publisher=[[Florida State University]]|year=2007}}</ref> Lenin berkata kepada rakan-rakannya dalam kerajaan Bolshevik: "Jika kita tidak bersedia untuk menembak penyabot dan White Guardist, apakah jenis revolusi itu?"<ref>{{Cite book|first1=Sheila|last1=Fitzpatrick|title=The Russian Revolution|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=2008|isbn=0-19-923767-0|page=77}}</ref>

[[Anne Applebaum]] menegaskan bahawa, "tanpa pengecualian, kepercayaan Leninis dalam [[satu parti negeri]] adalah dan merupakan ciri setiap rejim komunis," dan "[[Bolshevik]] Penggunaan keganasan diulangi dalam setiap revolusi Komunis. "Ungkapan-ungkapan yang dikatakan oleh Lenin dan [[Cheka]] pengasas [[Felix Dzerzhinsky]] telah dikerahkan di seluruh dunia. Beliau menyatakan bahawa selewat 1976, [[Mengistu Haile Mariam]] melepaskan "[[Keganasan Merah (Ethiopia)|Keganasan Merah]]" di Ethiopia.<ref>{{Cite book|author=[[Anne Applebaum|Applebaum, Anne]] (foreword) dan [[Paul Hollander|Hollander, Paul]] ([http://www.isi.org/books/content/384intro.pdf introduction] dan editor)|year=2006|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=zyaDAAAAMAAJ&dq=isbn=1932236783|title=From the Gulag to the Killing Fields: Personal Accounts of Political Violence and Repression in Communist States|publisher=Intercollegiate Studies Institute|isbn=1-932236-78-3|page=xiv}}</ref>

Dalam ''The Lost Sastera Sosialisme'', sejarawan sastera [[George G. Watson]] melihat sosialisme sebagai konservatif, reaksi terhadap liberalisme dan usaha untuk kembali ke zaman kuno dan hierarki. Dia menyatakan bahawa tulisan-tulisan [[Friedrich Engels]] dan lain-lain menunjukkan bahawa "teori Marxsis mengenai sejarah dikehendaki dan menuntut pembunuhan beramai-ramai atas sebab-sebab yang tersirat dalam tuntutan bahawa feudalisme, yang di negara-negara maju telah pun memberi tempat kepada kapitalisme, mesti dalam gilirannya digantikan oleh sosialisme. Seluruh negara akan ketinggalan selepas revolusi pekerja, sisa-sisa feudal pada zaman sosialis, dan kerana mereka tidak boleh maju dua langkah pada satu masa, mereka perlu dibunuh. mereka sampah kaum, seperti yang Engels memanggil mereka, dan sesuai hanya bagi tahi-timbunan sejarah."<ref name="Watson1998Lost_77">{{Cite book|first=George|last=Watson|title=The Lost Literature of Socialism|publisher=Lutterworth press|url=http://books.google.com/?id=F3EmtyNuKfQC&pg=PA77|year=1998|isbn=978-0-7188-2986-5|page=77}}</ref> Tuntutan Watson telah dikritik oleh Robert Geran untuk "bukti yang meragukan", dengan alasan bahawa "apa yang Marx dan Engels sedang panggil adalah&nbsp;... sekurang-kurangnya sejenis pembunuhan beramai-ramai budaya, tetapi ia tidak jelas, sekurang-kurangnya dari petikan Watson, bahawa pembunuhan beramai-ramai sebenar, bukannya (menggunakan rangkai kata mereka) semata-mata 'penyerapan' atau 'asimilasi', dipersoalkan."<ref name="Grant1999Review">{{Cite journal| first=Robert |last=Grant |title=Review: The Lost Literature of Socialism |journal=The Review of English Studies | publisher=New Series |volume=50 |issue=200 |date=November 1999 |pages=557–559 }}</ref>

[[Daniel Goldhagen]],<ref>[[#Goldhagen2009WorsethanWar|Goldhagen (2009) ''Worse than War'']] ms. 206.</ref> [[Richard Pipes]],<ref>[[#Pipes2001Communism|Pipes (2001) ''Communism'']] p. 147.</ref> dan [[John N. Gray]]<ref name="Gray">{{Cite book|last=Gray|first=John|title=Totalitarianism at the crossroads|chapter=Totalitarianism, civil society and reform|editor=Ellen Frankel Paul|publisher=Transaction Publisher|year=1990|page=116|isbn=978-0-88738-850-7}}</ref> telah menulis mengenai teori-teori mengenai peranan komunis dalam buku-buku untuk khalayak yang popular.

===Keadaan krisis===
Eric D. Weitz mengatakan bahawa pembunuhan beramai-ramai di negara komunis adalah lahir dari kegagalan kedaulatan undang-undang, dilihat biasa semasa tempoh pergolakan sosial dalam abad ke-20. Bagi kedua-dua pembunuhan beramai-ramai komunis dan bukan komunis, "genocides berlaku di saat-saat krisis sosial yang melampau, sering dihasilkan oleh dasar sangat rejim."<ref name="Weitz, 251–252">{{Cite book
  | last =Weitz  | first =Eric D.  | title =A century of genocide: utopias of race and nation
  | publisher =Princeton University Press  | year =2003  | pages =251–252
  | url =http://books.google.com/?id=lg1rlqM9nRMC  | doi =  | isbn =978-0-691-00913-1  | id =ISBN 0-691-00913-9 }}</ref>  They are not inevitable but are political decisions.<ref name="Weitz, 251–252"/>

[[Stephen Hicks]] dari [[Rockford College]] mempersekutukan ciri keganasan peraturan [[Sosialisme|sosialis]] abad kedua puluh untuk meninggalkan rejim-rejim kolektivis 'perlindungan daripada [[hak-hak sivil]] dan penolakan nilai-nilai [[masyarakat awam]]. Hicks menulis bahawa manakala "dalam amalan setiap negara kapitalis liberal mempunyai rekod yang kukuh untuk menjadi manusiawi, oleh dan besar menghormati hak-hak dan kebebasan, dan untuk menjadikan ia mungkin bagi orang ramai untuk meletakkan bersama-sama kehidupan berhasil dan bermakna", dalam sosialisme "amalan mempunyai masa dan sekali lagi membuktikan dirinya lebih kejam daripada pemerintahan diktator paling teruk sebelum abad kedua puluh. Setiap rejim sosialis telah runtuh ke dalam pemerintahan diktator dan mula membunuh orang dalam skala yang besar."<ref name="SRC Hicks">{{Cite book|last=Hicks|first=Stephen R. C.|title=Explaining Postmodernism: Skepticism and Socialism from Rousseau to Foucault|publisher=Scholarly Publishing|year=2009|pages=87–88|isbn=1-59247-646-5|id=ISBN 1-59247-642-2}}</ref>

[[Buku Hitam Komunisme]], satu set esei akademik pada pembunuhan beramai-ramai di bawah rejim Komunis, butiran "'jenayah, keganasan dan penindasan' dari Rusia pada tahun 1917 ke Afghanistan pada tahun 1989".<ref>[[#Courtois1999Introduction|Courtois (1999) "Introduction"]] p. x. {{Failed verification|date=June 2011}}<!--10? citation suggests no Latin page numbers--></ref>{{Failed verification|date=June 2011}}<ref name="Courtois1999Conclusion">{{Cite book|first1=Stéphane|last1=Courtois|chapter=Conclusion: Why?|editor1-first=Stéphane|editor1-last=Courtois|editor2-first=Mark|editor2-last=Kramer|title=The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=1999|pages=727–758|isbn=0-674-07608-7}} at p. 727.</ref> Courtois mendakwa kaitan antara komunisme dan kegiatan jenayah—"rejim Komunis & nbsp;... bertukar jenayah besar-besaran ke dalam sistem besar-besaran kerajaan"<ref>[[#Courtois1999Introduction|Courtois (1999) "Introduction"]] p. 4.</ref>—and says that this criminality lies at the level of ideology rather than state practice.<ref>[[#Courtois1999Introduction|Courtois (1999) "Introduction"]] ms. 2.</ref>

Benjamin Valentino menulis bahawa pembunuhan beramai-ramai strategi yang dipilih oleh Komunis untuk menduduki ekonomi ramai orang.<ref>[[#Valentino2005|Valentino (2005) ''Final solutions'']] pp. 34–37.</ref> "Transformasi Sosial kelajuan ini dan magnitud telah dikaitkan dengan pembunuhan beramai-ramai kerana dua sebab utama. Pertama, kehelan sosial besar-besaran yang dihasilkan oleh perubahan tersebut sering membawa kepada keruntuhan ekonomi, wabak penyakit, dan yang paling penting, dengan kelaparan yang meluas. Para ... sebab kedua bahawa rejim-rejim komunis bertekad transformasi radikal masyarakat telah dikaitkan dengan pembunuhan beramai-ramai adalah bahawa perubahan revolusioner mereka telah mengejar telah bertempur dengan begitu dengan kepentingan asas segmen besar penduduk mereka. Tidak ramai yang telah terbukti sanggup menerima far- seperti mencapai pengorbanan tanpa peringkat sengit daripada coersion."<ref>[[#Valentino2005FinalSolutions|Valentino (2005) ''Final solutions'']] pp. 93–94.</ref>

Michael Mann menulis: "Kadar kematian terbesar Komunis tidak dimaksudkan tetapi akibat kesilapan dasar gergasi lagi dengan berpuak-puak, dan juga agak dengan pandangan tidak berhati perut atau berdendam mangsa."<ref>[[#Mann2005DarkSideofDemocracy|Mann (2005) ''Dark Side of Democracy'']] ms. 351.</ref>

Menurut Jacques Semelin, "sistem komunis baru muncul pada abad kedua puluh akhirnya memusnahkan penduduk mereka sendiri, bukan kerana mereka merancang untuk menghapuskan mereka seperti, tetapi kerana mereka bertujuan untuk menyusun semula 'badan sosial' dari atas ke bawah, walaupun itu bermakna penyingkiran dan recarving ia sesuai dengan Promethean politik ''imaginaire'' baru mereka."<ref>[[#Semelin2009PurifyandDestroy|Semelin (2009) ''Purify and Destroy']]' ms. 331.</ref>

===Tuntutan lain===

====Pengaruh budaya kebangsaan====
[[Martin Malia]] dipanggil [[exceptionalism]] Rusia dan sebab umum [[Perang Dunia Pertama|Perang Pengalaman]] bagi kekejaman.<ref name="Malia1999Uses">Martin Malia "Foreword: Uses of Atrocity" in ''[[#Courtois1999BlackBook|The Black Book]]'' pp. xvii–xviii.</ref>

====Nilai-nilai sekular====
Beberapa penyokong standard tradisional etika dan kepercayaan agama berhujah bahawa pembunuhan sekurang-kurangnya sebahagiannya hasil daripada kelemahan iman dan Menjayakan daripada nilai radikal daripada [[Pencerahan Eropah]] ke atas dunia moden. Memerhatikan jenis ini trend dalam biasiswa kritikal, [[Universiti Oklahoma]] saintis politik Allen D. Hertzke Zum masuk pada idea-idea penulis Katolik British dan ahli sejarah [[Paul Johnson (penulis)|Paul Johnson]] dan menulis bahawa {{cquote|Anjakan dalam angin intelektual telah datang daripada kritikan terhadap kegagalan dilihat dan penutup mata projek sekular. Yang pasti, kritikan ini tidak universal dikongsi, tetapi biasiswa yang luas, bersama-sama dengan pelbagai membiak jurnal pendapat dan pemikir simposium, katalog kesan daripada pengabaian sauh masyarakat transenden. Epitomizing pemikiran ini adalah buku dgn hakim Paul Johnson '' Times Moden '', yang menyerang Pencerahan anggapan umum bahawa '' kurang '' kepercayaan agama semestinya sama dengan '' lebih '' kebebasan manusia atau demokrasi. Keruntuhan dorongan agama di kalangan kelas yang mendapat pendidikan di Eropah pada awal abad kedua puluh, dia memperdebatkan, meninggalkan vakum yang dipenuhi oleh ahli-ahli politik memegang tampuk kuasa di bawah panji-panji ideologi totalitarian {{ndash jarak}} sama ada '[[darah dan tanah]] [[Fasisme]] atau [[ateis]] [[Komunisme]]. Oleh itu usaha untuk hidup tanpa [[Tuhan]] membuat berhala politik dan menghasilkan 'negarawan samseng' di abad ini{{spaced ndash}}Stalin, Hitler, Mao, Pol Pot{{spaced ndash}}'selera unappeasable untuk mengawal umat manusia' yang melepaskan kengerian yang tidak dapat dibayangkan. Atau sebagai [[T.S. Eliot]] katakan, 'Jika anda tidak akan mempunyai Tuhan (dan dia adalah Allah yang cemburu) anda perlu memberi penghormatan anda kepada Hitler atau Stalin.'<ref name = "Hertzke 2006, p. 24">{{Cite book|last1=Hertzke|first=Allen D.|year=2006|location=Lanham, Maryland|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|url=http://books.google.com/?id=EkIvbxefBNsC&pg=PA24&dq=Stalin+Mao+Pol+Pot&q=unappeasable%20appetite%20for%20controlling%20mankind|page=24|isbn=978-0-7425-4732-2|work=Freeing God's Children: The Unlikely Alliance for Global Human Rights|title=Freeing God's Children: The Unlikely Alliance for Global Human Rights}}</ref>}}

====Tanggungjawab peribadi====
Cendekiawan [[Sejarah Rusia|Rusia]] dan [[sejarah dunia]] John M. Thompson menerangkan sistem keganasan dibangunkan pada masa Stalin sebagai "membingungkan"; pengukuran sejarah Rusia, dia menempatkan kemuncak pembunuhan di Kesatuan Soviet pada tahun 1930-an sebagai fungsi pkeperibadian pemimpin Soviet Joseph Stalin{{spaced ndash}}khususnya bertanding yang {{cquote|Percubaan untuk menjelaskan tempoh ini mimpi buruk sebagai penyatuan dan membentuk semula kuasa Stalin, atau pembersihan parti sebagai komponen berkembang sistem Stalinis entah bagaimana mengamuk, atau sebagai usaha Stalin dgn tdk ramah dikira untuk bersedia negara ini untuk peperangan dan memastikan bahawa dia akan mempunyai kebebasan dalam dasar luar adalah, secara tunggal atau diambil bersama-sama, semata-mata tidak meyakinkan. Sejak Stalin memusnahkan kedua-dua rekod dan kebanyakan pegawai-pegawai tinggi yang terlibat, kita akan mungkin tidak pernah tahu dengan tepat apa yang membawa kepada pembersihan dan keganasan. Pertimbangan yang rasional dan dasar sudah pasti ada, tetapi apa-apa penjelasan yang meyakinkan dalam era ini mesti mengambil kira personaliti Stalin dan berlainan. Banyak daripada apa yang berlaku hanya masuk akal jika ia berpunca sebahagiannya daripada mentaliti yang terganggu, kekejaman patologi, dan paranoia melampau Stalin sendiri. Tidak selamat, walaupun telah menubuhkan pemerintahan diktator ke atas parti dan negara, bermusuhan dan pertahanan apabila berdepan dengan kritikan daripada keterlaluan dalam kolektipisasi dan pengorbanan yang tinggi yang dikehendaki oleh-tempo perindustrian, dan amat mencurigakan yang lalu, sekarang, dan masa depan walaupun lawan yang tidak dikenali adalah berkomplot terhadapnya, Stalin mula bertindak sebagai seorang yang dibayangi. Beliau tidak lama lagi melanda kembali pada musuh, sebenar atau khayalan.<ref name = "John H. Thompson 2008, 254–255">{{Cite book|last1=Thompson|first1=John H.|year=2008|title=Russia and the Soviet Union: An Historical Introduction from the Kievan State to the Present|edition=6|location=New Haven, Connecticut|publisher=Westview Press|url=http://books.google.com/?id=hlNlhPf2fwcC&pg=PA255&dq=Stalin+pathological+murderer&q=Attempts%20to%20explain%20this%20nightmarish|pages=254–255|isbn=978-0-8133-4395-2}}</ref>}}

Sejarawan [[Helen Rappaport]] menerangkan [[Nikolay Yezhov]], birokrat yang menjaga daripada NKVD sepanjang Great Purge, sebagai tokoh pengecil fizikal daripada "perisikan terhad" dan "kefahaman politik sempit.... Seperti instigators lain pembunuhan beramai-ramai sepanjang sejarah, [dia] pampasan bagi kekurangan perawakan fizikal dengan kekejaman patologi dan penggunaan keganasan kasar."<ref name = "Rappaport 1999">{{Cite book|last1=Rappaport|first1=Helen|year=1999|title=Joseph Stalin: A Biographical Companion|location=Santa Barbara, California|publisher= ABL-CLIO|pages=82–83|isbn=978-1-57607-208-0}}</ref>

==Perbandingan untuk pembunuhan beramai-ramai yang lain==
[[Daniel Goldhagen]] berhujah bahawa rejim Komunis abad ke-20 "telah membunuh lebih ramai orang daripada apa-apa jenis rejim lain."<ref>[[#Goldhagen2009WorsethanWar|Goldhagen (2009) ''Worse than War'']] ms. 54: "...dalam rejim-rejim komunis abad yang lalu, membawa dan diilhamkan oleh Kesatuan Soviet dan China, telah membunuh lebih ramai orang daripada apa-apa jenis rejim lain."</ref> Cendekiawan lain dalam bidang pengajian Komunis dan kajian pembunuhan beramai-ramai, seperti [[Steven Rosefielde]], Benjamin Valentino, dan [[RJ Rummel]], telah datang kepada kesimpulan yang sama.<ref name="Valentino" /><ref name = "Killing Machine"/><ref name="Rosefield2009RedHolocaust225–226">[[#Rosefielde2009RedHolocaust|Rosefielde (2009) ''Red Holocaust'']] pp. 225–226.</ref> Rosefielde menyatakan bahawa ia adalah mungkin "Red Holocaust" membunuh lebih ramai bukan-pejuang daripada "[[Holokus|Ha Shoah]]" dan "[[Jenayah perang Jepun|holokus Asia Jepun]]" digabungkan, dan "adalah sekurang-kurangnya sama kejam, memandangkan ''ketunggalan'' pembunuhan beramai-ramai Hitler. "Rosefielde juga menyatakan bahawa "semasa ia adalah bergaya untuk mengurangkan Holokus Merah dengan memerhatikan bahawa [[kapitalisme]] membunuh berjuta-juta penjajah pada abad kedua puluh, terutamanya melalui kebuluran buatan manusia, tiada inventori seperti kes pembunuhan kejam cuai yang hampir sama dengan jumlah Holokus Merah. "<ref name="Rosefield2009RedHolocaust225–226" />

==Negeri di mana pembunuhan beramai-ramai telah berlaku==

=== Kesatuan Soviet ===
[[File:Memorial Moscow(5).jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|Sign for the [[Solovetsky Stone|Memorial about Repression in USSR]] at [[Lubyanka Square]]. The memorial was erected by the human rights group [[Memorial (society)|Memorial]] in the USSR in 1990 in remembrance of the more than 40,000 innocent people shot in Moscow during the "years of terror".]]
After the Soviet Union dissolved, evidence from the Soviet archives became available, containing official records of the execution of approximately 800,000 prisoners under Stalin for either political or criminal offenses, around 1.7 million deaths in the [[Gulag]]s and some 390,000 deaths during kulak [[Forced settlements in the Soviet Union|forced resettlement]]{{spaced ndash}} for a total of about 3 million officially recorded victims in these categories.<ref>Stephen G. Wheatcroft, "Victims of Stalinism and the Soviet Secret Police: The Comparability and Reliability of the Archival Data. Not the Last Word", Source: Europe-Asia Studies, Vol. 51, No. 2 (Mar. 1999), pp. 315–345, gives the following numbers: During 1921–53, the number of sentences was (political convictions): sentences, 4,060,306; death penalties, 799,473; camps and prisons, 2,634397; exile, 413,512; other, 215,942. In addition, during 1937–52 there were 14,269,753 non-political sentences, among them 34,228 death penalties, 2,066,637 sentences for 0–1 year, 4,362,973 for 2–5 years, 1,611,293 for 6–10 years, and 286,795 for more than 10 years. Other sentences were non-custodial.</ref>

Estimates on the number of deaths brought about by Stalin's rule are hotly debated by scholars in the field of [[Soviet and Communist studies|Soviet and communist studies]].<ref>[[John Earl Haynes]] and [[Harvey Klehr]]. ''In Denial: Historians, Communism, and Espionage.'' [[Encounter Books]], 2003. ISBN 1-893554-72-4. pp. 14–27</ref><ref>John Keep. [http://chs.revues.org/index1014.html Recent Writing on Stalin's Gulag: An Overview]. 1997</ref> The published results vary depending on the time when the estimate was made, on the criteria and methods used for the estimates, and sources available for estimates. Some historians attempt to make separate estimates for different periods of the Soviet history, with casualties for the [[Stalinist]] period varying from 8 to 61 million.<ref name="blackbook">{{cite book | title=Livre Noir Du Communisme: Crimes, Terreur, Répression | publisher=Harvard University Press | author=Courtois, Stéphane | author2=Kramer, Mark| year=1999 | pages=4 | isbn=0-674-07608-7}}</ref><ref name="NoveStalin">Nove, Alec. ''Victims of Stalinism: How Many?'', in ''Stalinist Terror: New Perspectives'' (edited by [[J. Arch Getty]] and Roberta T. Manning), [[Cambridge University Press]], 1993. pp. 260-274. ISBN 0-521-44670-8.</ref><ref name="dbg">{{cite book | title=Death by Government | publisher=Transaction Publishers | author=R. J. Rummel | authorlink=R. J. Rummel | year=1997 | pages=10, 15, 25 | isbn=1-56000-927-6}}</ref> Several scholars, among them Stalin biographer [[Simon Sebag Montefiore]], former [[Politburo]] member [[Alexander Nikolaevich Yakovlev]] and the director of [[Yale]]'s "Annals of Communism" series Jonathan Brent, put the death toll at about 20 million.<ref>[[#Montefiore2005CourtoftheRedTsar|Montefiore (2005) ''Court of the Red Tsar'']] p. 649: "Perhaps 20 million had been killed; 28 million deported, of whom 18 million had slaved in the Gulags."</ref><ref>{{Cite book|author=Dmitri Volkogonov|authorlink=Dmitri Volkogonov|title=Autopsy for an Empire: The Seven Leaders Who Built the Soviet Regime|pages=139: ''"Between 1929 and 1953 the state created by Lenin and set in motion by Stalin deprived 21.5 million Soviet citizens of their lives."''}}</ref><ref>[[#Yakovlev2002CenturyofViolence|Yakovlev (2002) ''Century of Violence'']] p. 234: "My own many years and experience in the rehabilitation of victims of political terror allow me to assert that the number of people in the USSR who were killed for political motives or who died in prisons and camps during the entire period of Soviet power totaled 20 to 25 million. And unquestionably one must add those who died of famine—more than 5.5 million during the civil war and more than 5 million during the 1930s."</ref><ref>[[#Gellately2007LeninStalinandHitler|Gellately (2007) ''Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler'']] p. 584: "More recent estimations of the Soviet-on-Soviet killing have been more 'modest' and range between ten and twenty million."</ref><ref>[[#Courtois1999Introduction|Courtois (1999) "Introduction"]] p. 4: "U.S.S.R.: 20 million deaths."</ref><ref>Jonathan Brent, ''Inside the Stalin Archives: Discovering the New Russia''. Atlas & Co., 2008 (ISBN 0-9777433-3-0) [http://atlasandco.com/images/uploads/samples/pdf/InsideStalinArchives-web.pdf Introduction online] ([[PDF]] file): "Estimations on the number of Stalin's victims over his twenty-five year reign, from 1928 to 1953, vary widely, but 20 million is now considered the minimum."</ref><ref>[[#Rosefielde2009RedHolocaust|Rosefielde (2009) ''Red Holocaust'']] p. 17: ''"We now know as well beyond a reasonable doubt that there were more than 13 million Red Holocaust victims 1929–53, and this figure could rise above 20 million."''</ref> [[Robert Conquest]], in the latest revision (2007) of his book ''[[The Great Terror]],'' estimates that while exact numbers will never be certain, the communist leaders of the USSR were responsible for no fewer than 15 million deaths.<ref name="Conquest2007Reassessment">[[#Conquest2007GreatTerror|Conquest (2007) ''Great Terror'']] p. xvi: "Exact numbers may never be known with complete certainty, but the total of deaths caused by the whole range of Soviet regime's terrors can hardly be lower than some fifteen million."</ref>

According to Stephen G. Wheatcroft, Stalin's regime can be charged with causing the "purposive deaths" of about a million people, although the number of deaths caused by the regime's "criminal neglect" and "ruthlessness" was considerably higher, and perhaps exceed Hitler's.<ref name="wheat_scale"/> Wheatcroft excludes all famine deaths as "purposive deaths," and claims those that do qualify fit more closely the category of "execution" rather than "murder."<ref name="wheat_scale"/> However, some of the actions of Stalin's regime, not only those during the [[Holodomor]] but also [[Dekulakization]] and [[Polish operation of the NKVD|targeted campaigns]] against particular ethnic groups, can be considered as genocide,
<ref>{{Cite book
  | last =Naimark  | first =Norman M.   | authorlink =Norman Naimark  | title =Stalin's Genocides (Human Rights and Crimes against Humanity)
  | publisher =[[Princeton University Press]]
  | year =2010  | location =   |pages= 133–135
  | url =http://books.google.com/?id=7Zn1RAAACAAJ&dq=stalin%27s+genocides
  | doi =   | isbn =0-691-14784-1}}</ref>
<ref>[[Anne Applebaum]]. [http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/2010/nov/11/worst-madness/?pagination=false The Worst of the Madness] [[The New York Review of Books]], November 11, 2010.</ref> at least in its loose definition.<ref name="Ellman"/>

Genocide scholar [[Adam Jones (Canadian scholar)|Adam Jones]] claims that "there is very little in the record of human experience to match the violence unleashed between 1917, when the [[Bolsheviks]] took power, and 1953, when Joseph Stalin died and the Soviet Union moved to adopt a more restrained and largely non-murderous domestic policy." He notes the exceptions being the Khmer Rouge (in relative terms) and Mao's rule in China (in absolute terms).<ref>[[#Jones2010Genocide|Jones (2010) ''Genocide'']] p. 124.</ref>

====Keganasan Merah====
{{Main|Keganasan Merah|Decossackization|Perintah Gantungan Lenin}}

During the [[Russian Civil War]], both sides unleashed terror campaigns (the Red and [[White Terror (Russia)|White Terror]]s). The Red Terror culminated in the [[summary execution]] of tens of thousands of "[[enemies of the people]]" by the political police, the [[Cheka]].<ref name="Melgunov">[[Sergei Melgunov|Sergei Petrovich Melgunov]], ''The Red Terror in Russia'', Hyperion Pr (1975), ISBN 0-88355-187-X. {{Page needed|date=June 2011}}<!-- no page to verify against-->;<br/>See also: S. Melgunoff (1927) "[http://www.paulbogdanor.com/left/soviet/redterror.pdf The Record of the Red Terror]" ''Current History'' unknown volume and edition (pp. 198–205) at unknown page.{{Copyvio link}}{{Volume needed|date=June 2011}}</ref>{{Copyvio link}}{{Volume needed|date=June 2011}}<ref>[[W. Bruce Lincoln|Lincoln, W. Bruce]], ''Red Victory: A History of the Russian Civil War'' (1999) [[Da Capo Press]].[http://books.google.com/books?id=R6HAJIJhNp4C&pg=PA383 pp. 383–385] ISBN 0-306-80909-5.</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Leggett |first=George |title=The Cheka: Lenin's Political Police |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1987 |pages=197–198 |isbn=0-19-822862-7}}</ref><ref>[[#Figes1997PeoplesTragedy|Figes (1997) ''A People's Tragedy'']] p. 647.</ref> Many victims were '[[bourgeois]] hostages' rounded up and held in readiness for [[summary execution]] in reprisal for any alleged [[counter-revolutionary]] provocation.<ref>[[#Figes1997PeoplesTragedy|Figes (1997) ''A People's Tragedy'']] p. 643.</ref> Many were put to death during and after the suppression of revolts, such as the [[Kronstadt rebellion]] and the [[Tambov Rebellion]]. Professor [[Donald Rayfield]] claims that "the repression that followed the rebellions in Kronstadt and Tambov alone resulted in tens of thousands of executions."<ref>[[Donald Rayfield]]. ''[[Stalin and His Hangmen]]: The Tyrant and Those Who Killed for Him.'' [[Random House]], 2004. ISBN 0-375-50632-2. [http://books.google.com/books?id=Yi3ow3TU8-4C&pg=RA2-PA1915&lpg=RA2-PA1915&dq=the+repression+that+followed+the+rebellions+in+Kronstadt+and+Tambov+alone+resulted+in+tens+of+thousands+of+executions&source=bl&ots=ybz-v9e9rM&sig=KiiC5ploofzkKkiE_Z1pfmWg72g&hl=en&ei=EN4rS5uMBJKXtgevxtT_CA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CAgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=the%20repression%20that%20followed%20the%20rebellions%20in%20Kronstadt%20and%20Tambov%20alone%20resulted%20in%20tens%20of%20thousands%20of%20executions&f=false p. 85]</ref> A large number of Orthodox clergymen were also killed.<ref name="Yakovlev">[[#Yakovlev2002CenturyofViolence|Yakovlev (2002) ''Century of Violence'']] p. 156.</ref><ref name="Pipes">[[Richard Pipes]]. ''Russia Under the Bolshevik Regime.'' Vintage Books, 1994 ISBN 0-679-76184-5. pg 356</ref>

The policy of decossackization amounted to an attempt by [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] leaders to "eliminate, [[genocide|exterminate]], and deport the population of a whole territory," according to Nicolas Werth.<ref>Nicolas Werth "A State against its People: violence, repression, and terror in the Soviet Union" in ''[[#Courtois1999BlackBook|The Black Book]]'' p. 98.</ref> In the early months of 1919, some 10,000 to 12,000 [[Cossacks]] were executed<ref name="mass terror">Peter Holquist. "[http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/cmr_1252-6576_1997_num_38_1_2486 Conduct merciless mass terror": decossackization on the Don, 1919]"</ref><ref>[[#Figes1997PeoplesTragedy|Figes (1997) ''A People's Tragedy'']] p. 660.{{Verify source|date=June 2011}} <!-- this claimed to be a 1998 edition of penguin?  Penguin NY versus Penguin UK? different ISBN: 0-14-024364-X.  needs page number verification against the 1997 source--></ref>{{Verify source|date=June 2011}} and many more deported after their villages were razed to the ground.<ref name="Gellately">[[#Gellately2007LeninStalinandHitler|Gellately (2007) ''Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler'']] pp. 70–71.</ref>

====Penyingkiran Besar (Yezhovshchina)====
{{Main|Penyingkiran Besar}}

Stalin's attempts to solidify his position as leader of the Soviet Union lead to an escalation in detentions and executions of various people, climaxing in 1937–38 (a period sometimes referred to as the "Yezhovshchina," or [[Yezhov]] era), and continuing until Stalin's death in 1953. Around 700,000 of these were executed by a gunshot to the back of the head,<ref>Barry McLoughlin (2002) "Mass Operations of the NKVD, 1937–1938: a survey." in ''Stalin's Terror: High Politics and Mass Repression in the Soviet Union'' eds. Barry McLoughlin, Kevin McDermott [?]: Palgrave Macmillan, [http://books.google.com/?id=8yorTJl1QEoC&pg=PA141 p. 141]. ISBN 1-4039-0119-8.</ref> others perished from beatings and torture while in "investigative custody"<ref>[[#Gellately2007LeninStalinandHitler|Gellately (2007) ''Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler'']] p. 256.</ref> and in the [[Gulag]] due to starvation, disease, exposure and overwork.<ref name="Ellman2">{{Cite journal|last=Ellman|first=Michael|title=Soviet Repression Statistics: Some Comments|journal=Europea-Asia Studies|volume=34|issue=7|year=2002|pages=1151–1172 |quote=The best estimate that can currently be made of the number of repression deaths in 1937–38 is the range 950,000–1.2 million, i.e., about a million. This estimate should be used by historians, teachers, and journalists concerned with twentieth century Russian—and world—history}}</ref>

Arrests were typically made citing [[Article 58 (RSFSR Penal Code)|counter-revolutionary laws]], which included failure to report treasonous actions and, in an amendment added in 1937, failing to fulfill one's appointed duties. In the cases investigated by the State Security Department of the NKVD (GUGB NKVD) October 1936 – November 1938, at least 1,710,000 people were arrested and 724,000 people executed.<ref>[http://www.memo.ru/history/y1937/hronika1936_1939/xronika.html N.G. Okhotin, A.B. Roginsky ''"Great Terror": Brief Chronology] [[Memorial (society)|Memorial]], 2007</ref>

[[File:Vinnycia16.jpg|thumb|left|270px|[[Vinnytsia massacre|Vynnytsa]], Ukraine, June 1943. [[Mass graves in the Soviet Union|Mass graves]] dating from 1937–38 opened up and hundreds of bodies exhumed for identification by family members.<ref>[[#Courtois1999BlackBook|Courtois (1999) ''The Black Book'']] photographic insert following p. 202.</ref>]]

Regarding the persecution of clergy, [[Michael Ellman]] has stated that "...the 1937–38 terror against the clergy of the Russian Orthodox Church and of other religions (Binner & Junge 2004) might also qualify as genocide".<ref name="Ellman"/> Citing church documents, [[Alexander Nikolaevich Yakovlev]] has estimated that over 100,000 priests, monks and nuns were executed during this time.<ref>[[#Yakovlev2002CenturyofViolence|Yakovlev (2002) ''Century of Violence'']] p. 165;<br/>See also: [[#Pipes2001Communism|Pipes (2001) ''Communism'']] p. 66.</ref>

Former "[[kulaks]]" and their families made up the majority of victims, with 669,929 people arrested and 376,202 executed.<ref name="Orlando Figes The Whisperers 2007, page 240">[[Orlando Figes]]. ''The Whisperers: Private Life in Stalin's Russia.'' Metropolitan Books, 2007. ISBN 0-08050-7461-9, [http://books.google.com/books?id=sge44FaZDREC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA240#v=onepage&q&f=false page 240]</ref>

=====Operasi Kebangsaan NKVD=====
{{Main|Operasi Kebangsaan NKVD}}

In 1930s, the [[NKVD]] conducted a series of national operations, which targeted some "national contingents" suspected in counter-revolutionary activity.<ref name="Ellman">[http://www1.fee.uva.nl/pp/mjellman/ Michael Ellman], [http://www.paulbogdanor.com/left/soviet/famine/ellman1933.pdf Stalin and the Soviet Famine of 1932–33 Revisited] ''Europe-Asia Studies'', [[Routledge]]. Vol. 59, No. 4, June 2007, 663–693. [[PDF]] file</ref> A total of 350,000 were arrested and 247,157 were executed.<ref name="Montefiore229">[[#Montefiore2005CourtoftheRedTsar|Montefiore (2005) ''Court of the Red Tsar'']] p. 229.</ref> Of these, the [[Polish operation of the NKVD|Polish operation]], which targeted the members of already non-existing ''[[Polska Organizacja Wojskowa]]'' appears to have been the largest, with 140,000 arrests and 111,000 executions.<ref name="Ellman"/> Although these operation might well constitute genocide as defined by the UN convention,<ref name="Ellman"/> or "a mini-genocide" according to [[Simon Sebag Montefiore|Montefiore]],<ref name="Montefiore229"/> there is as yet no authoritative ruling on the legal characterisation of these events.<ref name="Ellman"/>

=====Pembersihan besar di Mongolia=====
{{Main|Stalinist repressions in Mongolia}}

In the summer and autumn of 1937, [[Joseph Stalin]] sent NKVD agents to the [[Mongolian People's Republic]] and engineered a [[Stalinist repressions in Mongolia|Mongolian Great Terror]]<ref name="Kuromiya pg2">Hiroaki Kuromiya, ''The Voices of the Dead: Stalin's Great Terror in the 1930s.'' [[Yale University Press]], December 24, 2007. ISBN 0-300-12389-2. p. 2</ref> in which some 22,000<ref name="Thirty thousand">[http://www.chriskaplonski.com/downloads/bullets.pdf Christopher Kaplonski, ''Thirty thousand bullets'', in: ''Historical Injustice and Democratic Transition in Eastern Asia and Northern Europe'', London 2002, pp. 155–168]</ref> and 35,000<ref name="Death Tolls">[http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/warstat5.htm#Mong2 Twentieth Century Atlas – Death Tolls]</ref> people were executed. Around 18,000 victims were Buddhist [[lama]]s.<ref name="Thirty thousand"/>

====Pembunuhan Soviet semasa Perang Dunia II====
{{Main|Katyn Massacre|NKVD prisoner massacres|Jenayah perang Soviet}}
[[File:Victims of Soviet NKVD in Lvov ,June 1941.jpg|300px|left|thumb|Victims of Soviet [[NKVD]] in [[Lviv]], June 1941.]]

In September 1939, following the [[Soviet invasion of Poland]], NKVD task forces started removing "Soviet-hostile elements" from the conquered territories.<ref name="Tomasz Strzembosz">[http://www.dpg-brandenburg.de/nr23/die_verschwiegene_kollaboration_strzembosz.pdf Interview] with [[Tomasz Strzembosz]]: ''Die verschwiegene Kollaboration'' Transodra, 23. Dezember 2001, p. 2 {{de icon}}</ref> The NKVD systematically practiced torture, which often resulted in death.<ref name="JanTGross">[[Jan T. Gross]]. ''Revolution From Abroad: The Soviet Conquest of Poland's Western Ukraine and Western Belorussia.'' [[Princeton University Press]], 2002. ISBN 0-691-09603-1. pp. 181–182</ref><ref>Paul, Allen. ''Katyn: Stalin's Massacre and the Seeds of Polish Resurrection''. Naval Institute Press, 1996. ISBN 1-55750-670-1. p. 155</ref>

The most notorious killings occurred in the spring of 1940, when the NKVD executed some 21,857 Polish POWs and intellectual leaders in what has become known as the [[Katyn massacre]].<ref>[[Benjamin B. Fischer|Fischer, Benjamin B.]], "[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/winter99-00/art6.html The Katyn Controversy: Stalin's Killing Field]". "Studies in Intelligence", Winter 1999–2000. Retrieved on December 10, 2005.</ref><ref>[[#Parrish1996LesserTerror|Parrish (1996) ''Lesser Terror'']] pp. 324, 325.</ref><ref>[[#Montefiore2005CourtoftheRedTsar|Montefiore (2005) ''Court of the Red Tsar'']] pp. 197–198, 332, 334.</ref> According to the [[Polish Institute of National Remembrance]], 150,000 Polish citizens perished due to [[Soviet repressions of Polish citizens (1939–1946)|Soviet repression]] during the war.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Polish experts lower nation's WWII death toll |url=http://www.expatica.com/de/news/german-news/Polish-experts-lower-nation_s-WWII-death-toll--_55843.html |accessdate=November 4, 2009 |date=July 30, 2009 |publisher=AFP/Expatica}}</ref><ref>Wojciech Materski and Tomasz Szarota. Polska 1939–1945. Straty osobowe i ofiary represji pod dwiema okupacjami.Institute of National Remembrance(IPN) Warszawa 2009 ISBN 978-83-7629-067-6.</ref>

[[File:PlaqueMemorizingEstonianGovernment.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Plak pada pembinaan [[Kerajaan Estonia]], [[Toompea]], memperingati ahli-ahli kerajaan dibunuh oleh pengganas komunis]]

Executions were also carried out after the [[Occupation of the Baltic states#Soviet invasion and occupation, 1940–1941|annexation of the Baltic states]].<ref>[[#Montefiore2005CourtoftheRedTsar|Montefiore (2005) ''Court of the Red Tsar'']] p. 334</ref> And during the initial phases of [[Operation Barbarossa]], the NKVD and attached units of the Red Army [[NKVD massacres of prisoners|massacred prisoners and political opponents]] by the tens of thousands before fleeing from the advancing Axis forces.<ref name="Social Catastrophe">[[#Gellately2007LeninStalinandHitler|Gellately (2007) ''Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler'']] p. 391.</ref>

=== Republik Rakyat China ===
{{Main|Sejarah Republik Rakyat China (1949–1976)}}

The [[Parti Komunis Cina]] mula berkuasa di China pada tahun 1949, apabila revolusi komunis Cina berakhir yang panjang dan berdarah [[Perang Saudara China|perang saudara]] antara komunis dan nasionalis. Terdapat umum di kalangan ahli sejarah bahawa selepas [[Mao Zedong]] menyita kuasa, dasar-dasar dan politik beliau melakukan pembersihan dalaman yang disebabkan secara langsung atau tidak langsung kepada kematian berpuluh juta orang.<ref>[[#Short2001Mao|Short (2001) ''Mao'']] ms. 631;<br/> [[Jung Chang|Chang, Jung]] and [[Jon Halliday|Halliday, Jon]]. ''[[Mao: The Unknown Story]]'.' [[Jonathan Cape]], London, 2005. ISBN 0-224-07126-2. p. 3<br/> [[R. J. Rummel|Rummel, R. J.]] ''[http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/NOTE2.HTM China’s Bloody Century: Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900]'' [[Transaction Publishers]], 1991. ISBN 0-88738-417-X. p. 205: Berdasarkan bukti baru-baru ini, Rummel telah meningkat tol [[democide]] Mao ke [http://hawaiireporter.com/story.aspx?1c1d76bb-290c-447b-82dd-e295ff0d3d59 77 juta].</ref><ref name="Fenby">[[Jonathan Fenby|Fenby, Jonathan]].  ''Modern China: The Fall and Rise of a Great Power, 1850 to the Present.'' Ecco, 2008. ISBN 0-06-166116-3. ms. 351 "Tanggungjawab Mao untuk kepupusan mana-mana sahaja 40-70 juta nyawa jenama beliau sebagai pembunuh besar-besaran lebih besar daripada [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]]. Atau Stalin, sikap acuh tak acuh kepada penderitaan dan kehilangan manusia yang menakjubkan"</ref> berdasarkan pengalaman Soviet, Mao dianggap keganasan perlu untuk mencapai sebuah masyarakat yang ideal yang diperolehi daripada Marxsisme dan dirancang dan dilaksanakan keganasan secara besar-besaran.<ref name="Rummel223" /><ref name="Goldhagen">[[#Goldhagen2009WorsethanWar|Goldhagen (2009) ''Worse than War'']] p. 344.</ref>

====Reformasi tanah dan penindasan revolusionis lawan====
{{Main|Kempen untuk Menindas Revolusionis lawan}}

Pertama pembunuhan besar-besaran di bawah Mao berlaku semasa [[Reformasi tanah#Asia|reformasi tanah]] dan kempen kontrarevolusioner. Dalam bahan kajian rasmi yang diterbitkan pada tahun 1948, Mao dijangkakan bahawa "satu per sepuluh daripada para petani" (atau kira-kira 50,000,000) "perlu dimusnahkan" untuk memudahkan reformasi pertanian.<ref name="Goldhagen"/> Actual numbers killed in land reform are believed to have been lower, but at least one million.<ref name="Rummel223">{{Cite book|last=Rummel|first=Rudolph J.|title=China's bloody century: genocide and mass murder since 1900|publisher=Transaction Publishers|year=2007|page=223|isbn=978-1-4128-0670-1}}</ref><ref>[[#Short2001Mao|Short (2001) ''Mao'']] pp. 436–437.</ref>

Penindasan terhadap revolusionis lawan disasarkan terutamanya bekas [[Kuomintang]] pegawai dan intelektual yang disyaki tidak setia.<ref>Steven W. Mosher. ''China Misperceived: American Illusions and Chinese Reality.'' [[Basic Books]], 1992. ISBN 0-465-09813-4. pp 72, 73</ref> Sekurang-kurangnya 712,000 orang telah dibunuh, 1290000 telah dipenjarakan di [[Laogai | kem buruh]] dan 1,200,000 berada "tertakluk kepada kawalan di pelbagai masa."<ref name="Yang Kuisong">Yang Kuisong. [http://journals.cambridge.org/production/action/cjoGetFulltext?fulltextid=1809180 Reconsidering the Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries] ''The China Quarterly'', 193, Mac 2008, ms.102–121. [[PDF]] file.</ref>

====Kemaraan Raksasa====
{{Main|Kemaraan Raksasa}}

Benjamin Valentino berkata bahawa Great Leap Forward adalah penyebab yang [[Kebuluran Besar China]] dan bahawa kesan buruk kelaparan yang telah dikemudikan ke arah musuh rejim.<ref name="Valentino_a">[[#Valentino2005FinalSolutions|Valentino (2005) ''Final solutions'']] ms. 128.</ref> Those labeled as "black elements" (religious leaders, rightists, rich peasants, etc.) in any earlier campaign died in the greatest numbers, as they were given the lowest priority in the allocation of food.<ref name="Valentino_a" /> In ''[[Mao's Great Famine]]'',  historian Frank Dikötter writes that "coercion, terror, and systematic violence were the very foundation of the Great Leap Forward" and it "motivated one of the most deadly mass killings of human history."<ref>Dikötter, Frank. ''[[Mao's Great Famine: The History of China's Most Devastating Catastrophe, 1958-62]].'' Walker & Company, 2010.  pp. x, xi. ISBN 0-8027-7768-6.</ref> His research in local and provincial Chinese archives indicates the death toll was at least 45 million, and that "In most cases the party knew very well that it was starving its own people to death."<ref name="Dikotter">[http://web.mac.com/dikotter/Dikotter/Famine_2.html Frank Dikötter, Mao’s Great Famine, Key Arguments]</ref> In a secret meeting at [[Shanghai]] in 1959, Mao issued the order to procure one third of all grain from the countryside. He said: “When there is not enough to eat people starve to death. It is better to let half of the people die so that the other half can eat their fill.”<ref name="Dikotter"/> Dikötter estimates that at least 2.5 million people were summarily killed or tortured to death during this period.<ref>Issac Stone Fish. [http://www.newsweek.com/2010/09/26/mao-s-great-famine.html Greeting Misery With Violence]. [[Newsweek]]. September 26, 2010.</ref>

====Revolusi Budaya Great Proletarian====
{{Main|Revolusi Budaya }}

Sinologists [[Roderick MacFarquhar]] dan Michael Schoenhals menganggarkan bahawa antara 750,000 dan 1.5 juta orang terbunuh dalam keganasan Revolusi Kebudayaan, di luar bandar China sahaja.<ref>[[#MacFarquhar2006MaosLastRevolution|MacFarquhar and Schoenhals (2006) ''Mao's Last Revolution'']] p. 262.</ref> [[Tentera Merah (China)|Pengawal Merah]] Mao diberi carte blanche untuk mendera dan membunuh musuh-musuh revolusi ini.<ref>[[#MacFarquhar2006MaosLastRevolution|MacFarquhar and Schoenhals (2006) ''Mao's Last Revolution'']] p. 125.</ref> Sebagai contoh, pada bulan Ogos 1966, lebih 100 guru telah dibunuh oleh pelajar-pelajar mereka di barat Beijing sahaja.<ref>[http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/0,1518,483023,00.html ''The Chinese Cultural Revolution: Remembering Mao's Victims''] by Andreas Lorenz in Beijing, [[Der Spiegel]] Online. May 15, 2007</ref>

=== Kemboja (Kampuchea Demokratik) ===
{{See also|Pembunuhan beramai-ramai Kemboja}}

[[File:Choeungek2.JPG|thumb|200px|right| Tengkorak mangsa rejim [[Khmer Rouge]] di Kemboja.]]

Helen Fein, seorang ulama pembunuhan beramai-ramai, menyatakan bahawa, walaupun pemimpin Kemboja mengisytiharkan pematuhan kepada versi eksotik doktrin komunis pertanian, ideologi Xenophobia daripada [[Khmer Rouge]] rejim menyerupai lebih satu fenomena [[sosialisme negara]], atau fasisme.<ref>Helen Fein. Revolutionary and Antirevolutionary Genocides: A Comparison of State Murders in Democratic Kampuchea, 1975 to 1979, and in Indonesia, 1965 to 1966. ''Comparative Studies in Society and History'', Vol. 35, No. 4 (Oct. 1993), pp. 796–823</ref> Daniel Goldhagen menjelaskan bahawa Khmer Rouge adalah xenophobia kerana mereka percaya yang [[Orang Khmer|Khmer]] adalah "satu-satunya bangsa asli yang mampu membina komunisme benar."<ref name="Goldhagen207">[[#Goldhagen2009WorsethanWar|Goldhagen (2009) ''Worse than War'']] p. 207.</ref> Sosiologi [[Martin Shaw (sosiologi)|Martin Shaw]] diterangkan pembunuhan beramai-ramai di Kemboja sebagai "pembunuhan beramai-ramai yang paling murni dari era [[Perang Dingin]]".<ref>''Theory of the Global State: Globality as Unfinished Revolution'' oleh [[Martin Shaw (sociologist)|Martin Shaw]], [[Cambridge University Press]], 2000, pp 141, ISBN 978-0-521-59730-2.</ref>

[[The Killing Fields]] adalah beberapa tapak di [[Kemboja]] di mana ramai orang telah dibunuh dan dikebumikan oleh rejim Khmer Rouge, semasa pemerintahannya negara 1975-1979, dengan serta-merta selepas akhir [[Perang Vietnam]]. Sekurang-kurangnya 200,000 orang telah disempurnakan oleh Khmer Rouge,<ref>Chandler, David. The Killing Fields. At The Digital Archive Of Cambodian Holocaust Survivors. [http://www.cybercambodia.com/dachs/killing/killingfields.html]</ref> manakala anggaran jumlah kematian akibat daripada dasar Khmer Rouge, termasuk penyakit dan kebuluran, pelbagai 1,4-2,2 juta daripada jumlah penduduk kira-kira 7 juta.<ref>Peace Pledge Union Information – Talking about genocides – Cambodia 1975 – [http://www.ppu.org.uk/genocide/g_cambodia1.html the genocide.]</ref>

[[Demokratik Kampuchea]] (Kemboja di bawah pemerintahan Khmer Rouge) mengalami kesusahan yang serius kerana kesan perang dan terganggu aktiviti ekonomi. Menurut Michael Vickery, 740,800 orang di Kemboja dengan penduduk kira-kira 7 juta meninggal dunia akibat penyakit, terlalu banyak pekerjaan, dan penindasan politik.<ref name="Bruce Sharp"/> Anggaran lain menunjukkan kira-kira 1.7 juta dan ia digambarkan dengan [[Universiti Yale]] Program Genosid Kemboja sebagai "salah satu tragedi manusia paling buruk abad yang lalu."<ref>[http://www.yale.edu/cgp/ The CGP, 1994–2008] Cambodian Genocide Program, [[Yale University]]</ref>

Penyelidik Craig Etcheson di Pusat Dokumentasi Kemboja mencadangkan bahawa jumlah kematian adalah antara 2 dan 2.5 juta, dengan angka "paling mungkin" 2.2 juta. Selepas 5 tahun penyelidikan beberapa 20,000 kubur, beliau menyimpulkan bahawa "ini kubur besar mengandungi mayat mangsa 1,112,829 pelaksanaan."<ref name="Bruce Sharp">{{Cite web
 | last = Sharp
 | first = Bruce
 | title = Counting Hell: The Death Toll of the Khmer Rouge Regime in Cambodia
 |date= April 1, 2005
 | url = http://www.mekong.net/cambodia/deaths.htm
 | accessdate = July 5, 2006 }}</ref>

[[Steven Rosefielde]] tuntutan yang Kampuchea Demokratik adalah paling dahsyat semua rejim komunis secara per kapita, terutamanya kerana ia "tidak mempunyai teras yang produktif berdaya maju" dan "gagal untuk menetapkan sempadan pada pembunuhan beramai-ramai."<ref name="Rosefielde120121">[[#Rosefielde2009RedHolocaust|Rosefielde (2009) ''Red Holocaust'']] ms. 120–121.</ref>

Pada tahun 1997 Kerajaan Kemboja meminta bantuan [[PBB]] dengan menubuhkan sebuah [[Dewan Luar Biasa di Mahkamah Kemboja|pembunuhan tribunal beramai-ramai]].<ref name=KD-Time>Doyle, Kevin. [http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1647257,00.html Putting the Khmer Rouge on Trial], [[Time (magazine)|Time]], July 26, 2007</ref><ref>MacKinnon, Ian [http://www.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0,,2028421,00.html Crisis talks to save Khmer Rouge trial], [[The Guardian]], March 7, 2007</ref><ref>[http://www.cambodia.gov.kh/krt/english/ The Khmer Rouge Trial Task Forc], Royal Cambodian Government</ref> Para hakim penyiasat telah dibentangkan dengan nama-nama lima suspek mungkin oleh pihak pendakwaan pada 18 Julai 2007.<ref name=KD-Time/> Pada 19 September, 2007 [[Nuon Chea]], kedua dalam perintah Khmer Rouge dan ahli yang paling kanan yang masih hidup, didakwa [[perang jenayah]] dan [[jenayah terhadap kemanusiaan]], tetapi tidak didakwa dengan pembunuhan beramai-ramai. Dia akan menghadapi Kemboja dan hakim asing pada pembunuhan beramai-ramai tribunal khas.<ref name="ApBbcKr"/>

[[File:ChoeungEk-Darter-7.jpg|thumb|left| Bayi telah parah memecahkan terhadap (Tree Membunuh) [[Chankiri Tree]] di [[Choeung Ek]], Kemboja.<ref>[http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/worldnews/article-1191601/Khmer-Rouge-torturer-describes-killing-babies-smashing-trees.html Khmer Rouge torturer describes killing babies by 'smashing them into trees'] [[Mail Online]], June 9, 2009</ref>]]

=== Lain-lain ===
Pembunuhan beramai-ramai juga telah berlaku dalam [[Vietnam]],<ref name="Arthur Asa Berger">{{cite book|last=Berger|first=Arthur Asa |title=Television in society |date=January 31, 1987|publisher=Transaction Publishers|isbn=978-0-88738-109-6|page=262}}</ref> [[North Korea]]<ref>[[#Jones2010Genocide|Jones (2010) ''Genocide'']] pp. 215–216.</ref> and [[Romania]].<ref name="Alexandre Kimenyi">{{cite book|last=Kimenyi|first=Alexandre|title=Anatomy of Genocide: State-sponsored Mass-killings in the Twentieth Century|date=June 2001|publisher=Edwin Mellen Press |isbn=978-0-7734-7600-4|pages=206}}</ref> Ia telah dicadangkan bahawa terdapat juga mungkin pembunuhan beramai-ramai yang lain (pada skala yang lebih kecil) di negara komunis seperti [[Bulgaria]] dan [[Jerman Timur]], walaupun kekurangan dokumentasi menghalang penghakiman muktamad mengenai skala peristiwa-peristiwa ini dan motif pelaku.<ref name="Valentino table">[[#Valentino2005FinalSolutions|Valentino (2005) ''Final solutions'']] Table 2 found at p. 75.</ref>

Menurut Benjamin Valentino, paling rejim yang digambarkan diri mereka sebagai Komunis tidak melakukan pembunuhan beramai-ramai. <Ref name = "Valentino" /> Walau bagaimanapun, beberapa pembunuhan beramai-ramai boleh berlaku di beberapa negara Eropah Timur, walaupun tidak cukup bukti dokumentari menjadikannya mustahil untuk membuat penghakiman muktamad mengenai skala, intentionality dan sebab-sebab peristiwa.<ref>[[#Valentino2005FinalSolutions|Valentino (2005) ''Final solutions'']] p. 75.</ref>

====Bulgaria====
Menurut Benjamin Valentino, bukti yang ada menunjukkan bahawa antara 50,000 dan 100,000 orang mungkin terbunuh di Bulgaria bermula pada tahun 1944 sebagai sebahagian daripada pengkolektifan pertanian dan penindasan politik, walaupun tiada dokumen yang mencukupi untuk membuat penghakiman muktamad.<ref name="Valentino table" /> Dinyu Sharlanov, dalam bukunya ''Sejarah Komunisme di Bulgaria'', mencakupi kira-kira 31,000 orang terbunuh di bawah rejim antara 1944 dan 1989.<ref name="Шарланов">Шарланов, Диню. [http://books.google.bg/books?ei=2BHZUaMQw7s98LSB-Ag&hl=bg&id=nEgsAQAAIAAJ&dq=%D0%B6%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B8+%D0%BD%D0%B0+%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%B0+%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B9&q=%D0%B6%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B8+%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B9#search_anchor ''История на комунизма в Булгария: Комунизирането на Булгариия'']. Сиела, 2009. ISBN 978-954-28-0543-4.</ref><ref name="Hanna Arendt Center">Hanna Arendt Center in Sofia, with Dinyu Sharlanov and Venelin I. Ganev. [http://www.ustrcr.cz/data/pdf/konference/zlociny-komunismu/COUNTRY%20REPORT%20BULGARIA.pdf Crimes Committed by the Communist Regime in Bulgaria]. Country report. "Crimes of the Communist Regimes" Conference. Februari 24–26, 2010, Prague.</ref>

====Jerman Timur====
Menurut Valentino, antara 80,000 dan 100,000 orang mungkin terbunuh di Jerman Timur yang bermula pada tahun 1945 sebagai sebahagian daripada [[Denazification#Zon Soviet|penindasan politik]] oleh Kesatuan Soviet.<ref name="Valentino table" />

====Romania====
{{Further| Romania Komunis}}
Menurut Valentino, antara 60,000 dan 300,000 orang mungkin terbunuh di Romania bermula pada tahun 1945 sebagai sebahagian daripada pengkolektifan pertanian dan penindasan politik.<ref name="Valentino table" />

====Republik Rakyat Demokratik Korea====
{{Further| Korea Utara}}
Menurut [[R.J. Rummel]], kerja paksa, hukuman mati, dan kem-kem tahanan bertanggungjawab dengan lebih daripada sejuta kematian di [[Republik Rakyat Demokratik Korea]] 1948-1987;<ref>Rummel, R.J. (1997), [http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/SOD.CHAP10.HTM Statistics Of North Korean Democide: Estimates, Calculations, And Sources], ''Statistics of Democide'', Transaction.</ref> yang lain telah menganggarkan 400,000 kematian di kem-kem tahanan sahaja.<ref>Omestad, Thomas, [http://www.usnews.com/usnews/news/articles/030623/23gulag.htm "Gulag Nation"], [[U.S. News & World Report]], June 23, 2003.</ref> [[Pierre Rigoulot]] menganggarkan 100,000 hukuman, 1.5 juta kematian melalui kem-kem tahanan dan buruh hamba, 500,000 kematian akibat kebuluran, dan 1.3 juta terbunuh dalam perang Korea.<ref>''Black Book of Communism,'' pg. 564.</ref> Anggaran berdasarkan banci Korea Utara yang paling baru-baru ini menunjukkan bahawa 240,000 kepada 420,000 orang meninggal dunia akibat daripada [[kebuluran Korea Utara|kebuluran 1990an]] dan bahawa terdapat 600,000 hingga 850,000 kematian berlebihan di Korea Utara 1993-2008.<ref name="Spoorenberg, Thomas pp. 133-158">Spoorenberg, Thomas and Schwekendiek, Daniel (2012). [http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1728-4457.2012.00475.x/pdf "Demographic Changes in North Korea: 1993–2008"], ''Population and Development Review'', 38(1), pp. 133-158.</ref>  Kebuluran, yang mendakwa seramai satu juta nyawa, telah digambarkan sebagai hasil daripada dasar-dasar ekonomi kerajaan Korea Utara,<ref>Stephan Haggard, Marcus Noland, and Amartya Sen (2009), ''Famine in North Korea'', Columbia University Press, p.209.</ref> and as deliberate "terror-starvation".<ref>Rosefielde, Stephen (2009), ''Red Holocaust,'' Routledge, p. 109.</ref>  Pada tahun 2009, Steven Rosefielde menyatakan bahawa Holokus Merah "masih berterusan di Korea Utara" sebagai [[Kim Jong Il]] "enggan untuk meninggalkan pembunuhan beramai-ramai."<ref>Rosefielde, Stephen (2009), ''Red Holocaust,'' Routledge, pp. 228, 243.</ref>

====Republik Demokratik Vietnam====
{{Further|Vietnam Utara}}
Pada awal 1950-an, kerajaan Komunis di Vietnam Utara melancarkan [[reformasi Tanah di Vietnam | reformasi tanah]] program, yang, menurut [[Steven Rosefielde]], telah "yang bertujuan untuk menghapuskan musuh-musuh kelas."<ref name="RosefieldeVietnam">[[#Rosefielde2009RedHolocaust|Rosefielde (2009) ''Red Holocaust'']] p. 110.</ref> Mangsa telah dipilih secara sewenang-wenangnya, berikutan kuota empat hingga lima peratus.<ref name="MargolinVietnam">Jean-Louis Margolin "Vietnam and Laos: the impasse of war communism" in ''[[#Courtois1999BlackBook|The Black Book]]'' pp. 568–569.</ref> Penyeksaan digunakan pada skala yang luas, sehingga oleh 1954 [[Ho Chi Minh]] menjadi bimbang, dan ia telah diharamkan.<ref name="MargolinVietnam"/> Dianggarkan kira-kira 50,000<ref name="MargolinVietnam"/> hingga 172,000<ref name="RosefieldeVietnam"/> orang terkorban dalam kempen terhadap petani kaya dan pemilik tanah. Rosefielde membincangkan anggaran lebih tinggi yang pelbagai dari 200,000 hingga 900,000, termasuk hukuman ringkasan ahli Kebangsaan Parti Rakyat.<ref name="RosefieldeVietnam"/>

====Republik Rakyat Demokratik Ethiopia====
{{Main|Red Terror (Ethiopia)}}
[[Amnesty International]] menganggarkan seramai setengah juta orang terbunuh dalam Keganasan Merah tahun 1977 dan 1978.<ref name="Vasili Mitrokhin">[http://books.google.com/books?id=4eSR1rHg5_YC&pg=PA457&dq=half+a+million+Red+Terror+of+1977+and+1978&ei=4pvqRqCkDo3eoALaiuiFAw&ie=ISO-8859-1&sig=Ba_dV32N_Z1dqTfznGjiZuUcx8o ''The World Was Going Our Way: The KGB and the Battle for the Third World''] by Christopher Andrew and Vasili Mitrokhin, pg 457</ref><ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/575405.stm US admits helping Mengistu escape] [[BBC]], December 22, 1999</ref><ref>''Talk of the Devil: Encounters with Seven Dictators'' by Riccardo Orizio, pg 151</ref> Dalam keganasan kumpulan orang yang dipaksa berpindah ke gereja-gereja yang kemudiannya dibakar, dan wanita tertakluk kepada rogol sistematik oleh tentera.<ref>Yves Santamaria "Afrocommunism: Ethiopia, Angola, and Mozambique" in ''[[#Courtois1999BlackBook|The Black Book]]'' p. 692.</ref> The [[Save the Children Fund]] melaporkan bahawa mangsa-mangsa keganasan Merah termasuk bukan sahaja orang dewasa, tetapi 1,000 atau lebih kanak-kanak, kebanyakannya berusia antara sebelas dan tiga belas, yang mayat dibiarkan di jalan-jalan di Addis Ababa.<ref name="Vasili Mitrokhin"/> [[Mengistu Haile Mariam]] sendiri didakwa membunuh lawan politik dengan tangan kosong.<ref name="Red Terror">[http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/law/article752604.ece Guilty of genocide: the leader who unleashed a 'Red Terror' on Africa] by Jonathan Clayton, [[The Times|The Times Online]], December 13, 2006</ref>

====Hungari====
{{See also|Keganasan Merah (Hungari)|Republik Rakyat Hungari|Dewan Keganasan}}

Dalam tempoh yang singkat sahaja [[Bahasa Hungary Bahasa Soviet Republik]] pada tahun 1919 [[Lenin Boys]] melakukan jenayah terhadap lawan politik. Selepas Perang Dunia II, [[Lembaga Perlindungan Negeri]] komunis mengekalkan kem-kem tahanan dan melakukan pembunuhan beramai-ramai besaran.

==Kontroversi==

===Republik Demokratik Afghanistan===
{{Main|Republik Demokratik Afghanistan}}

Walaupun ia sering dianggap sebagai satu contoh pembunuhan beramai-ramai komunis, Republik Demokratik Afghanistan merupakan kes sempadan, menurut Frank Wayman dan Atsushi Tago.<ref name="Tago"/> Sebelum [[Perang Soviet di Afghanistan|pencerobohan Soviet]], [[Parti Demokratik Rakyat Afghanistan|PDPA]] yang dimeterai antara 10,000 dan 27,000 orang, kebanyakannya di [[penjara Pul-e-Charkhi]].<ref>[[#Valentino2005FinalSolutions|Valentino (2005) ''Final solutions'']] p. 219.</ref><ref>Kaplan, Robert D., ''Soldiers of God: With Islamic Warriors in Afghanistan and Pakistan,'' New York, Vintage Departures, (2001), p.115</ref><ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4756480.stm Kabul's prison of death] [[BBC]], February 27, 2006</ref>  Selepas pencerobohan pada tahun 1979, Soviet dipasang kerajaan boneka [[Babrak Karmal]], tetapi ia tidak pernah jelas stabil sebagai rejim komunis dan adalah di dalam keadaan perang. Menjelang 1987, kira-kira 80% daripada wilayah negara telah dikawal secara kekal oleh bukan kerajaan pro-Komunis (dan menyokong tentera Soviet) dan tidak juga oleh pembangkang bersenjata. Untuk tip baki, Kesatuan Soviet telah menggunakan taktik yang gabungan "bumi hangus" dan dasar "pembunuhan beramai-ramai yang berhijrah": sistematik dengan membakar tanaman dan memusnahkan kampung-kampung di wilayah pemberontak, dan juga oleh tindakan balas pengeboman kampung keseluruhan disyaki melindungi atau menyokong tindakan penentangan, Soviet cuba untuk memaksa penduduk tempatan untuk bergerak ke wilayah Soviet dikawal, dengan itu menafikan pembangkang bersenjata sokongan mereka.<ref>Joseph Collins. Soviet Policy toward Afghanistan. ''Proceedings of the Academy of Political Science'', Vol. 36, No. 4, Soviet Foreign Policy. (1987), pp. 198–210</ref>   Apabila Soviet berundur pada tahun 1988, 1 hingga 1.5 juta orang telah terbunuh, kebanyakannya orang awam Afghanistan, dan satu pertiga daripada penduduk Afghanistan terpaksa pindah.<ref>[[#Valentino2005FinalSolutions|Valentino (2005) ''Final solutions'']] pp. 91–151. <!-- page range too great to verify, this constitutes an entire chapter's page range, and IIRC, is incorrect as Valentino deals with Afghanistan in a later section of the text than p. 151. --> {{Failed verification|date=June 2011}}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=June 2011}} M. Hassan Kakar berhujah bahawa "Afghanistan adalah antara mangsa terbaru pembunuhan beramai-ramai oleh kuasa besar."<ref name=HassanKakar-Index>M. Hassan Kakar ''[http://content.cdlib.org/xtf/view?docId=ft7b69p12h&brand=eschol Afghanistan: The Soviet Invasion and the Afghan Response, 1979–1982] [[University of California]] press © 1995 The Regents of the University of California.</ref> [[Kubur besaran]] banduan yang dihukum mati telah digali yng berasal dari [[Kesatuan Soviet|Soviet]].<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_pictures/6274302.stm In pictures: Afghan mass grave] [[BBC]], July 5, 2007</ref>

===Kebuluran Soviet 1932-1933===
{{Main|Soviet famine of 1932–1933|Holodomor|Holodomor genocide question|Dekulakization}}
Within the Soviet Union, forced changes in agricultural policies ([[collectivization]]) and droughts caused the Soviet famine of 1932–1933.<ref name=marples2005>[http://www.uofaweb.ualberta.ca/historyandclassics/davidmarples.cfm Dr. David Marples], [http://www.expressnews.ualberta.ca/article.cfm?id=7176 The great famine debate goes on...], ''ExpressNews'' ([[University of Alberta]]), originally published in ''[[Edmonton Journal]]'', November 30, 2005 {{Dead link|date=October 2010}}</ref><ref name="KulchFeb2007">[[Stanislav Kulchytsky]], "Holodomor of 1932–1933 as genocide: the gaps in the proof", ''[[Den (newspaper)|Den]]'', February 17, 2007, [http://www.day.kiev.ua/177442/ in Russian], [http://www.day.kiev.ua/177403/ in Ukrainian]</ref><ref name=Tragediya>С. Уиткрофт ([[Stephen G. Wheatcroft]]), [http://lj.streamclub.ru/history/tragedy.html#add2 "О демографических свидетельствах трагедии советской деревни в 1931—1933 гг."] (On demographic evidence of the tragedy of the Soviet village in 1931–1933), "Трагедия советской деревни: Коллективизация и раскулачивание 1927–1939 гг.: Документы и материалы. Том 3. Конец 1930–1933 гг.", Российская политическая энциклопедия, 2001, ISBN 5-8243-0225-1, с. 885, Приложение № 2</ref><ref name=Kremlin>[http://web.archive.org/web/20030429084514/http://www.unimelb.edu.au/ExtRels/Media/UN/archive/1998/319/stalinismwasacollective.html 'Stalinism' was a collective responsibility – Kremlin papers], ''The News in Brief'', [[University of Melbourne]], June 19, 1998, Vol 7 No 22</ref> The famine was most severe in the [[Ukrainian SSR]], where it is often referenced as the [[Holodomor]]. A significant portion of the famine victims (3–3.5 million) were Ukrainians while the total number of victims in the Soviet Union is estimated to be 6 – 8 millions.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-275913/Ukraine |title=Ukraine – The famine of 1932–33 |accessdate=June 26, 2008 |work=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref><ref>R.W. Davies and S.G. Wheatcroft, (2004) ''The Industrialisation of Soviet Russia,''
volume 5. ''The Years of Hunger: Soviet Agriculture, 1931-1933'' Basingstoke:
Palgrave Macmillan, p. 401.{{Verify source|date=June 2011}} For a review, see {{Cite web| format = [[PDF]] | url = http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/economics/staff/faculty/harrison/reviews/davies-wheatcroft2004.pdf | publisher = Warwick | title = Davies & Wheatcroft, 2004}}</ref>{{Verify source|date=June 2011}}<ref name="Ellman2005">{{Cite journal| last = Ellman| first = Michael | title = The Role of Leadership Perceptions and of Intent in the Soviet Famine of 1931–1934 | journal = Europe-Asia Studies | volume = 57 | issue = 6 | pages = 823–41 | publisher = Routledge |date=September 2005 | url = http://www.paulbogdanor.com/left/soviet/famine/ellman.pdf | format = [[PDF]] | accessdate = July 4, 2008| doi = 10.1080/09668130500199392}}</ref>

Some scholars  have argued that the Stalinist policies that caused the famine may have been designed as an attack on the rise of [[Ukrainian nationalism]],<ref name="Mark R. Amstutz">{{cite book|last=Amstutz|first=Mark R. |title=International ethics: concepts, theories, and cases in global politics|url=http://books.google.com/?id=qTYko_PygLYC&pg=PA96&dq=mass+killing+communism#v=onepage&q=starvation%20of%205%20million%20Ukrainian%20peasants&f=false|edition=2nd|date=January 28, 2005|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0-7425-3583-1|page=96}}</ref> and thus may fall under the [[Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide|legal definition of genocide]] (see [[Holodomor genocide question]]).<ref name=marples2005/><ref name="KulchFeb2007"/><ref name=finn>Peter Finn, [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/04/26/AR2008042602039.html?sub=new Aftermath of a Soviet Famine], ''[[The Washington Post]]'', April 27, 2008, "There are no exact figures on how many died. Modern historians place the number between 2.5 million and 3.5 million. Yushchenko and others have said at least 10 million were killed."</ref><ref name="Bilin99">{{Cite journal| author=Yaroslav Bilinsky| title= Was the Ukrainian Famine of 1932–1933 Genocide?| journal= Journal of Genocide Research | year= 1999| volume= 1| issue= 2| pages= 147–156 | url=http://www.faminegenocide.com/resources/bilinsky.html | doi=10.1080/14623529908413948 }}</ref><ref name=zn2006>[[Stanislav Kulchytsky]], "Holodomor-33: Why and how?", ''[[Zerkalo Nedeli]]'', November 25 – December 1, 2006, [http://www.zerkalo-nedeli.com/ie/show/624/55147/ in Russian], [http://www.zn.kiev.ua/ie/show/624/55147/ in Ukrainian].</ref> Economist [[Michael Ellman]] argues that the actions of the Soviet regime from 1930–34 constitutes "a series of crimes against humanity."<ref name="Ellman"/> Benjamin Valentino notes that "there is strong evidence that Soviet authorities used hunger as a weapon to crush peasant resistance to collectivization" and that "deaths associated with these kinds of policies meet the criteria for mass killing."<ref>[[#Valentino2005FinalSolutions|Valentino (2005) ''Final solutions'']] p. 99.</ref> [[Timothy Snyder]], Professor of History at [[Yale University]], asserts that in 1933 "Joseph Stalin was deliberately starving Ukraine" through a "heartless campaign of requisitions that began Europe's era of mass killing."<ref>[[Timothy Snyder|Snyder, Timothy]]. ''Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin.'' [[Basic Books]], 2010. ISBN 0-465-00239-0. p. vii</ref>

Ukraine under [[Yuschenko]]'s administration (2004–2010) has tried to make the world recognize the famine as a genocide,<ref>Jan Maksymiuk, [http://www.rferl.org/featuresarticle/2006/11/03ac02a4-6e3a-481b-8932-fafd4c13abab.html "Ukraine: Parliament Recognizes Soviet-Era Famine As Genocide"], ''[[Radio Free Europe|RFE/RL]]'', November 29, 2006</ref> a move which was supported by a number of foreign governments.<ref name=countriesmar2008>19 (according to Ukrainian BBC: "Латвія визнала Голодомор ґеноцидом"), 16 (according to Korrespondent, Russian edition: "После продолжительных дебатов Сейм Латвии признал Голодомор геноцидом украинцев"), "more than 10" (according to Korrespondent, Ukrainian edition: "Латвія визнала Голодомор 1932–33 рр. геноцидом українців")</ref> The Russian government has vehemently rejected the idea, accusing Yuschenko of [[Holodomor in modern politics|politicization of the tragedy]], outright propaganda, and fabrication of documents.<ref name="regnum">http://www.regnum.ru/news/1138393.html</ref> In 2010, Ukrainian president [[Yanukovich]] reversed Yuschenko's policies on Holodomor and, currently, both Ukraine and Russia consider the Holodomor a common tragedy of the Russian and Ukrainian peoples, caused by "Stalin's totalitarian regime", rather than a deliberate act of genocide that targeted ethnic Ukrainians.<ref name="PACE">[http://en.rian.ru/exsoviet/20100427/158772431.html ''Yanukovych reverses Ukraine's position on Holodomor famine''], [[RIA Novosti]],  April 27, 2010</ref> In a draft resolution, the [[Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe]] declared the famine was caused by the "cruel and deliberate actions and policies of the Soviet regime" and was responsible for the deaths of "millions of innocent people" in Ukraine, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Moldova and Russia. Relative to its population, Kazakhstan is believed to have been the most adversely affected.<ref name="PACE"/><ref>''[http://en.rian.ru/world/20100428/158792272.html PACE finds Stalin regime guilty of Holodomor, does not recognize it as genocide].'' RIA Novosti, April 28, 2010.</ref> Regarding the Kazakh case, Michael Ellman states that it "seems to be an example of ‘negligent genocide’ which falls outside the scope of the UN Convention (Schabas 2000, pp.&nbsp;226 – 228)."<ref name="Ellman"/>

===Pengusiran beramai-ramai minoriti etnik===
{{Main|Pemindahan penduduk di Kesatuan Soviet}}

Kerajaan Soviet semasa [[Joseph Stalin]] peraturan ini dijalankan satu siri pengusiran pada skala besar yang ketara dipengaruhi peta etnik USSR. Deportasi berlaku di bawah keadaan yang sangat keras, sering dalam kereta lembu, dengan beratus-ratus ribu deportees mati dalam perjalanan.<ref name="Boobbyer">Boobbyer, Phillip (2000), The Stalin Era, Routledge, ISBN 0-7679-0056-1, ms. 130</ref> Sesetengah pakar-pakar menganggarkan bahawa bilangan kematian dari deportasi boleh menjadi setinggi satu dalam tiga dalam kes-kes tertentu.<ref>Dalam satu anggaran, berdasarkan laporan oleh [[Lavrenti Beria]] untuk Stalin, 150,000 daripada 478.479 dihantar pulang Ingush dan Chechen orang (atau 31.3 peratus) meninggal dunia dalam tempoh empat tahun pertama penempatan semula. Lihat: Kleveman, Lutz. ''The New Permainan Besar:. Darah dan Minyak di Asia Tengah'' Jackson, Tenn .: Atlantik Bulanan Press, 2003. ISBN 0-87113-906-5. Satu lagi ulama meletakkan jumlah kematian pada 22.7 peratus: menentuluar dari [[NKVD]] rekod, 113,000 Ingush dan Chechen meninggal dunia (3000 sebelum dihantar pulang, 10,000 semasa pengusiran, dan 100,000 selepas penempatan semula) dalam tempoh tiga tahun pertama penempatan semula daripada 496.460 jumlah deportees. Lihat: Naimark, 'Api-api daripada Kebencian.: Pembersihan Etnik di Kedua puluh-Century Eropah' Norman M. '' Cambridge, Mass .: Harvard University Press, 2001. ISBN 0-674-00994-0. Sumber ketiga berkata suku daripada 650,000 orang-orang Chechen dihantar pulang, Ingush, Karachais dan Kalmyks meninggal dunia dalam tempoh empat tahun penempatan semula. Lihat: Mawdsley, Evan. '' The Stalin Tahun: Kesatuan Soviet 1929-1953. '' Manchester, England: Manchester University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-7190-6377-9. Walau bagaimanapun, anggaran jumlah deportees kadang-kadang berbeza-beza. Dua ulama dianggarkan jumlah Chechen dan Ingush deportees pada 700,000, yang akan mempunyai anggaran peratusan kematian. Lihat: Fischer, Rut dan Leggett, John C. '' Stalin dan Komunisme Jerman:. Kajian dalam Asal-usul Parti Negara '' Edison, NJ: Transaksi Publishers, 2006. ISBN 0-87855-822-5.</ref><ref>Conquest, Robert. ''The Nation Killers.'' New York: Macmillan, 1970. ISBN 0-333-10575-3.</ref> Mengenai nasib [[Crimean Tatar]], Amir Weiner Universiti Stanford menulis bahawa dasar yang boleh diklasifikasikan sebagai "[[pembersihan etnik]]". Dalam buku ''Abad Pembunuhan Bangsa'', Lyman H Legters menulis "Kita tidak boleh bercakap dengan betul daripada pembunuhan beramai-ramai yang telah siap, hanya satu proses yang pembunuhan dalam potensi mereka."<ref>Samuel Totten, William S. Parsons, Israel W. Charny. ''Century of Genocide: Eyewitness Accounts and Critical Views.'' Garland, 1997 ISBN 0-8153-2353-0. ms. 120</ref>

===Tibet===
Menurut [[Buku Hitam Komunisme]], Komunis China telah menjalankan [[pembunuhan beramai-ramai kebudayaan]] terhadap Tibet. Jean-Louis Margolin menyatakan bahawa pembunuhan itu adalah berkadaran lebih besar di Tibet dari China yang tepat, dan bahawa "satu sah boleh bercakap tentang pembunuhan beramai-ramai pembunuhan kerana nombor-nombor yang terlibat."<ref name="Margolin">Jean-Louis Margolin "China: a long march into night" in ''[[#Courtois1999BlackBook|The Black Book]]'' pp. 545–546.</ref> Menurut [[Buku Hitam Komunisme]], Komunis China telah menjalankan [[pembunuhan beramai-ramai kebudayaan]] terhadap Tibet. Jean-Louis Margolin menyatakan bahawa pembunuhan itu adalah berkadaran lebih besar di Tibet dari China yang tepat, dan bahawa "satu sah boleh bercakap tentang pembunuhan beramai-ramai pembunuhan kerana nombor-nombor yang terlibat."<ref name="Margolin"/>

[[Adam Jones (cendekiawan Kanada)|Adam Jones]], seorang ulamarahib Kanada yang pakar dalam pembunuhan beramai-ramai, menyatakan bahawa selepas [[1959 pemberontakan Tibet]], orang Cina yang dibenarkan [[sesi perjuangan]] s terhadap kaum pembangkang, di mana "...kader komunis dikecam, diseksa, dan kerap dilaksanakan [[musuh rakyat]]. "Sesi-sesi ini mengakibatkan 92,000 kematian daripada penduduk kira-kira 6 juta. Kematian ini, Jones menekankan, boleh dilihat bukan sahaja sebagai pembunuhan beramai-ramai, tetapi juga sebagai 'eliticide' - "mensasarkan unsur-unsur lebih berpendidikan dan kepimpinan berorientasikan kalangan penduduk Tibet."<ref>[[#Jones2010Genocide|Jones (2010) ''Genocide'']] pp. 95–96.</ref>

===Kemasukan kebuluran sebagai membunuh===
The journalist and author [[Seumas Milne]] has questioned whether deaths from famine should be considered equivalent to state killings, since the demographic data used to estimate famine deaths may not be reliable.  He argues that, if they are to be, then Britain would have to be considered responsible for as many as 30 million deaths in India from famine during the 19th century, and he laments that there has been "no such comprehensive indictment of the colonial record".<ref>{{Cite news| url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/education/2002/sep/12/highereducation.historyandhistoryofart | work=The Guardian | location=London | title=The battle for history | first=Seumas | last=Milne | date=September 12, 2002 | accessdate=May 12, 2010}}</ref>

Benjamin Valentino writes that, "Although not all the deaths due to famine in these cases were intentional, communist leaders directed the worst effects of famine against their suspected enemies and used hunger as a weapon to force millions of people to conform to the directives of the state."<ref>[[#Valentino2005FinalSolutions|Valentino (2005) ''Final solutions'']] p. 93–94.</ref>

[[Daniel Goldhagen]] argues that in some cases, deaths from famine should not be distinguished from mass murder: "Whenever governments have not alleviated famine conditions, political leaders decided ''not to say no'' to mass death – in other words, they said ''yes''." He claims that famine was either used or deliberately tolerated by the Soviets, the Germans, the communist Chinese, the [[United Kingdom|British]] in [[Kenya]], the [[Hausa people|Hausa]] against the [[Ibo people|Ibo]] in Nigeria, Khmer Rouge, communist North Koreans, Ethiopeans in [[Eritrea]], [[Zimbabwe]] against regions of political opposition, and Political Islamists in southern [[Sudan]] and [[Darfur]].<ref name="Gladhagenfamine">[[#Goldhagen2009WorsethanWar|Goldhagen (2009) ''Worse than War'']] pp. 29–30.</ref>

==Pelaksana hukuman bunuh yang ketara==
[[Mejar Jeneral]] [[Vasili Blokhin]], ketua algojo Stalin di [[Lubyanka (KGB)|Lubyanka]] penjara, secara peribadi ditembak ribuan tahanan dan dianggap oleh sesetengah ahli sejarah sebagai pelaksana hukuman mati yang paling prolifik dalam sejarah.<ref>[[#Montefiore2005CourtoftheRedTsar|Montefiore (2005) ''Court of the Red Tsar'']] pp. 197–8, 334.</ref><ref>[[#Parrish1996LesserTerror|Parrish (1996) ''Lesser Terror'']] p. 324.</ref>

== Pendakwaan undang-undang untuk pembunuhan beramai-ramai dan pembunuhan beramai-ramai penafian ==
[[File:Katyń, ekshumacja ofiar.jpg|thumb|left|Proses pemindahan [[Pembunuhan beramai-ramai Katyn|Katyn]] tahun 1943. Gambar oleh delegasi [[Palang Merah Antarabangsa]].]]

Bekas pemerintah Ethiopia [[Mengistu Haile Mariam]] telah disabitkan atas [[pembunuhan beramai-ramai]], [[jenayah perang]] dan [[jenayah terhadap kemanusiaan]] dan dihukum mati oleh mahkamah Ethiopia untuk peranannya dalam [[Merah keganasan (Ethiopia) | Red Terror]], dan paling tinggi kedudukan ahli yang masih hidup daripada [[Khmer Rouge]] telah dituduh jenayah-jenayah.<ref name=ApBbcKr>Staff, [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/7002053.stm Senior Khmer Rouge leader charged], BBC September 19, 2007</ref><ref name="Mengistu found guilty">{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6171429.stm|title=BBC, "Mengistu found guilty of genocide," 12 December 2006 | date=December 12, 2006 | accessdate=January 2, 2010 | work=BBC News}}</ref><ref name="HRW">[http://hrw.org/english/docs/1999/11/29/ethiop5495.htm Backgrounders: Ethiopian Dictator Mengistu Haile Mariam] [[Human Rights Watch]], 1999</ref><ref>Tsegaye Tadesse. [http://www.redorbit.com/news/international/512182/verdict_due_for_ethiopias_exdictator_mengistu/ Verdict due for Ethiopia's ex-dictator Mengistu] [[Reuters]], 2006</ref><ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7420212.stm Court Sentences Mengistu to Death] [[BBC]], May 26, 2008.</ref>  However, no communist country or governing body has ever been convicted of genocide. Ethiopian law is distinct from the UN and other definitions in that it defines genocide as intent to wipe out political and not just ethnic groups. In this respect it closely resembles the distinction of politicide.<ref name=RGP>Barbara Harff, "Recognizing Genocides and Politicides", in ''Genocide Watch'' 27 (Helen Fein ed., 1992) pp.37,38</ref>

According to the laws of the [[Czech Republic]], the person who publicly denies, puts in doubt, approves or tries to justify Nazi or Communist genocide or other crimes of Nazis or Communists will be punished by prison of 6 months to 3 years.<ref name="czech">{{Cite web|url=http://www.jcpa.org/JCPA/Templates/ShowPage.asp?DRIT=5&DBID=1&LNGID=1&TMID=111&FID=624&PID=0&IID=2202&TTL=Expanding_Holocaust_Denial_and_Legislation_Against_It |title=Expanding Holocaust Denial and Legislation}}</ref>
In March 2005, the Polish [[Sejm]] unanimously requested Russia to classify the [[Katyn massacre]], the execution of over 21,000 Polish POW's and intellectual leaders by Stalin's [[NKVD]], as a crime of genocide.<ref name="polishembassy310305">Polish government statement: [http://www.polishembassy.ca/news_details.asp?nid=230 Senate pays tribute to Katyn victims – 3/31/2005]</ref> Alexander Savenkov of the Prosecutor's General Office of the Russian Federation responded: "The version of genocide was examined, and it is my firm conviction that there is absolutely no basis to talk about this in judicial terms."<ref>[http://www.cracow-life.com/news/news/374-Russia_Says_Katyn_Executions_Not_Genocide Russia Says Katyn Executions Not Genocide]</ref> In March 2010, [[Memorial (society)|Memorial]] called upon Russian president [[Dmitry Medvedev]] to denounce the massacre as a crime against humanity.<ref>[http://politicom.moldova.org/news/memorial-calls-on-medvedev-to-denounce-katyn-as-crime-against-humanity-206909-eng.html Memorial calls on Medvedev to denounce Katyn as crime against humanity ]</ref> On November 26, 2010, the Russian [[State Duma]] issued a declaration that archival material “not only unveils the scale of his horrific tragedy but also provides evidence that the Katyn crime was committed on direct orders from Stalin and other Soviet leaders."<ref>Ellen Barry. [http://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/27/world/europe/27briefs-katyn.html Russia: Stalin Called Responsible for Katyn Killings]. [[The New York Times]], November 26, 2010.</ref>

In August 2007, [[Arnold Meri]], an [[Estonia]]n [[Red Army]] veteran and cousin of former Estonian president [[Lennart Meri]], faced charges of genocide by Estonian authorities for participating in the [[Soviet deportations from Estonia|deportations of Estonians]] in [[Hiiumaa]] in 1949.<ref>[http://www.balticguide.ee/index.php/a641 Entisen presidentin serkkua syytetään neuvostoajan kyydityksistä] – ''[[Baltic Guide]]''</ref><ref>[http://www.b92.net/eng/news/globe-article.php?yyyy=2007&mm=08&dd=23&nav_category=117&version=print Estonian charged with Communist genocide] ''[[International Herald Tribune]]'', August 23, 2007</ref> The trial was halted when Meri died March 27, 2009, at the age of 89. Meri denied the accusation, characterizing them as politically motivated defamation: "I do not consider myself guilty of genocide," he said.<ref>{{Cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7978111.stm | work=BBC News | title=Estonian war figure laid to rest | date=April 2, 2009 | accessdate=May 12, 2010}}</ref>

On July 26, 2010, [[Kang Kek Iew]] (aka Comrade Duch), director of the [[Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum|S-21 prison camp]] in [[Democratic Kampuchea]] where more than 14,000 people were tortured and then murdered (mostly at nearby [[Choeung Ek]]), was convicted of crimes against humanity and sentenced to 35 years. His sentence was reduced to 19 years in part because he had been behind bars for 11 years.<ref>[http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-cambodia-khmer-rouge-20100727,0,4747344.story Sentence reduced for former Khmer Rouge prison chief]. [[The Los Angeles Times]], July 27, 2010</ref>

==Lihat juga==
*[[Kritikan terhadap pemerintahan parti Komunis]]
*[[Dekulakization]]
*[[Gulag]]
*[[Kemaraan Raksasa]]
*[[Kebuluran Besar China]]
*[[Reformasi tanah di Vietnam]]
*[[Laogai]]
*[[Kubur besar di Kesatuan Soviet]]
*[[Penganiayaan terhadap orang Kristian di Kesatuan Soviet]]
*[[Jenayah perang Soviet]]
*[[Muzium Genosid Tuol Sleng]]
*[[Victims of Communism Memorial]]
*[[Anti-communist mass killings]]
*[[Revolutionary terror]]
*[[Crimes against humanity under communist regimes]]

==Catatan kaki==
{{Reflist|2}}

==Bibliografi==
{{Refbegin}}
*{{Anchor|Conquest2007GreatTerror}} Conquest, Robert. (2007). ''The Great Terror: A Reassessment, 40th Anniversary Edition.'' [?]: Oxford University Press.
*{{Anchor|Courtois1999BlackBook}} Courtois, Stéphane ed.. (1999). ''The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression.'' trans. Jonathan Murphy and Mark Kramer; consulting ed. Mark Kramer. [?]: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-07608-7. [http://books.google.com/?id=H1jsgYCoRioC Google Books].
*{{Anchor|Courtois1999Introduction}} Courtois, Stéphane. (1999). "Introduction: the crimes of communism" in ''[[#Courtois1999BlackBook|The Black Book of Communism.]]'' pp.&nbsp;1–32.
*{{Cite book
  | last =Dikötter | first =Frank  | authorlink =
  | title =[[Mao's Great Famine]]: The History of China's Most Devastating Catastrophe, 1958-1962
  | publisher =Walker & Company
  | year =2010  | location =  | pages =
  | doi =   | isbn =0-8027-7768-6}}
*{{Anchor|Figes1997PeoplesTragedy}} [[Orlando Figes]]. ''A People's Tragedy: The Russian Revolution 1891 — 1924.'' [[Penguin Books]], 1997 ISBN 0-19-822862-7.
*{{Anchor|Gellately2007LeninStalinandHilter}} Robert Gellately. ''Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe.'' [[Alfred A. Knopf|Knopf]], 2007 ISBN 1-4000-4005-1.
*{{Anchor|Goldhagen2009WorsethanWar}}{{Cite book
  | last =Goldhagen  | first =Daniel | authorlink =Daniel Goldhagen 
  | title =Worse Than War: Genocide, Eliminationism, and the Ongoing Assault on Humanity
  | publisher =PublicAffairs
  | year =2009  | location =  | pages =608
  | url =http://books.google.com/?id=dRys8UlV02AC&dq=Worse+than+War+Goldhagen
  | doi =   | isbn =978-1-58648-769-0 | id =ISBN 1-58648-769-8}}
*{{Anchor|Jones2010Genocide}} Jones, Adam. (2010).  ''Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction'' (2nd ed.) [?]: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-48619-X. [http://books.google.com/?id=-1ErPwAACAAJ Google Books].
*{{Anchor|MacFarquhar2006MaosLastRevolution}} [[Roderick MacFarquhar|MacFarquhar, Roderick]] and Schoenhals, Michael. ''Mao's Last Revolution''. [[Harvard University Press]], 2006.
*{{Anchor|Mann2005DarkSideofDemocracy}} Mann, Michael. (2005). ''The Dark Side of Democracy: explaining ethnic cleansing.'' [?]: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-53854-8, ISBN 978-0-521-53854-1.
*{{Anchor|Midlarsky2005Killingtrap}} Midlarsky, Manus. (2005). ''The killing trap: genocide in the twentieth century.'' [?]: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-81545-1. [http://books.google.com/?id=-oJuL_gcFHMC Google Books].
*{{Anchor|Montefiore2005CourtoftheRedTsar}} {{Cite book|last = Montefiore| first = Simon Sebag| title = Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar| url = http://isbndb.com/d/book/stalin_the_court_of_the_red_tsar_a02.html| publisher = [[Vintage Books]]| location = [[New York]]| year = 2005| isbn = 978-1-4000-7678-9}}
*{{Anchor|Parrish1996LesserTerror}} {{Cite book| last = Parrish | first = Michael | title = The Lesser Terror: Soviet state security, 1939–1953 | url =http://books.google.com/?id=NDgv5ognePgC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA324#v=onepage&q | publisher = Praeger Press| location = [[Westport, CT]] | year = 1996 | isbn = 0-275-95113-8 }}
*{{Anchor|Pipes2001Communism}} {{Cite book
  | last =Pipes  | first =Richard   | authorlink =
  | title =Communism: A History
  | publisher =[[Modern Library Chronicles]]
  | year =2001  | location =  | pages =175
  | url =http://books.google.com/?id=O04KAAAACAAJ
  | doi =   | isbn =978-0-8129-6864-4}}
*{{Anchor|Rosefielde2009RedHolocaust}} {{Cite book|title= [[Red Holocaust (2009 book)|Red Holocaust]] |last= Rosefielde |first= Steven |authorlink= Steven Rosefielde |year= 2009 |publisher= [[Routledge]] |location= |isbn= 978-0-415-77757-5 |page= |pages= |url= |accessdate=}}
*{{Anchor|Rummel1997DeathbyGovernment}} Rummel, Rudolph. (1997). ''Death by Government'' [?]: Transaction Publishers. ISBN 1-56000-927-6. [http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/NOTE1.HTM Author provides limited online access to a 1994 edition].
*{{Anchor|Semelin2009PurifyandDestroy}} Semelin, Jacques. (2009). ''Purify and Destroy: the political uses of massacre and genocide.'' Trans. Cynthia Schoch. CERI Series in Comparative Politics and International Studies, Series ed. Christophe Jaffrelot. [?]: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-14283-8, ISBN 978-0-231-14283-0.
*{{Anchor|Short2001Mao}} {{Cite book|last=Short |first=Philip |title=Mao: A Life |publisher=Owl Books |year=2001 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=4y6mACbLWGsC&pg=PA631 |isbn=0-8050-6638-1 |page=631}}
*{{Anchor|Valentino2005FinalSolutions}} {{Cite book|title=Final solutions: mass killing and genocide in the twentieth century |last= Valentino |first=Benjamin A |authorlink= |year=2005 |publisher=Cornell University Press |location= |isbn=0-8014-7273-3 |page= |pages=91–151 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=LQfeXVU_EvgC |accessdate=}}
*{{Anchor|Yakovlev2002CenturyofViolence}} {{Cite book|authorlink=Alexander Nikolaevich Yakovlev|author=Yakovlev, Alexander Nikolaevich|title=A Century of Violence in Soviet Russia|publisher=[[Yale University Press]]|year=2002|url=http://books.google.com/?id=ChRk43tVxTwC&pg=PA20&dq=Lenin:+executions,+hostage+taking,+concentration+camps#v=onepage&q=Lenin%3A%20executions%2C%20hostage%20taking%2C%20concentration%20camps|isbn=0-300-08760-8}}
{{Refend}}

==Bacaan lanjut==

*{{Cite book
  | last =Barron  | first =John  | authorlink =
  | author2 =Paul, Anthony 
  | title =Murder of A Gentle Land, The Untold Story of Communist Genocide in Cambodia
  | publisher =Reader's Digest Press
  | year =1977  | location =  | pages =240
  | url =http://books.google.com/?id=GYZuAAAAMAAJ
  | doi =   | isbn =0-88349-129-X}}
*{{Cite book|title=Genocide in the USSR: studies in group destruction |last=Deker |first=Nikolai |authorlink= |author2=Institute for the study of the U.S.S.R. Munich |year=1958 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |location= |isbn= |page= |pages= |url=http://books.google.com/?id=S9NoAAAAMAAJ&q |accessdate=}}
*Lanning, Michael Lee, Cragg, Dan. Inside the VC and the NVA: the real story of North Vietnam's armed forces. 1st edition. Texas A & M University Press August 15, 2008. ISBN 978-1-60344-059-2.
*{{Cite web
  | last =Sarup  | first =Kamala  | authorlink =
  | title =Communist Genocide In Cambodia  | work =
  | publisher =Genocide Watch
  | date =September 5, 2005
  | url =http://www.genocidewatch.org/images/Cambodia5Sep05CommunistGenocideInCambodia.pdf
  | format =  | doi =  | accessdate =September 30, 2009  }}
*{{Cite book
  | last =Totten  | first =Samuel  | authorlink =Samuel Totten  | author2 =Paul Robert Bartrop| author3 =Steven L. Jacobs  | chapter =Communism  | title =Dictionary of genocide, Volume 1  | publisher =Greenwood Publishing Group
  | year =2008  | page =106  | url =http://books.google.com/?id=xWKjSc0ql3cC&dq=Lenin+genocide  | doi =  | isbn =978-0-313-34642-2  | id =ISBN 0-313-34642-9 }}
*{{Cite journal|last=Weiss-Wendt |first=Anton |authorlink= |date=December 2005 |title=Hostage of Politics Raphael Lemkin on "Soviet Genocide" |journal=Journal of Genocide Research |volume= |issue=7(4) |pages=551–559 |url=http://www.inogs.com/JGRFullText/WeissWendt.pdf |accessdate= |quote= }}

==Pautaun luar==
*[http://www.globalmuseumoncommunism.org/ The Global Museum on Communism]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mass Killings Under Communist Regimes}}
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